N 0 20 99 0

N20G96S800M3
N30G50S4000
N40T0100M8
NS0G00X3 .35Z1 .25T0101
N60G01X3 .25F.002
N70G04X0.5
N80X3 .35F.05
N90G00X5 .0Z0T0101
01111 ~
N10G20G99G40 _ . -. ~
N20G96S800M3 _ __. _
N30G50S4000 1,:"'•• ~
N40T0100M8 ' -
NS0G00X3.35Z1 .25T0101 ..-:~ -~ -
N60G01X3.25F.002 ~ - .. --
N70G04X0.5 ··
N80X3 .35F.05 ~ ---,- ••

Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Identify various geometric shapes.
• Apply various geometric principles to solve problems.
• Solve right triangle unknowns.
• Apply trigonometric principles to determine coordinate values.

Technical Terms
acute angle function right triangle
adjacent angles hypotenuse scalene triangle
angle isosceles triangle secant
arc obtuse angle segment
bisect parallel sine
chord parallelogram square
circle perpendicular straight angle
circumference polygons supplementary angles
complementary angles proposition tangent
congruent Pythagorean theorem transversal
cosecant quadrilateral triangle
cosine radius trigonometric
cotangent rectangle functions
diagonal reflex angle trigonometry
diameter right angle vertex
equilateral triangle

Geometric Terms
The following is a list of geometric terms and their definitions. These
terms will be used throughout this chapter and the remainder of this
textbook. Study them before continuing.
53
54 CNC Machining

• Bisect. To divide into two equal parts.

• Congruent. Having the same size and shape.
• Diagonal. Running from one corner of a four-sided figure to the
opposite corner.
• Parallel. Lying in the same direction but always the same distance apart.
• Perpendicular. At a right angle to a line or surface.
• Segment. That part of a straight line included between two points.
• Tangent. A line contacting a circle at one point.
• Transversal. A line that intersects two or more lines.

Angles
An angle (L) is the figure formed by the meeting of two lines at the
same point or origin called the vertex. See Figure 3-1. Angles are measured
in degrees ( minutes('), and seconds ("). A degree is equal to 1/360 of a
0
),

circle, a minute is equal to 1/60 of 1°, and a second is equal to 1/60 of 1'.
There are many types of angles, Figure 3-2. An acute angle is greater
than 0° and less than 90°. An obtuse angle is greater than 90° and less
than mo 0 • A right angle is exactly 90°. A straight angle is exactly mo 0 , or a
straight line. A reflex angle is greater than 180° and less than 360°.
An angle can also be described by its relationship to another angle.
See Figure 3-3. Adjacent angles are two angles that use a common side.
Complementary angles are two angles that equal 90°. Supplementary
angles are two angles that equal 180°, or a straight line.

Polygons
Polygons are figures with many sides that are formed by line segments.
Polygons are named according to the number of sides and angles they have.
For example, a decagon is a polygon with ten sides; deca comes from the
Latin word for ten.

Triangles
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. There are a number of types of
triangles, Figure 3-4. A right triangle has a 90° (right) angle. An isosceles
triangle has two equal sides and two equal angles. An equilateral triangle
has three equal sides; all angles are equal (60°). A scalene triangle has
three unequal sides and unequal angles.

E Figure 3-1. Angle defined as EFG.

Verte~
~ 30°
G
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 55

T E

Acute Obtuse Right

R---------------- 0

Straight Reflex
Figure 3-2. Various types of angles.

55°

Adjacent Complementary
\
100°

80°

Supplementary
Figure 3-3. Describing an angle in relationship to another angle.
56 CNC M achining

Right Isosceles

Equilateral Scalene
Figure 3-4. Examples of various types of triangles. The sum of the angles in a triangle always equals
180°.

Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides, Figure 3-5. A line drawn
from one angle (intersecting corner) of a quadrilateral to the opposite angle
is called a diagonal.

Square
A square has four equal sides and four right (90°) angles. The opposite
sides of a square are parallel to each other. The diagonals of a square bisect
the four angles and each other. The diagonals are equal and perpendicular
to each other. The diagonals form congruent angles (equal in size and
shape) .

