C H A P T E R 11 Personality Assessment: An Overview Personality traits Just as no consensus exists regarding

the definition of personality, there is none regarding the

Personality and Personality Assessment
definition of trait. Theorists such as Gordon Allport
Personality (1937) have tended to view personality traits as real
physical entities that are “bona fide mental structures in
McClelland (1951, p. 69) defined personality as “the each personality” (p. 289).
most adequate conceptualization of a person’s behavior
in all its detail.” For Allport, a trait is a “generalized and focalized
neuropsychic system (peculiar to the individual) with the
Menninger (1953, p. 23) defined it as “the individual as capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent,
a whole, his height and weight and love and hates and and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms
blood pressure and reflexes; his smiles and hopes and of adaptive and expressive behavior” (p. 295). Robert
bowed legs and enlarged tonsils. It means all that Holt (1971) wrote that there “are real structures inside
anyone is and that he is trying to become.” people that determine their behavior in lawful ways” (p.
Byrne (1974, p. 26) characterized the entire area of 6), and he went on to conceptualize these structures as
personality psychology as “psychology’s garbage bin in changes in brain chemistry that might occur as a result
that any research which doesn’t fit other existing of learning: “Learning causes submicroscopic structural
categories can be labeled ‘personality.’ ” changes in the brain, probably in the organization of its
biochemical substance”
Theories of Personality, Hall and Lindzey (1970, p. 9) Raymond Cattell (1950) also conceptualized traits as
wrote: “It is our conviction that no substantive definition mental structures, but for him structure did not
of personality can be applied with any generality” and necessarily imply actual physical status.
“Personality is defined by the particular empirical
concepts which are a part of the theory of personality a definition of personality trait offered by Guilford
employed by the observer” [emphasis in the original]. (1959, p. 6) has great appeal: “Any distinguishable,
Noting that there were important theoretical differences relatively enduring way in which one individual varies
in many theories of personality, Hall and Lindzey from another.”
encouraged their readers to select a definition of distinguishable indicates that behaviors labeled with
personality from the many presented and adopt it as different trait terms are actually different from one
their own. another. For example, a behavior labeled “friendly”
personality as an individual’s unique constellation of should be distinguishable from a behavior labeled
psychological traits that is relatively stable over time. “rude.”
We view this definition as one that has the advantage of The context, or the situation in which the behavior is
parsimony yet still is flexible enough to incorporate a displayed, is important in applying trait terms to
wide variety of variables. Included in this definition, behaviors. A behavior present in one context may be
then, are variables on which individuals may differ, such labeled with one trait term, but the same behavior
as values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, exhibited in another context may be better described
sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and using another trait term.
personality states.
relatively enduring. Relatively emphasizes that exactly
Personality assessment may be defined as the how a particular trait manifests itself is, at least to some
measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, extent, dependent on the situation.
states, values, interests, attitudes, worldview,
acculturation, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral Guilford’s definition, note that trait is described as a way
styles, and/or related individual characteristics. In this in which one individual varies from another.
chapter we overview the process of personality
Cross-Situational Consistency - Classic research has
assessment, including different approaches to the
shown a lack of consistency in traits like honesty,
construction of personality tests.
punctuality, conformity, attitude toward authority, and
Traits, Types, and States introversion/extraversion.
personality type as a constellation of traits that is Is this individual sufficiently well adjusted for military
similar in pattern to one identified category of service?
personality within a taxonomy of personalities.
What emotional and other adjustment-related factors
traits are frequently discussed as if they were may be responsible for this student’s level of academic
characteristics possessed by an individual, types are achievement?
more clearly descriptions of people.
What pattern of traits and states does this
Type A personality, characterized by competitiveness, psychotherapy client evince, and to what extent may
haste, restlessness, impatience, feelings of being time- this pattern be deemed pathological?
pressured, and strong needs for achievement and
How has this patient’s personality been affected by
dominance.
neurological trauma?
A Type B personality has the opposite of the Type A’s
Who?
traits: mellow or laid-back.
Who is being assessed, and who is doing the assessing?
a profile is a narrative description, graph, table, or other
Some methods of personality assessment rely on the
representation of the extent to which a person has
assessee’s own self-report. Assessees may respond to
demonstrated certain targeted characteristics as a result
interview questions, answer questionnaires in writing,
of the administration or application of tools of
blacken squares on computer answer forms, or sort
assessment.
cards with various terms on them—all with the ultimate
personality profile, the targeted characteristics are objective of providing the assessor with a personality
typically traits, states, or types. related self-description.

