SKIN

REHNUMA TANJIN, LECTURER,

DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY, ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
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Introduction

 The skin is the frontier of the body. It is the organ that forms the border
between the organism and the environment.
 The skin of an adult weight an average of 4.8kg (woman 3.2kg). The total area
of the skin ranges from about 2500cm2 at birth to 18000cm2 in the adult.
 Functions of Skin:
 Control the loss of valuable water from the body.
 Protect the body from the harmful radiation of the sun.
 Control the entry of foreign materials.
 Prevent the entry of harmful microorganisms.
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Functions of Skin

 Regulate the loss of heat from the body.

 Cushion the body against the mechanical shock from bumps and knocks.
 Receive information from the environment and relay it to the brain.
 By its color, texture and odor, transmit social and sexual signals to others.
 Maintain itself against the ravages of wear and tear.
 Grow as its owner grows and be resilient and elastic enough to stretch and contract to
allow the body freedom of movement.
 Preserve the balanced internal environment.
 Reserve caloric content and maintain vit. D synthesis.
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SKIN MORPHOLOGY

 The skin is divided into three layers:

 The epidermis
 The dermis
 The subcutaneous tissue
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SKIN MORPHOLOGY
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The Epidermis

 The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and is a stratified squamous epithelium.
 Its thickness varies, depending on location, from 0.05 mm to 1.5 mm.
 The epidermis is made up primarily of keratinocytes whose basic function is to produce
a filamentous protein, keratin, to serve as a protective barrier in combination with various
lipid components.
 These cells also produce several other proteins, for example, cytokines, which play a role
in the cutaneous inflammatory response.
 The stratification is the result of changes in the keratinocytes as they mature and move
outward from the basal layer, in which they are continuously formed by the mitosis of
self-renewing progenitor cells and are shed on the skin surface.
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The Epidermis

 A normal epidermis consists of a number of layers. From the outside there

are: ---------
 The horny layer ------ the Stratum corneum
 The granular layer ------ the Stratum granulosum
 The prickle cell layer ------ the Stratum spinosum
 The basal layer ------- the Stratum germinative or basale

 An additional layer --- the clear layer or Stratum lucidium --- is recognizable
only in the skin of the palms and soles. This is between the granular and
horny layer.
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The Stratum corneum

 The Stratum corneum comprises several layers of mature squamas.

 It has a tough protein wall and is packed with Keratin. The keratin protein molecules
are aligned parallel to the surface of the skin and parallel to each other.

 They are bonded each other by both disulphide bonds and salt linkages and form a
compact and relatively impermeable structure. The disulphide bonds are fairly permanent
but the salt linkages form only when the skin is slightly acidic
(PH 4.5 - 6) and cool. It is kept acidic by the “acid mantle” of the sebum.

 Alkaline PH ionize and break the salt linkage to allows the keratin molecules to more
further apart and the Stratum corneum to swell and lose its effectiveness as a barrier.
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The Stratum corneum

Function: The Stratum corneum or

horny layer acts as:
 A guard against harmful rays.
 A guard against the entry of
chemicals.
 A protection against bacteria.
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 The Stratum granulosum: Stratum granulosum contains basophil granules of a

material called keratohyalin. This is so called because this layer has a granular
appearance when stained with dyes. This is probably because the keratin protein is
being assembled to produce granules.

 The Stratum spinosum: The Stratum spinosum is composed of the newly formed
epidermal cells. These are called keratinocytes and are joined to each other by
spiny outgrowths. They are also called “Prickle cells” due to their prickly
gooseberries appearance. The interconnecting outgrowths are called desmosomes
that allow rapid transfer of materials from cell to cell.
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 The Stratum germinative: The Stratum germinative is a continuous layer

which gives rise to all the keratinocytes. This layer is also known as the Stratum
basale layer. It is the inner most layer of the epidermis adjoining the underlying
dermis. Here blood is supplied by clusters of blood capillaries, known as
“dermal papillae” in the “domes” of the dermis.
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 Three other cell types are also present: melanocytes, Langerhans cells and
Merkel cells,
 Pigmentary System:
 Melanocytes are dendritic cells that produce and secrete melanosomes, which
contain melanin. Melanin is the major determinant of skin color.
 The number of melanocytes in the epidermis is the same regardless of skin color;
it is rather the number and size of melanosomes produced that determine the
color of one's skin.
 The characteristic feature of melanocytes is a special cytoplasmic organelle
known as a melanosome in which the melanin is formed by the action of the
enzyme tyrosinase.
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Pigmentary System

 Melanins are quinoid polymers of two kinds. Pheomelanins are yellow or red in
color, and eumelanins produce the brown or black color.