Rectangle
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with equal opposite sides and four right
angles. The opposite sides are parallel to each other. The diagonals are
equal, bisect each other, and create two pairs of congruent triangles.
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 57

" / ' /

/ '' /
/

"" /
/
'' /
/

""'-/ / ''
' X
/
/
/

/'-
/
""
/
/
''
/
/
/
/
''
/ " /
''
/
" /
/

'
" /
'
Square Rectang le

Parallelogram
Figure 3-5. The three types of quad rilaterals . Quadrilaterals have fou r interior angles that total 360°.

Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with equal opposite sides and equal
opposite angles. The diagonals bisect each other and create two pairs of
congruent triangles.

Circles
A circle is a set of points, located on a plane, that are equidistant from a
common central point (center point). See Figure 3-6. There are a number of
terms that are used to describe various aspects of a circle, Figure 3-7.
The diameter is the segment that connects two points on a circle
and intersects through the center of the circle. The size of a circle is its
diameter.
The radius is a segment that joins the circle center to a point on the
circle circumference. Radius has half the value of diameter.

Figure 3-6. Al l points defini ng a circle are equidistant from the center point.
58 CNC Machining

Diameter Radius Circumference

R
Chord Arc Tangent
Figure 3-7. Illustrations of various terms relating to a circle.

The circumference is the distance around a circle.

A chord is a segment that joins any two points on the circumference of
a circle.
An arc is a curved portion of a circle.
A tangent to a circle is a line that intersects a circle at a single point.
For example, as shown in Figure 3-7, Line L is tangent to the circle and
intersects the circle at Point K.

Propositions
A proposition is a statement to be proved, explained, or discussed.
Following are a number of geometric propositions.
• Opposite angles are equal. When two lines intersect, they form equal
angles. Thus, in Figure 3-8, Angle 1 equals Angle 3, and Angle 2
equals Angle 4.
• Two angles are equal if they have parallel corresponding sides.
Thus, in Figure 3-9, Angle 1 equals Angle 2.
• A line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to
the other line. Thus, in Figure 3-10, Lines R and S are perpendicular
to Line T.

Figure 3-8. Two intersecting lines form four angles with the opposite angles being
equal.
2 4
3
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 59

• Alternate interior angles are equal. If two parallel lines are

intersected by a third line (transversal), then alternate interior angles
are equal to each other. Thus, in Figure 3-11, Angle 3 equals Angle 6,
and Angle 4 equals Angle 5.
• Alternate exterior angles are equal. When two parallel lines are
intersected by a third line (transversal), then alternate exterior angles
are equal to each other. Thus, in Figure 3-11, Angle 1 equals Angle 8,
and Angle 2 equals Angle 7.
• Corresponding angles are equal. When two parallel lines are
intersected by a third line (transversal), then all corresponding angles
are equal. Thus, in Figure 3-11, Angle 1 equals Angle 5, Angle 3
equals Angle 7, Angle 2 equals Angle 6, and Angle 4 equals Angle 8.
• The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°. Thus, in Figure 3-12,
Angle 1 plus Angle 2 plus Angle 3 equals 180°.
• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two
nonadjacent interior angles. Thus, in Figure 3-13, Angle 4 equals
Angle 1 plus Angle 2.

Figure 3-9. Two angles with corresponding parallel sides are Figure 3-10. A transversal line
equal. perpendicular to one parallel line is
perpendicular to the other parallel
line. Lines R and S are parallel.

Figure 3-11. Two parallel lines intersected by a third line form Figure 3-12. Angles 1, 2, and 3
alternate angles that are equal to each other. Interior Angles 4 form a triangle totaling 180°.
and 5 are equal along with 3 and 6. Exterior Angles 1 and 8 are
equal along with 2 and 7.
60 CNC Machining

• Two angles having their corresponding sides perpendicular are

equal. Thus, in Figure 3-14, Angle 1 equals Angle 2.
• A line taken from a point of tangency to the center of a circle is
perpendicular to the tangent. Thus, in Figure 3-15, Line TW is
perpendicular to Line UV.
• Two tangent lines drawn to a circle from the same exterior point
cause the corresponding segments to be equal in length. Thus, in
Figure 3-16, Segment ML equals Segment MN.

