Part

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning as the name implies refers to manipulating an analog signal to an
optimal condition before being digitized through an ADC.
Signal conditioning serves a number of purposes. It is needed to:
• Supply excitation voltages
• Amplify and buffer low level signals
• Clean and shape signals
• Compensate for temperature induced drifts
• Protect computer from electrical noise and surges
The signal conditioning blocks shown in figure below consist of number of separate
circuits and components.
Certain passive signal conditioning elements such as potential dividers, bridge circuits and
current-to-voltage conversion resistors are often closely coupled to the sensor it self and,
maybe an integral part of it.
 To ADC or
From sensor multiplexer

Passive conditioning Isolation and

(voltage dividers, bridge filtering
surge
circuits, current to voltage suppression
conversion, etc.)
amplification

Elements of a typical analogue input signal-conditioning circuit

The sensor is sometimes isolated from the remaining signal-conditioning circuits and from
the computer by means of linear opto-couplers or capacitive coupled devices.
Surge-suppression components such as Zener diodes may also be used in conjunction with
the RC networks to protect against transient voltage spikes.
Because typical ADCs have sensitivities of few millivolts per bit, it is essential to amplify
the low level signals from thermocouples, strain gauges, and RTDs (which may be only
few tens of millivolts at full scale).
Depending upon the type of sensor in use, activities such as thermocouple cold-junction
compensation might also be performed prior to amplification.
Finally filtering stage might be employed to remove noise or AC excitation ripple.
Low pass filters also serve an anti-aliasing function.
 Passive conditioning
Voltage dividers

One technique for measuring resistance (shown in Figure below) is to force a constant
current through the resistive sensor and measure the voltage output. This requires both an
accurate current source and an accurate means of measuring the voltage. Any change in
the current will be interpreted as a resistance change. In addition, the power dissipation in
the resistive sensor must be small, in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations, so that self-heating does not produce errors, therefore the drive current
must be small.
Vout=Vin*Rt/(Rs+Rt)
Bridge circuits (Wheatstone Bridge)

A Wheatstone Bridge is a circuit used to provide signal conditioning for a variety of

sensor types. It consists of four "arms", each of which is an impedance element. These
impedance elements can be resistive elements, capacitors, or inductors.
The four impedance elements are arranged in a Wheatstone Bridge circuit such that
there are two parallel circuits, each consisting of two elements in series. Voltage is
applied to the circuit where the two series circuits are joined, and the output voltage is
measured between the series elements in each circuit (See figure).
Wheatstone Bridge circuit is balanced, when
R1: R2 = R4: R3
_____________________________________________________
NOTE: The actual resistance of any resistor is the resistance that is measured with the help
of a multimeter during use in real life, but the nominal resistance is what the company
prints on the surface
In many bridge applications, there may be two, or even four elements which vary.
Figure below shows the four commonly used bridges suitable for sensor applications
and the corresponding equations which relate the bridge output voltage to the
excitation voltage and the bridge resistance values.
In each case, the value of the fixed bridge resistor, R, is chosen to be equal to the
nominal value of the variable resistor(s). The deviation of the variable resistor(s) about
the nominal value ∆R is proportional to the quantity being measured.
The single-element varying bridge is most suited for temperature sensing using RTDs
or thermistors. This configuration is also used with a single resistive strain gage. All
the resistances are nominally equal, but one of them (the sensor) is variable by an
amount ∆R. As the equation indicates, the relationship between the bridge output and
∆R is not linear.
For Single-Element Varying Bridge
End-Point Linearity Error = % Change in Resistance ÷ 2
For example, if R = 100Ω and ∆R= 1Ω (1% change in resistance),then:
End-Point Linearity Error = 0.5 %.
It should be noted that the above nonlinearity refers to the nonlinearity of the bridge
itself and not the sensor.
There are two possibilities to consider in the case of the two-element varying bridge.
In the first, Case (1), both elements change in the same direction, such as two identical
strain gages mounted adjacent to each other with their axes in parallel.
The nonlinearity is the same as that of the single-element varying bridge, however the
gain is twice that of the single-element varying bridge. The two-element varying
bridge is commonly found in pressure sensors and flow meter systems.
A second configuration of the two-element varying bridge, Case (2), requires two
identical elements that vary in opposite directions (one with resistance increases and
the other with resistance decreases). This could correspond to two identical strain
gages: one mounted on top of a flexing surface, and one on the bottom.
the gain of the two-element varying bridge is twice that of the single-element varying
bridge.
The all-element varying bridge produces the most signal for a given resistance change
and is inherently linear. It is an industry-standard configuration for load cells which are
constructed from four identical strain gages.
Strain (e) is a measure of the mechanical deformation of a material and computed as a
fractional change in dimension (length, width, or height) resulting from a force along that
dimension (epsi = L / L).