 Both are formed by the same initial steps, which involve oxidation of tyrosine to
3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and its dehydrogenation to DOPA quinone.
The formation of eumelanins then involves several further steps to produce indole-
5,6-quinone, which polymerizes and becomes linked to protein.

 The formation of melanin depends on the generation of free radical species. The
biochemical pathways leading to the formation of melanin pigments.
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Langerhans cells
 Langerhans cells are bone marrow-derived cells of the monocyte-macrophage
lineage.
 They are found scattered among the stratum spinosum and constitute approximately
3-4% of all epidermal cells.
 These dendritic cells are similar in form and number to melanocytes but contain no
pigment.
 The hallmark of the Langerhans cell is the characteristic cytoplasmic organelles
called Birbeck granules.
 These are formed when a membrane-bound antigen is internalized in the
Langerhans cell.
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Langerhans cells
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Langerhans cells
 Langerhans cells are responsible for the recognition, uptake, processing, and
presentation of antigens in the epidermis to T lymphocytes.

 It is by this pathway that they play a crucial role in immunosurveillance, contact

sensitization, and allograft skin rejection.

 Langerhans cell function is impaired by UVB radiation, resulting in a decrease in

the antigen-presenting capacity and in the production of cytokines.
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Merkel cells

 Merkel cells are special type of cell found right below the epidermis. These cells are
very close to the nerve endings that receive the sensation of touch and may be
involved in touch. The cells also contain substances that may act as hormones.

 Melanocytes and Merkel cells are confined mainly to the basal layer, while the
Langerhans cells are distributed in the basal, spinous, and granular layers.
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The Dermis

 The main basic structure of the dermis is a dense network of criss-crossing protein
fibers embedded in a mass of firm jelly. The fibers are of two kinds: ---------
 Collagen fibers which amount to 75% of the weight of the dermis are tough and
resilient.
 Elastic fibers account for only 4% of the weight of the dermis and able to contract
back after stretching to give the skin its snug fit.

 Ground Substance: The amorphous ground substance in which the fibers and cells
lie contains acidic GAGs. In dermis the major forms are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
sulfate, and dermatan sulfate.
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The Dermis

 The jelly is a colloidal gel of assorted carbohydrate substances called

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) a mucopolysaccharides dissolved in H2O.

 There are very few cells in the structure of the dermis. There are cells called fibroblasts
which ‘do the living’ for the dermis and actually make the collaged and elastic fibers.

 There are also mast cells. Their function is to detect damage to the skin by releasing
histamine which causes irritation and inflammation.
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The Dermis

 The dermis is actually two layers: ------

 The outermost layer just beneath the epidermis is the papillary layer. It consists
of dermal papillae and the nerve ending.

 Beneath it and forming the bulk of the dermis is the reticular layer which has
most of the protein fibers.
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The Dermis
 NERVES
The skin is supplied with both sensory and autonomic nerves. It is innervated with
about one million afferent nerve fibers; most terminate in the face and extremities, and
relatively few supply the back.
 VASCULATURE
The dermal vasculature consists of intercommunicating plexuses. The deeper plexuses
are composed of larger vessels and surround hair follicles and eccrine glands.
 MUSCLES
Smooth muscle occurs in the skin as the arrector pili muscles of the hair to pull the
follicle upward with contraction. There are also smooth muscles fibers in the scrotum
and the areolas.
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Dermis

 Beneath the dermis proper, is the subcutaneous layer. This consists of adipose or
fatty tissue. Its cells are packed with droplets of fat: the energy store of the body.

 Function: The dermis must:

 Protect the body against bumps and knocks.

 Be elastic so that the skin will always fit.
 Maintain the skin’s sensory function.
 Control body temperature by supplying blood both to the epidermis and itself.
 Contain sebaceous glands which produce the sebum that waterproofs the epidermis.
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ECCRINE GLANDS

 Location: All over the surface of the body. Most numerous on the palms and soles
(500 glands/cm2). On the back there are less than 80 glands/cm2.

 Secretion: Eccrine glands secrete the clear watery sweat without disintegration of
the gland cells.