Figure 3-13. Angle 4, an exterior angle, Figure 3-14. Angle 1 is equal to Angle 2 because their
equals the sum of Angles 1 and 2, which are corresponding sides are perpendicular to each other.
nonadjacent interior angles.

Figure 3-15. Line TW, developed from the Figure 3-16. Lines MN and ML are tangent to the
tangency point to the circle's center, is circle and share an endpoint and are, therefore, equal
perpendicular to tangent Line UV. in length .
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 61

Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the area of mathematics that deals with the relationship
between the sides and angles of a triangle. Triangles are measured to find
the length of a side (leg) or to find the number of degrees in an angle. In
CNC machining, trigonometry is used to determine tool location relative
to part geometry.
Trigonometry deals with the solution of triangles, primarily the right
triangle. See Figure 3-17. A right triangle has one angle that is 90° (Angle c),
and the sum of all angles equals 180°. Angles a and b are acute angles,
which means they each are less than 90°. Angles a and b are complementary
angles, which means they total 90° when added.
The three sides of a triangle are called the hypotenuse, side opposite,
and side adjacent. Side C is called the hypotenuse, because it is opposite the
right angle. It always is the longest side.
Sides A and B are either opposite to or adjacent to either of the acute
angles. It depends on which acute angle is being considered. Side A is the
side opposite Angle a, but is the side adjacent to Angle b. Side B is the side
opposite Angle b, but is the side adjacent to Angle a. For example, when
referring to Angle b, Side A is adjacent and Side B is opposite. Or, when
referring to Angle a, Side B is adjacent and Side A is opposite.
As stated earlier in this chapter, angles are usually measured in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, Figure 3-18. There are 360° in a circle, 60' in a degree,
and 60" in a minute. As an example, 31 degrees, 16 minutes, and 42 seconds
is written as 31°16'42". Angles can also be given in decimal degrees, such as
34.1618 (34°9'42").

Figure 3-17. Lines are labeled as capital letters and

angles are labeled as small letters. Note that Line A is
opposite Angle a, Line B is opposite Angle b, and Line C
is opposite Angle c.

B
Right
angle
C

55°14'11"
40°02'26'

~ 1 5°11 '45"

Figure 3-18. Illustrations of various angles containing degrees, minutes, and seconds.
62 CNC Machining

Angles can be added by aligning the degrees, minutes, and seconds

and adding each column separately. When totals for the minutes or seconds
columns add up to 60 or more, subtract 60 (or 120, if appropriate) from that
column, then add 1 (or 2, if appropriate) to the next column to the left (the
higher column).
16° 33' 14"
50 17' 16"
38° 55' 49"
59° 105' 79"
-60 -60
45' 19"
+1 +1
60° 46' 19"
In the example, the total is 59°105'79" when the angles are added. Since
79" equals 1'19" and 105' equals 1°45: the final answer is 60°46'19".
When subtracting angles, place the degrees, minutes, and seconds
under each other and subtract the separate columns. If not enough minutes
or seconds exist in the upper number of a column, then borrow 60 from the
next column to the left of it and add it to the insufficient number.
55° 14' 11" borrow 60"➔ 55° 13' 71"
-15° 11' 45" -15° 11' 45"
40° 2' 26"

Since 11" is smaller than 45': 60" must be borrowed from 14'. When
15°11'45" is subtracted from 55°13'71': the final answer is 40°2'26".

Using Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the most valuable mathematical tool used by a
programmer for calculating cutter or tool nose locations. Trigonometric
functions are absolute values derived from the relationships existing
between angles and sides of a right triangle. A function is a magnitude
(size or dimension) that depends upon another magnitude. For example, a
circle's circumference is a function of its radius, since the circle size depends
on the extent of its radius value.
In the triangle shown in Figure 3-19, A/Bis the ratio of two sides and
therefore a function of Angle d . As Angle d increases to the dashed line,
the function will change from A/ B to E/ B. This shows that the ratio of two
sides of a triangle depends on the size of the angles of the triangle.
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 63

Figure 3-19. As Line A increases in

length to become Line E, Angle d
increases in value, when Line 8
remains the same.