sensitivity of a strain gauge or Gauge Factor GF is how much its resistance changes in
proportion to applied strain (its ratio of fractional change in resistance to applied strain
epsi).
From our divider equation Vo=Vex*[R3/(R4+R3) – R2/(R1+R2)], substituting R1=R2,
R3=Rg, and R4=Rg+dR yields: Vo/Vex = - GF * epsi / 4 * [1 / (1 + GF*epsi / 2)]. This is
the strain computation term Vr=Vo/Vex in mV/V and represents the sensitivity of the
bridge network in mV/V (not to be confused with strain gauge sensitivity or Gauge Factor).
The presence of the extra term 1/(1+GF*epsi/2) is representative of a small non-linearity in
the output of the quarter bridge network with respect to strain.

Quarter-bridge circuit Half-Bridge Circuit Full-Bridge Circuit

Bridges may also be driven from constant current sources as shown in Figure. Current
drive, although not as popular as voltage drive, has an advantage when the bridge is
located remotely from the source of excitation because the wiring resistance does not
introduce errors in the measurement. Note also that with constant current excitation, all
configurations are linear with the exception of the single-element varying case.
Current-to-voltage conversion

Many devices or transmitters used in process control and monitoring applications

generate a current signal, usually 0 to 20 mA or 4 to 20 mA.
Current signals are used because they are more immune to errors caused by radiated noise
and voltage drops on long wire runs. Signal conditioners convert current signals to a
voltage signal by passing the input current signal through a precision resistor, as shown in
Figure. The resulting voltage, , can then be further conditioned and
digitized.

VMEAS = I S R
 Isolation
Isolated signal conditioning devices pass the signal from its source (sensor) to the
measurement device without a physical connection by using transformer, optical, or
capacitive coupling techniques. In addition to breaking ground loops, isolation blocks
high-voltage surges and rejects high common-mode voltage and thus protects both the
operators and expensive measurement equipment.
Optical Isolation
LEDs (Light Emitting Diode) produce light when a voltage is applied across them.
Optical isolation uses an LED along with a photodetector device to transmit signals
across an isolation barrier using light as the method of data translation. A photodetector
receives the light transmitted by the LED and converts it back to the original signal.

Optical Isolation
Capacitive Isolation
Capacitive isolation is based on an electric field that changes with the level of charge on
a capacitor plate. This charge is detected across an isolation barrier and is proportional to
the level of the measured signal.
One advantage of capacitive isolation is its immunity to magnetic noise. Compared to
optical isolation, capacitive isolation can support faster data transmission rates because
there are no LEDs that need to be switched. Because capacitive coupling involves the
use of electric fields for data transmission, it can be susceptible to interference from
external electric fields.

Capacitive Isolation
Inductive Coupling Isolation
The current through a coil of wire produces a magnetic field. This current can be induced
in a second coil by placing it in close vicinity of the changing magnetic field from the
first coil. The voltage and current induced in the second coil depend on the rate of
current change through the first. This principle is called mutual induction and forms the
basis of inductive isolation.
Inductive isolation uses a pair of coils separated by a layer of insulation. Insulation
prevents any physical signal transmission. Signals can be transmitted by varying current
flowing through one of the coils, which causes a similar current to be induced in the
second coil across the insulation barrier. Inductive isolation can provide high-speed
transmission similar to capacitive techniques. Because inductive coupling involves the
use of magnetic fields for data transmission, it can be susceptible to interference from
external magnetic fields.
Inductive Coupling
 Analog Isolation and Digital Isolation