 Composition: Eccrine sweat contains 99.0 – 99.5% H2O, of the solid material half
is inorganic, mainly NaCl and the remainder organic, of which half is urea. Glucose,
lactic acid, ammonium salts, amino acids and other minor ingredients. It generally
has a PH value between 4.5 – 5.5.
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ECCRINE GLANDS

 Development: Eccrine glands develop embryologically from the surface

epithelium. As they extend downwards and reach the base of the dermis they coil.
About half the coil consists of secretary epithelium and half of duct.

 Function: To cool the body.

 Control:
 Nervous impulses, Heat, Spicy foods, Emotional stress, Cholinergic drugs.
 Inhibition ----------- Atropine like drugs.
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APOCRINE GLANDS

 An apocrine Sweat gland composed of a coiled secretory portion located at the

junction of the dermis and subcutaneous fat.

 Location: Underneath the arms, in the ano-genital region, around the nipples
and in the ear canal.

 Secretion: Apocrine glands secrete a whitish turbid fluid in which part of the
cell disintegrates during secretion. The secretion leaves a solid residue when it
dries. The secretion is sterile but undergoes decomposition when contaminated by
bacteria and cause a strong smell.
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APOCRINE GLANDS

 Composition: The composition of apocrine sweat is still undetermined but it has

been reported to contain Fe, Proteins, reducing sugars, ammonia and cholesterol.

 Development: The apocrine sweat glands develop at the pilosebaceous follicle to

provide the characteristic adult distribution in the armpit, the breast areola and the
perianal region.

 Control:
 Nervous stimuli., Hormones
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Glands of Body
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SEBACEOUS GLANDS

 Location: Occur all over the skin surface. Except on the glabrous skin of the
palms and soles and between the toes and fingers. Most numerous on the scalp and
face.
 Secretion: They secrete sebum, the oily fluid which lubricates the hair shaft and
skin.
 Composition: Sebum contains free and combined fatty acids: 57.5%, free
cholesterol: 1.5% and cholesterol esters: 3%, waxes: 26%, triglycerides and the
hydrocarbon squalene: 12%. In addition, there are also present small amounts of
dihydrocholesterol and several other sterol-like substances, including pro-vitamin D.
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SEBACEOUS GLANDS

 Histology: Sebaceous glands are sac like structures. They usually open to the skin
surface by the way of the canals of the hair follicles. The mode of secretion is
holocrine – the sebum is formed by the breakdown of the whole cell as it moves
towards the duct.
 Function:
 Forms a film over the surface of the skin and hair.
 Delays moisture loss.
 Delays absorption of foreign substances.
 Protect the skin against infection.
 Maintain the acidic PH of the epidermis.
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SEBACEOUS GLANDS

 Control:
 Androgens.
 Sebaceous gland trophic factor.
 Other pituitary hormones
 Oestrogens
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ECCRINE AND
APOCRINE GLANDS
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HAIR
 Hairs are keratin fibres. Keratins are proteins which form long molecule chains
(macromolecules) made up of more than 20 different amino acids. The various
types of proteins differentiate mainly in the length of their chains & the sequence
of the amino acids.
 Layers:
Each hair stick has three layers. Those that are large & thick have a medulla
forming their innermost layer. The middle layer, also known as cortex, decides
what the texture & colour of the hair will be. The third is a protective layer, thin
& colourless, & known as the cuticle
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HAIR

Chemical Composition of Hair:

 Hair is composed of mainly keratin, a structural protein. There are also various
elements found in the hair & they are used to make amino acids, melanin, &
protein.

 The middle layer of the hair, the cortex, is made up of millions of polypeptide
chains cross-linked with each other by three different types of side bonds. The
bonds that link up the polypeptide chains of the hair are hydrogen, salt & disulfide
bonds.
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The average composition of normal hair is

composed of:
45.2% carbon,
27.9% oxygen,
6.6% hydrogen,
15.1% nitrogen &
5.2% sulphur.
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Disorder of skin
 Solar Radiation And Its Biological Effectiveness:
• The spectrum of solar radiation is modified by the atmosphere of the earth; what
reaches the surface of the earth is a continuum composed of UVB, UVA, visible,
and infrared radiation.
• Water in the atmosphere is responsible for attenuating the infrared component of
the solar spectrum. Stratospheric ozone, on the other hand, attenuates the short
wavelengths of the UV.
• It can be noted that the UVB band contributes approximately only 5% of the total
UV radiation; however, it constitutes more than 80% of the biologically effective
radiation.
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Solar Radiation And Its Biological Effectiveness

 It has been documented that the protein endorphin is expressed following

exposure to solar-simulated radiation and that this is responsible for the feeling
of well-being. Sunlight, in particular UVB radiation, plays a vital part in the
prevention and treatment of rickets by producing vitamin D (through the
activation of epidermal 7-dehydrocholesterol, provitamin D3).