profile analysis refers to the interpretation of patterns The self as the primary referent
of scores on a test or test battery. Profile analysis is
self-report, or a process wherein information about
frequently used to generate diagnostic hypotheses from
assessees is supplied by the assessees themselves. Self-
intelligence test data.
reported information may be obtained in the form of
profiler refers to an occupation: one who creates diaries kept by assessees or in the form of responses to
personality profiles of crime suspects to assist law oral or written questions or test items.
enforcement personnel in capturing the profiled
Self-concept may be defined as one’s attitudes, beliefs,
suspects.
opinions, and related thoughts about oneself.
Personality states The word state has been used in at
the tool of choice is typically a dedicated self-concept
least two distinctly different ways in the personality
measure; that is, an instrument designed to yield
assessment literature. In one usage, a personality state
information relevant to how an individual sees him- or
is an inferred psychodynamic disposition designed to
herself with regard to selected psychological variables.
convey the dynamic quality of id, ego, and superego in
perpetual conflict. The term self-concept differentiation refers to the
degree to which a person has different self-concepts in
state—and the one we use in the discussion that follows
different roles (Donahue et al., 1993). People
—refers to the transitory exhibition of some personality
characterized as highly differentiated are likely to
trait. Put another way, the use of the word trait
perceive themselves quite differently in various roles.
presupposes a relatively enduring behavioral
predisposition, whereas the term state is indicative of a Another person as the referent
relatively temporary predisposition
the best available method for the assessment of
Personality Assessment: Some Basic Questions personality, behavior, or both involves reporting by a
third party such as a parent, teacher, peer, supervisor,
For what type of employment is a person with this type
spouse, or trained observer.
of personality best suited?
Generalized biases to rate in a particular direction are information) . . . coupled with suppression of [other]
referred to in terms such as leniency error or generosity information”
error and severity error.
a validity scale as a subscale of a test designed to assist
A general tendency to rate everyone near the midpoint in judgments regarding how honestly the testtaker
of a rating scale is termed an error of central tendency. responded and whether observed responses were
In some situations, a particular set of circumstances may products of response style, carelessness, deliberate
create a certain bias. efforts to deceive, or unintentional misunderstanding.

This variety of favorable response bias is sometimes

referred to as a halo effect.
The cultural background of assesses
What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is

conducted? For many personality tests, it is meaningful
to answer this question with reference to the primary
content area sampled by the test and to that portion of
the test devoted to measuring aspects of the testtaker’s
general response style.

Primary content area sampled

Some tests are designed to measure particular traits n- Where? Where are personality assessments conducted?
(such as introversion) or states (such as test anxiety), Traditional sites for personality assessment, as well as
whereas others focus on descriptions of behavior, other varieties of assessment, are schools, clinics,
usually in particular contexts. hospitals, academic research laboratories, employment
counseling and vocational selection centers, and the
Introversion and Extraversion, a test of offices of psychologists and counselors.
introversion/extraversion might contain other scales
How? How are personality assessments structured and
Such additional scales could be designed to shed light conducted? Let’s look at various facets of this
on how honestly testtakers responded to the test, how multidimensional question, beginning with issues of
consistently they answered the questions, and other scope and theory.
matters related to the validity of the test findings. These
measures of response pattern are also known as Scope and theory
measures of response set or response style. The scope of an evaluation may be very wide, seeking to
Testtaker response styles take a kind of general inventory of an individual’s
personality.
Response style refers to a tendency to respond to a test
item or interview question in some characteristic Locus (meaning “place” or “site”) of control is a
manner regardless of the content of the item or person’s perception about the source of things that
Testtaker response styles Response style refers to a happen to him or her. In general, people who see
tendency to respond to a test item or interview question themselves as largely responsible for what happens to
in some characteristic manner regardless of the content them are said to have an internal locus of control.
of the item or questions. People who are prone to attribute what happens to
Acquiescent - more apt to respond yes or true than no them to external factors (such as fate or the actions of
or false others) are said to have an external locus of control.