For analog I/O channels, you can implement isolation either in the analog section of the
device before the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) has digitized the signal (analog
isolation) or after the ADC has digitized the signal (digital isolation). You need to
design different circuitry around one of these techniques based on your isolation
implementation location in the circuit. You can choose analog or digital isolation based
on your data acquisition system performance, cost, and physical requirements. Figures
show the different stages of implementing isolation.
Analog Isolation

Digital Isolation
Digital Isolation
Optocouplers
Optocouplers, digital isolators based on the optical coupling principles, are one of the
oldest and most commonly used methods for digital isolation. They can withstand high
voltages and offer high immunity to electrical and magnetic noise. Optocouplers are
often used on industrial digital I/O products.
For high-speed analog measurements, optocouplers, however, suffer from speed, power
dissipation, and LED wear limitations associated with optical coupling. Digital
isolators based on capacitive and inductive coupling can alleviate many optocoupler
limitations.
Capacitive Isolation
Some companies offer digital isolation components based on capacitive coupling.
These isolators provide high data transfer rates and high transient immunity. Compared
to capacitive and optical isolation methods ,inductive isolation offers lower power
consumption.
Inductive Isolation
iCoupler technology, introduced by Analog Devices in 2001 (analog.com/iCoupler),
uses inductive coupling to offer digital isolation for high-speed and high-channel-count
applications. iCoupler devices can provide 100 Mb/s data transfer rates with 2,500 V
isolation withstand for a 16-bit analog measurement system that implies sampling rates
in the megahertz range. Unlike optocouplers, iCoupler devices offer other benefits such
as reduced power consumption, high operating temperature range up to 125 °C, and
high transient immunity up to 25 kV/ms.
iCoupler technology is based on small, chip-scale transformers. An iCoupler has three
main parts – a transmitter, transformers, and a receiver. The transmitter circuit uses edge
trigger encoding and converts rising and falling edges on the digital lines to 1 ns pulses.
These pulses are transmitted across the isolation barrier using the transformer and
decoded on the other side by the receiver circuitry, shown in figure below.
The small size of the transformers, about three-tenths of a millimeter, makes them
practically impervious to external magnetic noise. iCoupler devices can also lower
measurement hardware costs by integrating up to four isolated channels per integrated
circuit (IC) and, compared to optocouplers, they require fewer external components.
Analog Isolation
The Isolation Amplifier is generally used to provide isolation in the analog front end of
data acquisition devices. “ISO Amp” in figure below represents an isolation amplifier,
which, in most circuits, is one of the first components of the analog circuitry. The
analog signal from a sensor is passed to the isolation amplifier, which provides isolation
and passes the signal to the analog-to-digital conversion circuitry.
Figure below represents the general layout of an isolation amplifier.
In an ideal isolation amplifier, the analog output signal is the same as the analog input
signal. The section labeled “isolation” in Figure uses one of the techniques discussed in
the previous section (optical, capacitive, or inductive coupling) to pass the signal across
the isolation barrier. The modulator circuit prepares the signal for the isolation circuitry.
For optical methods, you need to digitize or translate this signal into varying light
intensities. For capacitive and inductive methods, you need to translate the signal into
varying electric or magnetic fields. The demodulator circuit then reads the isolation
circuit output and converts it back into the original analog signal.
The ISO124 (isolation amplifier) from Burr-Brown simplifies analog isolation. The input
signal is duty-cycle modulated and transmitted digitally across the barrier. The output
section receives the modulated signal, converts it back to an analog voltage, and removes
the ripple component inherent in the modulation/demodulation process.
 Amplification
An Amplifier is an integral part of any signal conditioning circuit. However, there are
different configurations of amplifiers, and depending of the type of the requirement. The
use of transistors as amplifiers requires many additional components, the most popular
amplifier used in signal conditioning circuits is the operational amplifier (op_amp).
 Operational Amplifier
• Integrated circuit containing ~20 transistors
Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifiers
These two types are single ended amplifiers, with one terminal of the input is
grounded. From the schematics of these two popular amplifiers, shown in figure, the
voltage gain for the inverting amplifier is:

while the voltage gain for the noninverting amplifier

R is:
2
gain = 1 +
R1
R2
gain = −
R1
Gain off inverting and noninverting opamp determined only by resistance ratio.
Apparently, both the two amplifiers are capable of delivering any desired voltage gain,
provided the phase inversion in the first case is not a problem.