 The adverse effects of sunlight have been studied by dividing them into those
that are induced by a single exposure and those due to multiple exposures.
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Adverse effects

 Acute effects (following a single exposure) include sunburn,

immunosuppression, photoallergy reactions, photosensitivity reactions of
individuals with photodermatoses, and photosensitization following drug intake
or topical application.

 Chronic effects include photodamage (photoaging), cataracts, solar keratoses,

skin cancer (basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma), and some
forms of malignant melanoma (i.e., lentigomaligna).
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ACUTE ERYTHEMA

 A sunburn may be classified by the intensity of the erythema (redness)

response that is induced in the skin. The threshold response is expressed at 8-
10 hours after exposure, and the reaction reduces in intensity and becomes
stable after 24-48 hours.
 In UVB-induced reactions in the laboratory a small area of skin is exposed to a
series of doses (fluences) of UVB radiation, and the reaction is graded 24
hours after exposure as
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ACUTE TANNING RESPONSE

 Melanin pigment is produced by melanocytes that reside on the basement

membrane between the epidermis and the dermis. As stated earlier, melanin is
synthesized in vesicles in the Golgi apparatus starting with DOPA, which is
enzymatically processed to the melanin heteropolymer. Once polymerization
starts, the vesicles are converted to melanosomes (egg-shaped
membraneenclosed objects) and are transferred through the dendritic processes
of melanocytes to neighboring keratinocytes. Thus the visually perceived
pigment is due to melanin distributed into keratinocytes that reside on the
basement membrane. Cellular migration toward the stratum corneum
distributes melanin throughout the epidermis.
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ACUTE TANNING RESPONSE

 The tanning ability of individuals is genetically determined and is expressed as the

capacity of the melanocytes to produce melanin.
 The tanning responses of human skin depend on the wavelength of the radiation. When
the skin is exposed to UVB (280-320 nm), the first response is erythema.
 UVA radiation has been divided into two bands, UVAl (340-400 nm) and UVA2 (320-340
nm). UVA2 induces skin reactions like UVB.
 In light-skinned individuals there is an erythema response before the appearance of
pigment. For melanocompetent individuals and those with a tolerance for UV radiation
(UVB), UVA2 induces a pigment reaction immediately after exposure, without
erythema..
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SKIN TYPES—THE GENETIC BASIS OF
RESPONSES TO ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

 The responses of the skin to UV radiation are to a great extent genetically

determined. The first-hour exposure to midday sun following the winter
months of no exposure has been used to characterize skin types for white-
skinned persons.
 Skin Type I : always burns, never tans
 Skin Type II : usually burns, rarely tans
 Skin Type III : rarely burns, usually tans
 Skin Type IV : never burns, always tans.
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UV RADIATION-INDUCED SKIN CANCER
 Skin cancer has been classified as nonmelanoma skin cancer and as cutaneous
malignant melanoma.
 UV radiation causes cancer in the skin by damaging the ability of the skin cells to
control proliferation.
 The cells have three ways to combat UV damage and minimize cancer risk,
including DNA repair, apoptosis, and immunosurveillance.
 UV radiation can damage skin cells by forming dimers in DNA between adjacent
pyrimidine residues, potentially leading to UV "signature" mutations that can
accumulate over time. The cell can respond to the damage by repairing the DNA
to avoid the effects of the mutations or if the damage is too great by inducing cell
death through apoptosis to remove potential cancer cells from the population.
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UV RADIATION-INDUCED SKIN
CANCER
 UV radiation is a complete carcinogen; it can act alone as an initiator and a
promoter in formation of cancer.
 UV can also act as a promoter with initiating events inside the cell, such as
DNA mutations arising from DNA polymerase incorporation errors,
depurination, deamination of 5-methylcytosine, or oxidative damage from free
radicals.
 UVA, while a complete carcinogen, is much less effective than UVB.
However, it may act as a cocarcinogen in combination with UVB, as in solar
radiation.
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 The chronic effects of UV radiation or sunlight (photoaging,wrinkles, freckles,

leathery appearance, red neck) have been recognized for a long time.

 Clinically the syndrome is characterized by coarseness, wrinkling, mottled

pigmentation, solar lentigos ("age spots" or "liver spots").

 Two factors, skin thickening and tanning, have been identified as playing
significant roles in protecting the skin from the adverse effects of solar UV
radiation
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