Impression management is a term used to describe the Procedures and item formats
attempt to manipulate others’ impressions through “the Personality may be assessed by many different methods,
selective exposure of some information (it may be false such as face-to-face interviews, computer-administered
tests, behavioral observation, paper-and pencil tests, the normative approach, whereby a testtaker’s
evaluation of case history data, evaluation of portfolio responses and the presumed strength of a measured
data, and recording of physiological responses. trait are interpreted relative to the strength of that trait
in a sample of a larger population
Measures of personality vary in terms of the degree of
an alternative to the normative approach in test
structure built into them. For example, personality may
interpretation is the ipsative approach. a testtaker’s
be assessed by means of an interview, but it may also be
responses, as well as the presumed strength of
assessed by a structured interview. In the latter method,
measured traits, are interpreted relative to the strength
the interviewer must typically follow an interview guide
of measured traits for that same individual. On a test
and has little leeway in terms of posing questions not in
that employs ipsative scoring procedures, two people
that guide. The variable of structure is also applicable to
with the same score for a particular trait or personality
the tasks assessees are instructed to perform. In some
characteristic may differ markedly with regard to the
approaches to personality assessment, the tasks are
magnitude of that trait or characteristic relative to
straightforward, highly structured, and unambiguous.
members of a larger population
example of the instructions used for such a task: Copy
Issues in personality test development and use
this sentence in your own handwriting. Such
instructions might be used if the assessor was
attempting to learn something about the assessee by
handwriting analysis, also referred to as graphology
Developing Instruments to Assess Personality
Frame of reference - as aspects of the focus of
exploration such as the time frame (the past, the Tools such as logic, theory, and data reduction methods
present, or the future) as well as other contextual issues (such as factor analysis) are frequently used in the
that involve people, places, and events. Perhaps for process of developing personality tests. Another tool in
most measures of personality, the frame of reference the test development process may be a criterion group.
for the assessee may be described in phrases such as
Logic and Reason
what is or how I am right now.
Logic and reason may dictate what content is covered by
Q-sort technique. Originally developed by Stephenson the items. Indeed, the use of logic and reason in the
(1953), the Q-sort is an assessment technique in which development of test items is sometimes referred to as
the task is to sort a group of statements, usually in the content or content-oriented approach to test
perceived rank order ranging from most descriptive to development. So, for example, if you were developing a
least descriptive. true–false test of extraversion, logic and reason might
dictate that one of the items might be something like I
Scoring and interpretation
consider myself an outgoing person.
The nomothetic approach to assessment is
characterized by efforts to learn how a limited number Theory
of personality traits can be applied to all people.
- As we noted earlier, personality measures differ in the
An idiographic approach to assessment is characterized
extent to which they rely on a particular theory of
by efforts to learn about each individual’s unique
personality in their development as well as their
constellation of personality traits, with no attempt to
interpretation.
characterize each person according to any particular set
of traits. The idea here is not to see where one falls on - If psychoanalytic theory was the guiding force behind
the continuum of a few traits deemed to be universal, the development of a new test designed to measure
but rather to understand the specific traits unique to the antisocial personality disorder, for example, the items
makeup of the individual. The idiographic orientation is might look quite different than the items developed
evident in assessment procedures that are more flexible solely on the basis of logic and reason.
not only in terms of listing the observed traits but also
of naming new trait terms.2 The idiographic approach to - One might find, for example, items designed to tap ego
personality assessment was described in detail by and superego defects that might result in a lack of
Allport. mutuality in interpersonal relationships.
- Given that dreams are thought to reveal unconscious
motivation, there might even be items probing the
respondent’s dreams; interpretations of such responses
would be made from a psychoanalytic perspective.

- As with the development of tests using logic and

reason, research, clinical experience, and the opinions
of experts might be used in the development of a
personality test that is theory-based.

Data Reduction Methods

Data reduction methods represent another class of

widely used tool in contemporary test development.
Data reduction methods include several types of
statistical techniques collectively known as factor
analysis or cluster analysis. One use of data reduction
methods in the design of personality measures is to aid
in the identification of the minimum number of
variables or factors that account for the
intercorrelations in observed phenomena.