Trigonometric Functions
Since there are three sides (legs) to a triangle, there exist six different
ratios of sides. These ratios are the six trigonometric functions of sine,
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. Each ratio is named from
its relationship to one of the acute angle in a right triangle. The right angle is
never used in calculating functions. A function is obtained by dividing the
length of one side by the length of one of the other sides. These functions can
be found in math texts and many references, such as Machinery's Handbook.
Special books also exist that give primarily trigonometric tables and values.
In addition, many calculators can compute trigonometric values. Figure 3-20
is a partial table of trigonometric functions covering 33°. To find the cosine
of 33°58: read down the minute column to 58 minutes, then read across
the row. Under the column labeled cosine, you find value 0.82936, which is
cosine 33°58'.
64 CNC Machining

Trigonometric Functions for Angles

Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant
33°0' 0.54464 0.83867 0.64941 1.53986 1.19236 1.83608
33°1' 0.54488 0.83851 0.64982 1.53888 1.19259 1.83526
33°2' 0.54513 0.83835 0.65024 1.53791 1.19281 1.83444
33°3' 0.54537 0.83819 0.65065 1.53693 1.19304 1.83362
33°4' 0.54561 0.83804 0.65106 1.53595 1.19327 1.83280
33°5' 0.54586 0.83788 0.65148 1.53497 1.19349 1.83198
33°6' 0.54610 0.83772 0.65189 1.53400 1.19372 1.83116
33°7' 0.54635 0.83756 0.65231 1.53302 1.19394 1.83034
33°8' 0.54659 0.83740 0.65272 1.53205 1.19417 1.82953
33°9' 0.54683 0.83724 0.65314 1.53107 1.19440 1.82871
33°10' 0.54708 0.83708 0.65355 1.53010 1.19463 1.82790
33°11 ' 0.54732 0.83692 0.65397 1.52913 1.19485 1.82709
33°12' 0.54756 0.83676 0.65438 1.52816 1.19508 1.82627

33°49' 0.55654 0.83082 0.66986 1.49284 1.20363 1.79682

33°50' 0.55678 0.83066 0.67028 1.49190 1.20386 1.79604
33°51' 0.55702 0.83050 0.67071 1.49097 1.20410 1.79527
33°52' 0.55726 0.83034 0.67113 1.49003 1.20433 1.79449
33°53' 0.55750 0.83017 0.67155 1.48909 1.20457 1.79371
33°54' 0.55775 0.83001 0.67197 1.48816 1.20480 1.79293
33°55' 0.55799 0.82985 0.67239 1.48722 1.20504 1.79216
33°56' 0.55823 0.82969 0.67282 1.48629 1.20527 1.79138
33°57' 0.55847 0.82953 0.67324 1.48536 1.20551 1.79061
33°58' 0.55871 0.82936 0.67366 1.48442 1.20575 1.78984
33°59' 0.55895 0.82920 0.67409 1.48349 1.20598 1.78906

Figure 3-20. Partial table showing values of the six trigonometric functions sine, cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant, and cosecant as they relate to 33° and various minutes.
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 65

The six trigonometric functions are defined relative to the relationships

between two sides of the right triangle, Figure 3-21. These relationships are:
• Sine (sin). The ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse.
Opposite side A
Sine a= - - - - - - =
Hypotenuse C
• Cosine (Cos). The ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse.
Adjacent side B
Cosine a = - - - - - - - - -
Hypotenuse C
• Tangent (Tan). The ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side.
Opposite side A
Tangent a = - - - - - - =
Adjacent side B
• Cotangent (Cot). The ratio of the adjacent side to the opposite side. It
is the reciprocal of the tangent function.
Adjacent side B
Cotangent a = - - - - - - =
Opposite side A
• Secant (Sec). The ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent side. It is the
reciprocal of the cosine function.
Hypotenuse C
Secant a = - - - - - - =
Adjacent side B
• Cosecant (Csc). The ratio of the hypotenuse to the opposite side. It is
the reciprocal of the sine function.
Hypotenuse C
Cosecant a = - - - - - - =
Opposite side A

Figure 3-21. The hypotenuse is always the

longest side (leg) of a right triangle.

