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General Chemistry I
Chapter 2

2-1 Atoms and Molecules

Dalton’s Atomic Theory - 1808

Five postulates
1. An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties that differ from those of other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another element.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with one another in small whole-
number ratios.
5. The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

• The atom and the fundamental particles (Table 2.1)

p+, no, and e−

• Atomic number (Z)

Z = number of p+ in the nucleus of an atom of a

particular element

Periodic table is arranged by increasing atomic number

• Molecule: smallest particle of an element or compound that can stably exist. Held together by sharing e−
(Covalent bonding).

Nonmetals + nonmetals.

„ H2
„ O2
„ S8
„ H2O
„ CH4
„ C2H5OH

diatomic elements: Br I N Cl H O F Î Br2 I2 N2 Cl2 H2 O2 F2

polyatomic elements: P4 S8

compounds: H2O, H2O2, CO, CO2, CH4, CH3CH2CHOH

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2-2 Chemical Formulas

Chemical formula shows the chemical composition of the substance.

„ ratio of the elements present in the molecule or compound
He, Au, Na – monatomic elements
O2, H2, Cl2 – diatomic elements
O3, S4, P8 - more complex elements
H2O, C12H22O11 – compounds
Š Substance consists of two or more elements

Compound 1 Molecule Contains

HCl 1 H atom & 1 Cl atom
H O 2 H atoms & 1 O atom
2
NH 1 N atom & 3 H atoms
3
C H 3 C atoms & 8 H atoms
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Allotropes of elements: O2 vs. O3 Î elements that exist in more that one molecular form.

Nobel gases Î only elements that can exist as single atoms

2-3 Ions and Ionic Compounds (Salts, formula units)

Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that possess an electric charge.

Two basic types of ions: Positive ions or cations

Ionic compounds are formed from metals and nonmetals.

• Cations: positively charged atoms (metals)

Group IA metals Î + 1 charge Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+

Group IIA metals Î +2 charge Mg 2+ Ca 2+ Sr 2+ Ba 2+

Group IIIA metals Î +3 charge Al 3+ Ga3+

• Anions: negatively charged atoms (nonmetals)

Group VIIA nonmetals Î −1 charge F− Cl− Br− I−

Group VIA nonmetals Î −2 charge O2− S2− Se2− Te2−

Group VA nonmetals Î −3 charge N3− P3− As3− Sb3−

• Polyatomic Ions: groups of charged molecules that act as a cation or anion. (They form salts as though
they were a single cation or anion.

NH4+ (ammonium ion) acts as a +1 cation

NO2− (nitrite ion) acts as a −1 anion

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NO3− (nitrate ion) acts as a −1 anion

OH− (hydroxide ion) acts as a −1 anion

SO32− (sulfite ion) acts as a −2 anion

SO42− (sulfate ion) acts as a −2 anion

CO32− (carbonate ion) acts as a −2 anion

PO43− (phosphate ion) acts as a −3 anion

ClO−

ClO2−

ClO3−

ClO4−

Br and I also form the same four oxyanions with oxygen

Ionic compounds exist in crystals and are formed from the electrostatic attraction of opposite charges of the atoms
that form the formula units of the ionic compounds

Sodium chloride
„ table salt is an
ionic compound

2-4 Names & Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds (Table 2-3)

(Table 4-2) Balance the opposite charges

+ −
Groups I A 1 Groups V A 3
+ −
Groups II A 2 Group VI A 2
+ −
Groups III A 3 Group VII A 1

Examples: Sodium + fluorine

Na0 → Na+ + 1e−

NaF
F0 + 1e− → F−

If cation: take the name of the element: sodium

If anion: the name of the element with –ide ending:
fluorine Î fluoride
NaF Î sodium fluoride
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Magnesium + sulfur

Potassium + oxygen

Calcium + bromine

Aluminum + nitrogen

Barium + nitrogen

Aluminum + oxygen

Sodium + hydroxide ion

Ammonium ion + selenium

Strontium + sulfate ion

Calcium + phosphate ion

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Transition metals and oxidation states: (More than one possible + charge on some transition metals)

Examples:

Iron + oxygen (Fe2+ or Fe3+)

Tin + sulfur (Sn2+ or Sn4+)

Lead + chlorine (Pb2+ or Pb4+)

Copper + sulfur (Cu+ or Cu2+)

Exceptions you should know!

Silver always + 1, zinc always + 2

Silver + oxygen
Zinc + iodine

2-5 Atomic Weights (Definitions)

• AW Atomic weight (mass of the atom of an element) was determined by relative weights.

• AMU (Atomic Mass Unit) was derived by taking 1/12 of the carbon-12 atom.

A carbon-12 atom has a mass of 1.99272 x 10−23 g.

1/12 (1.99272 x 10−23 g) = 1.6606 x 10−24g

1 AMU = 1.6606 x 10−24g

Since it was known that hydrogen was 1/12 the mass of carbon, the mass of a hydrogen atom was designated as
1 amu

Carbon is 12 times greater in mass than hydrogen, therefore, it was given the mass of 12 amu.