__________________________________________________
single-ended amplifiers: amplify a single input signal differential amplifiers
:amplify the voltage difference between two input signals
INVERTING OP-AMP, PRACTICAL
In this circuit notice a resistor, , is R
connected between the non-inverting terminal
stability
and ground. This is because, there is indeed a small current flowing between the non-
inverting and inverting terminals. In order to negate this voltage, a resistor is chosen to
connect the non-inverting terminal to ground, producing a voltage at the noninverting
terminal equal to the one at the inverting terminal.

R1 R2
Rstability =
R1 + R2
voltage follower

Buffers are function block commonly used in micro-electronics. It has high input
impedance and low output impedance. In a buffer, gain is not important, but the ability to
drive low-impedance load is. An opamp with non-inverting configuration can do that, this
is referred as a voltage follower (or unity-gain amplifier).

Vin = V ' = Vout

Vin = Vout
Av = 1
Differential Amplifier

Differential amplifiers are useful for the cases, where both the input terminals are floating.
These amplifiers find wide applications in instrumentation. A typical differential amplifier
with single op.amp. configuration is shown in figure below.
The output voltage :

R4 ⎛ R2 ⎞ R
Vout = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟V2 − 2 V1
R3 + R4 ⎝ R1 ⎠ R1

If we select , R4 R2 R2
= , then, Vout = (V2 − V1 )
R3 R1 R1
Common mode rejection
Since the output is proportional to the difference between the two voltages, anything
(e.g. noise) which is present on both inputs will be cancelled out. However, a signal
which is different on the two inputs will be amplified, which of course is exactly
what we want. The ratio of the difference gain to the common gain (usually
expressed in dB) is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).

Differential Gain
CMRR =
Common Gain
Common-mode rejection ratio describes the ability of measurement system to reject
common-mode voltages. Amplifier with higher common-mode rejection ratios are more
effective at rejecting common mode voltages.
Common-mode Voltage Gain
Common-mode voltage gain refers to the amplification given to
signals that appear on both inputs relative to the common (typically
ground). an ideal op amp has a common-mode voltage gain of
zero. This means the output is unaffected by voltages that are
common to both inputs (i.e., no difference).
Gain of an amplifier is defined as VOUT/VIN. For the special case of
a differential amplifier, the input VIN is the difference between its
two input terminals, which is equal to (V1-V2). So the gain of this
differential amplifier is
Gain = VOUT/(V1-V2). (differential mode gain).
The op amp common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of
the differential-mode gain to common-mode gain. The ideal op amp
will have the infinite CMRR and with the finite differential gain and
zero common mode gain.
A typical differential amplifier has a CMRR of about 30,000. So, supposing we build a
circuit with a differential gain of 1,000, this means that the common gain (acting on the
noise) will be:
Differential Gain / Common Gain= 30,000 So,
Common Gain = Differential Gain / CMRR
= 1,000/30,000 = 1/30 or 0.03
In other words, instead of getting amplified, the noise will actually be attenuated.

CMRR in dB
Gains and CMRR are usually quoted in dB, so for voltage gains, the equation becomes:

⎛ Differential Gain ⎞
Thus, a typical differential CMRR
amp will
(dBhave
) =a20
CMRR
log10 of
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
20 log (30,000) = 90 dB ⎝ Common Gain ⎠
Instrumentation Amplifier

Unfortunately, the differential amplifier turns out to be rather limited in its performance
because of the low input impedance of (R2 + R1). To improve this, two bootstrapped
buffer amplifiers (which are just op-amps with unity gain) are commonly added, which
results in the simple instrumentation amplifier:

⎛ 2R ⎞
CMRR(dB) = 10 log10 ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠
Total differential gain:

R4 ⎛ R2 ⎞
Gain = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
R3 ⎝ R1 ⎠
 Commercial Instrumentation Amplifiers
In practice, it is difficult to precisely match resistors that are discrete components. To
overcome this problem the entire circuit is put on a single integrated circuit, since IC
manufacturing technology enables precise resistor ratios to be obtained.

• Analog Devices AD623 INA2321

500 kHz, 94 dB CMRR
• Analog Devices AD AMP01
• BurrBrown (TI) INA series (INA2321)
• TI TLC271