A
66 CNC Machining

The six functions given are related to Angle a, but also can be applied
to Angle bas well. Therefore, Sin b = B/C, Cos b = A/C, etc., shows that
any function of Angle a is equal to the cofunction of Angle b. From that
relationship, the following are derived:
• sin a = A/C = cos b
• cos a = B/ C = sin b
• tan a = A/B = cot b
• cot a = B/ A = tan b
• sec a = C/B = csc b
• csc a = C/A = sec b
With Angle a and Angle b being complementary, the function of any
angle is equal to the cofunction of its complementary angle. Therefore, sin
70° = cos 20°, and tan 60° = cot 30°.

Working with Triangles

In programming, an individual will be working with various
applications of radii, such as cutter radius, arc radius, circle radius, and
corner radius. At times, the radius the programmer works with will
appear like the triangle in Figure 3-22, where the long leg of the triangle
is the radius. At other times, the triangle will appear like the triangle in
Figure 3-23, where a leg will be the radius. When dealing with triangles, a
programmer must recognize the configuration being worked with. There

I
I
I
\T Sin

I
---- -- - ~ "'I
::::J

I__ Cos--j 'g I

I a:: I

I I
I
I
r-Tan
Figure 3-22. Programmers will sometimes use the Figure 3-23. Programmers may use the radius
radius value as the hypotenuse when determining value as a leg to solve the other missing values of
location values. the right triangle.
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 67

are a number of applications where a programmer will use the radius and
triangle to determine distances. In Figure 3-24, the radius and triangle are
applied to determine a bolt circle, tool path, and intersection. In Figure 3-25,
the radius and triangle are applied to determine a cutter path.
y

Position 1 Position 2
R = 1.5" R = 1.5"
Angle from the Angle from the
horizontal axis =30° horizontal axis =60°
Y =sin 30 (1.5") Y =sin 60 (1.5")
Y =0.5 (1.5") Y =0.866 (1.5")
Y =0.75" Y = 1.299"
X =cos 30 (1.5") X =cos 60 (1.5")
X =0.866 (1.5") X =0.5 (1.5")
X = 1.299" X =0.75"
Figure 3-24. Using a radius value and the construction of a right triangle to determine hole locations.
Note: Angle values are used to solve remaining leg values.

2.00 Radius .25 Dia cutter

.25 Dia cutter

Position 1 Position 2
tPos;uon 1
R =2.0" R =2.0"
Cutter diameter = Cutter diameter =
0.250" 0.250"
Angle from the Angle from the
horizontal axis =35" horizontal axis =45"
Y1 =sin 35 (2.125") Y2 =sin 45 (2.125")
y1 =0.5735 (2.125") y2 =0.707 (2.125")
y1 = 1.2186" y2 = 1.502"

x 1 =cos 35 (2.125") x 2 =cos 45 (2.125")

x 1 =o.819 (2.125") x 2 =0.101 (2.125")
x 1 = 1.740" x 2 = 1.502"

Figure 3-25. Using trigonometry to calculate tool locations.

68 CNC M achining

There are a number of situations where triangles can be applied to

determine a cutter path. To plot a cutter path, the cutter radius is added or
subtracted from the part outline. The cutter path is the path in which the
centerline of the spindle moves along the plane, staying away from the part
by the amount of the tool radius. To cut a 90° corner, the cutter moves past
the edges of the part a distance equal to the cutter radius. See Figure 3-26.
To cut an acute (less than 90°) angle, the cutter moves past the corner of the
workpiece equal to the distances represented by the X dimension of the
shaded triangle in Figure 3-27. To cut an obtuse (greater than 90°) angle, as
shown in Figure 3-28, the same formula is used. Notice that the distance
the cutter has to travel beyond the end of the part is greater than the cutter
radius for acute angles and less than the cutter radius for obtuse angles.

Figure 3-26. The location of a cutter when it is about to make a 90°

move is shown. The radius of the cutter is used when determining
the cutter location from the corner of the workpiece.