The masses of all the elements, in amu, were determined by their relative masses to hydrogen or carbon.

mass of an p+ = 1.0073 amu

mass of an no = 1.0073 amu
mass of an e− = 0.00054858 amu

2-6 The Mole (Avogadro’s number)

A number of atoms, ions, or molecules that is large enough to see and handle.
A mole = number of things
„ Just like a dozen = 12 things
23
„ One mole = 6.022 x 10 things
23
Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 10
„ Symbol for Avogadro’s number is NA.
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How do we know when we have a mole?
„ count it out
„ weigh it out
Molar mass - mass in grams numerically equal to the atomic weight of the element in grams.
H has an atomic weight of 1.00794 g
„ 1.00794 g of H atoms = 6.022 x 1023 H atoms
Mg has an atomic weight of 24.3050 g
„ 24.3050 g of Mg atoms = 6.022 x 1023 Mg atoms

Molecules, atoms, protons and electrons

One Mole of Contains

„ Cl2 or 70.90g 6.022 x 1023 Cl2 molecules

2(6.022 x 1023 ) Cl atoms

„ C3H8 or 44.11 g 6.022 x 1023 C3H8 molecules

3 (6.022 x 1023 ) C atoms

8 (6.022 x 1023 ) H atoms

2-7 Formulas Weights, Molecular Weights, and Moles

Molar Mass: A mole of any substance has a mass equal to the summation of the masses of the elements in the
compound.

Example: Calculate the number of C H molecules in 74.6 g of propane.

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 1 mole C3 H8   6.022 ×1023 C3H8 molecules 

C3 H8 molecules = 74.6 g C3 H8 ×    =1.02 × 10 molecules
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 44.11 g C H
3 8  1 mole C H
3 8 

Example: Calculate the number of O atoms in 26.5 g of Li CO .

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1 mol Li 2 CO3 6.022 ×1023f.w. Li 2 CO3 3 O atoms
O atoms = 26.5 g Li 2 CO3 × × × = 6.49 × 1023 O atoms
73.8 g Li 2 CO3 1 mol Li 2 CO3 1 f.w. Li 2 CO3

A mole of H2O has a molar mass of 18.0 g

2 H = 2 (1.0 g) = 2.0 g
1 O = 1(16.0) g = 16.0g
18.0 g

If you have 5.00 x 1025 molecules of water, what is the mass of the water?

If you have 52.5 g of H2O, how many hydrogen atoms do you have?
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Occasionally, we will use millimoles.

„ Symbol - mmol
„ 1000 mmol = 1 mol
For example: oxalic acid (COOH)
2
„ 1 mol = 90.04 g
„ 1 mmol = 0.09004 g or 90.04 mg

Example: Calculate the number of mmol in 0.234 g of oxalic acid, (COOH) .

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 1 mmol (COOH) 2 
mmol (COOH)2 = 0.234 g (COOH)2 ×   = 2.60 mmol (COOH) 2
 0.09004 g (COOH) 2 

2-8 Percent Composition and Formulas of Compounds

The Law of Definite Proportions (Constant Composition) tells us that a compound has the same kinds of atoms in the
same ratio. Therefore, we can determine the percent composition of any substance:

part
%= x 100
whole
For example: What is the percent composition of all elements in CH3COOH?

1. Need molar mass of molecule.

2 C = 2 (12.0 g) = 24.0 g
4 H = 4 (1.0 g) = 4.0 g
2 O = 2 (16.0 g) = 32.0 g
60.0 g

2. Take the percentage of each element.

24.0 g 4.0 g 32.0 g

%C = x 100 %H = x 100 %O= x 100
60.0 g 60.0 g 60.0 g
= 40.0 % = 6.67 % = 53.3 %

40.0 % + 6.67 % + 53.3 % = 99.97 % = 100. %

2-9 Deriving Formulas from Elemental Composition

Empirical (Simplest) Formula: Many molecules share the same ratio of elements but the number of each kind of
atoms may be different.

Example: C2H4, C3H6, C4H8, C5H10

These are very different molecules with different properties, but they have the same ratio of atoms.
C H2
The empirical formula for a substance can be determined by percent analysis:
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For example:
A compound was determined by experimental processes to have 85.7 % carbon and 14.3% hydrogen. What is the
empirical formula of this compound?

1. Determine the number of moles of each element.

85.7 g C 1.0 mol C

= 7.14 mol C
12.0 g C

14.3 g H 1.0 mol H

= 14.3 mol H
1.0 g H

2. Determine the ratio of the atoms by dividing each element by the smallest moles.

7.14
C= = 1 mol C
7.14
CH2

14.3
H= = 2 mol H
7.14

2-10 Determination of Molecular Formulas

CH2 could be C2H4 or C3H6 or C4H8 etc…

That is… n(CH2) where n = 2, 3, 4, etc….

To determine n, you need to know the molar mass of the substance.

Example: If it is known that the molar mass of the above substance (CH2) is 112 g/ mol, then the molecular formula
of the substance can be determined.

molar mass of compound (112 g)

n = = 8
empirical molar mass (14.0 g)

8 (CH2) = C8H16
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Example 2: Using experimental techniques to determine empirical formulas.

# 70. A 1.000 g sample of an alcohol was burned in oxygen producing 1.913 g CO2 and 1.174 g of H2O. What is the
simplest formula of the alcohol?

2-12 Purity of Samples:

Often it is necessary to take into account the purity of a reagent that may be used in a laboratory experiment.

The percent purity of a sample of a substance is always represented as

mass of pure substance

% purity = × 100%
mass of sample
mass of sample includes impurities

A bottle of sodium phosphate, Na PO , is 98.3% pure Na PO . What are the masses of Na PO and impurities
3 4 3 4 3 4
in 250.0 g of this sample of Na PO ?
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