--1 ~R

Toolpath direction
Cutter
Angle on workpiece is 45°
Cutter radius is 0.25"

tan 22.5° (half of 45°) = 0 -25 "

X
X= 0.25"
tan 22 .5°
X = 0.25"
0.414
X = 0.604"
The cutter must travel 0.604"
past the end of the workpiece
to begin cutting the bottom-
left side.

Figure 3-27. Illustration showing the triangle that must be solved to calculate the position of a cutter
when cutting an acute angle on a workpiece.
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 69

X . . Toolpath direction Cutter

Angle on workpiece is 110°

Cutter radius is 0.25"

tan 55° (half of 110°) = 0 -25"

X
X= 0.25"
tan 55°
X= 0.25"
1.428
X = 0.175"
The cutter must travel 0.175"
past the end of the workpiece to
begin cutting the left side.

Figure 3-28. The triangle that must be solved to calculate the position of the end mill when cutting an
obtuse angle on a workpiece.

Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean theorem states a special relationship that exists
among the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the length of the
hypotenuse squared equals the sum of the squares of the other two side lengths. So,
if the lengths of any two sides of a right triangle are given, the length of the
third side can be calculated by using the Pythagorean theorem:
A2 + B2 = c 2
In Figure 3-29, Side C is equal to 5 and Side B is equal to 3. The value for
A (the third side of the triangle) can be determined by using the formula
C 2 = A 2 + B2. To solve for A, substitute the known values into the formula to
get 52 = A 2 + 32, then square the values to get 25 = A 2 + 9. Next, isolate the
unknown variable by subtracting 9 from both sides of the equation to get
16 = A 2 • Finally, take the square root of both sides of the equation, to get 4 = A
So, the length of Side A is 4.
To cut a 90° rounded corner on a workpiece, we can use the Pythagorean
theorem to plot the toolpath of the cutter. See Figure 3-30. The radius on
the workpiece is 1". The cutter diameter is 0.25" (0.125" radius).
To cut partial arcs, we can use a combination of trigonometric
functions and the Pythagorean theorem to plot the positions of the cutter.
See Figure 3-31.
70 CNC Machining

Pythagorean theorem: c 2 = A2 + s 2
52 = A2 + 32
25 = A2 + 9
25-9 = A2
-!16 =iA.2
4=A
Figure 3-29. Cutter locations when cutting a 90° radius corner on a workpiece.

Cutter
position 3 The distance from the
center of the workpiece
radius to the center of
the cutter at Position 1
is 1.25" (workpiece
radius+ cutter radius).
Therefore, the formula
to find the X dimension
cutter for each change in Y is
position 1 X 2 + Y2 = 1. 25 2 .
x 2 + v 2 = 1.252
x 2 = 1.252 - v 2
X = ✓ 1.25 2 - Y 2
If the cutter travels
in the Y direction
0.5'', the X position
can be calculated by
substituting 0.5'' for Y.
X = ✓ 1.25 2 - 0.5 2
X = ✓1.3125
Toolpath direction
X = 1.146
Figure 3-30. This illustration shows how to use the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the cutter position
as it creates a corner radius.

To start, we need to calculate the position of the cutter in Position 2

based on the center of the workpiece radius. We know that Y = 1.00" and
H = 2.25. Therefore, X can be calculated using Pythagorean's theorem.
x2 + 12 = 2.252
x 2 = 2.252 -1 2
X = ✓2.252 - l2
X = ✓5.0625 - 1
X = 2.0156
 Chapter 3 CNC Math 71

Cutter
position 1

Center of 1.00"
workpiece
radius

Figure 3-31. The Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric functions can be used together to plot the
toolpath of a cutter.

We can use trigonometric functions to plot the positions of the cutter as it

travels along the 2.00" radius in 1° increments. To do this we have to find
angle a.

sina=-1-
2.25"
a = sin-1 (.4444)
a= 26°
Now we can calculate distance X for each degree that angle a increases
until it reaches 62° (26° + 36°).

sin 27 = ~
2.25
sin 27 (2.25) = Y
1.021 =Y
sin 28 (2.25) = Y
1.056 =Y