Pn junction diode

16 December 2023 16:34

P-N Junction
Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators. Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type
semiconductors.

The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors. In
this session, let us know more about the P-N Junction.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor

material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side
or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or
the negative side has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in
further detail in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction,
there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from
one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the
process of doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this
example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small
amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to
n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type
egion and a junction between these two regions. The processes that follow after
forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a difference in
the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes
from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the
p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and
practically zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase
in bias voltage. However, a very small reverse leakage current does flow
through the junction which can normally be measured in micro-amperes,
( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is
increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN
junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the
flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope
in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage

stabilising circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to
limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby
producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes
are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage
is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-
type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of
the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes
being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive
voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to
this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high
current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage
as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in

the depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low
impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to
flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee”
point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction
allowing very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small
increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction
or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon
junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it
effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series
diodes are usually used. Also in the next tutorial we will examine the Signal
Diode static current-voltage characteristics curve and parameters.

From <https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html>

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1
What happens when the battery voltage is increased in a
forward-biased P-N junction?
The current through the junction increases when the battery voltage is increased in
a forward-biased P-N junction.
Q2
What happens when a P-N junction is reverse biased?
The holes and electrons tend to move away from the junction.
Q3
What are the two breakdown mechanisms of the P-N
junction?
The two breakdown mechanisms are Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown.
Q4
What is the static resistance of a diode?
Static resistance of a diode is defined as the ratio of the DC voltage applied across
the diode to the DC current flowing through the diode.
Q5
What is the dynamic resistance of a diode?
Dynamic resistance of a diode is defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the
change in current.
Q6
What is reverse resistance?
Reverse resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the P-N junction diode
when it is reverse biased.
Q7
What is a semiconductor?
A semiconductor is a material whose conductivity stays between an insulator and a
conductor.
Q8
What are the two types of semiconductors?
N-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors are the two types of
semiconductors.
Q9
What are n-type semiconductors?
N-type semiconductors are intrinsic semiconductors doped with antimony (Sb),
phosphorus (P), or arsenic (As) as doping impurities.
Q10
What is meant by doping?
In semiconductor technology, doping is the process of intentional infliction of
impurities into intrinsic semiconductors for the objective of remodelling their
optical, structural, and electrical properties.
Q11
What is a diode?
A diode is an electrical device that enables the current to flow only in one direction.
In an electrical circuit diagram, a diode is denoted by a triangle symbol with a line
along one vertex.
Q12
What are the main types of diodes?
Light-emitting diode, avalanche diode, laser diode, Schottky diode, photodiode, p-n
junction diode, and Zener diode are the main types of diodes.
Q13
What are the three regions in which diodes function?
Forward bias, zero bias and reverse bias are the three regions in which diodes
function.
Q14
Give one application of P-N junction diodes.
P-N junction diodes are used as rectifiers in numerous electric circuits. They are also
used as voltage-controlled oscillators in varactors.

From <https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction/>

What are Rectifiers?

Rectifiers are electronic devices or circuits that convert alternating current (AC) into
direct current (DC). Alternating current periodically changes direction, whereas
direct current flows consistently in one direction. Rectifiers are crucial in many
electronic applications where a steady DC voltage is required.
Most rectifiers use P-N junction diodes to convert AC to DC, but some use different
kinds of materials as well, such as semiconductor materials like silicon carbide or
specialized semiconductor devices like thyristors and metal-oxide-semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).

How does Rectifier Work?

A rectifier is an electrical device which is used to convert AC current into DC current.
Rectifier does this process by allowing current (I) to flow through any device and the
process taking place here is called rectification.
Rectifier works by using diodes which are like one-way valves for electricity. A
 rectifier can take one or more diodes to convert the positive or negative half cycle of
the AC inputs DC outputs. Rectifiers generates an DC voltage by rectifying any one
cycle of the AC supply and the reverse operation of this above process is called
Inverter and the process called inversion in electricity.

Rectifiers Circuits

It plays a vital role in DC power supplies for converting AC signal into DC signal. P-N
junction diode have lot of applications and Rectifier circuits are one of them. In
simple words the electronic circuit which performs rectification is called rectifier
circuit. By using this circuit we can able to convert electrical signals.

Types of Rectifiers
There are various types of rectifiers used in electronics for different use cases. Some
of these rectifiers are:
• Controlled Rectifier: In this type of rectifier, voltage always varies and MOSFET, SCRs
or IGBTs are used to convert uncontrolled rectifier to controlled rectifier. It consists
of two other types of rectifiers which is
• Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
• Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
• Uncontrolled Rectifier: In this type of rectifier, voltage cannot be controlled or it
cannot vary with respect to time. There are two types of uncontrolled rectifier that is
• Half Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier
• Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier
○ Uncontrolled rectifier uses diodes and they generate a fixed output voltage
depending only on AC inputs.
○ It works with switches and here in this type of rectifier diodes play a
important role.
• This rectifier cannot be controlled because it is connected in forward biased.
Half Wave Rectifier
It is easy to construct. Similar to rectifier Half way rectifier is used to convert AC
(Alternating Current) signal into DC (Direct Current) signal by passing through
negative or positive half cycle. The only drawback is it is less efficient by comparing
to full-wave rectifier. In simple words Half wave rectifier produces purely positive by
avoiding negative half-cycle on the other hand full wave rectifier produces purely
negative half cycle by changing the direction. The efficiency of half wave rectifier is
40.5% which is considered as lower than full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier

It requires multiple diodes to function and to construct. It is a process of converting
AC signal into DC signal (AC voltage into DC voltage). As we know that electrical
circuits which convert AC into Direct current are called rectifiers. Full wave rectifier
rectifies both negative and positive half cycle of input which is alternating signal. The
 efficiency of full-wave rectifier is twice than that of half-wave rectifier. So these
rectifiers are maximum used in all electronic devices because it can withstand high
voltages or current with intense power.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Circuit for Full Wave Rectifier is given below:

Bipolar junction diode :-

Working Principle of BJT

BJT have two junctions formed by the combination of two back to back PN
junctions. Base-Emitter junction (BE) is forward bias while collector-emitter junction
(CE) is reverse bias. At BE junction, the potential barrier decreases with forward bias.
So, electron start flowing from emitter terminal to base terminal. As the base is lightly
doped terminal, so very little number of electrons from emitter terminal combine with
holes in base terminal. Due to combination of electrons and holes, current from base
terminal will start flowing known as Base current (ib). Base current is only 2% of the
emitter current Ie while the remaining electrons will flow from the reverse bias collector
junction known as Collector current (ic). The total emitter current will be the combination
of base current & collector current given by;
 ie = ib+ic

Where ie is approximately equal to ic because Ib is almost 2% of the IC.

Explain Transistor Current Components:

The various transistor current components which flow across the forward-biased emitter
junction and reverse biased collector junction are indicated in Fig. 10.11. The current
flowing into the emitter is referred to as the emitter current and designated as IE. The
emitter current IE consists of two constituents (hole current IhE due to crossing of holes
from emitter into the base and electron current IeE due to crossing of electrons from
base into the emitter).

In a commercial transistor the emitter is heavily doped and the base is very lightly doped
and, therefore, electron current IeE is negligibly small in comparison to hole current IhE.
Thus the entire emitter current IE in a P-N-P transistor is due to flow of holes from
emitter to the base. It is to be noted that the indicated direction of IE external to the
transistor is the conventional current direction.
All the holes crossing the emitter junction JE do not reach the collector junction
JC because some of them combine with the electrons in the N-type base. If IhC is the hole
current at collector junction JC, there must be a bulk recombination current IhE less
IhC leaving the base, as shown in Fig. 10.11. In fact electrons enter the base region
through the base lead to replenish those electrons which have been lost by
recombination with the holes injected into the base across the emitter junction JE. The
holes on reaching the collector junction JC cross this junction and enter the collector P-
region.

If the emitter were open circuited, IE would have been zero and then IhC also would have
been zero. Under these conditions, the base and collector would act as a reverse-biased
diode and the collector current IC would be equal to that reverse saturation current
ICBO (or simply ICO).

When the emitter circuit is closed i.e., when IE ≠ 0, then from Fig. 10.11

For a P-N-P transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across junction JC from base region to
collector region and electrons crossing junction JC in the opposite direction.

In the active region operation with emitter junction JE forward biased, the collector
current is given as

where α is the fraction of the total current IE which constitutes IhC.

It is to be noted that the indicated direction of emitter current IE external to the

transistor is the conventional current direction. Base current IB and collector current
IC are also shown external to the transistor conventional current direction. According to
the Kirchhoff s first law total current flowing into the transistor must be equal to the
total current flowing out of it. So emitter current IE is equal to the sum of collector and
base currents lC and IB.

Let us now define different parameters which relate the transistor current components
discussed above.

Emitter Efficiency: The emitter or injection efficiency denoted by γ is defined as the ratio
of current of injected carriers at JE to the total emitter current

where IhE is the injected hole diffusion current at emitter junction and leE is the injected
electron diffusion current at emitter junction.
Transport Factor: Transport factor, denoted by β, is defined as the ratio of injected
carrier current reaching JC to the injected carrier current at JE

Large Signal Current Gain α: The term α has already been defined above. However, α can
alternatively be defined from Eq. (10.4). From Eq. (10.4) α may be defined as the ratio of
collector current increment from cutoff value (IC = ICO) to lC and the emitter current
increment from cutoff value (IE = 0) to IE. Thus, we may write

Term α is called the large signal current gain of a common base transistor. The
parameter α is extremely important in transistor theory. It is to be pointed here that α is
not constant, but varies with emitter current IE, collector voltage VCB, and the
temperature. Typically α lies in the range 0.95 to 0.99.

From Eqs. (10.2) and (10.8) we have

For an efficient transistor we would like β and γ to be very near unity i.e., the emitter
current should be due mostly to holes (γ = 1) and most of the injected holes should
eventually participate in the collector current (β ≈ 1).

The product βγ is defined as the factor α, called the current gain ratio, which represents
the emitter-to-collector current amplification. There is no real amplification between
these currents, since α is lesser than unity. On the other hand, the relation between
collector current and base current is more promising for amplification.

DC Current Gain: If ICO is negligibly small in comparison to lC, α approximately equals

IC/IE. This is referred to as the dc current gain of the common base (CB) transistor and is
denoted by αdc

Thus

αdc is always positive and less than unity.

Small Signal Current Gain αac: Small signal current gain αac is defined as the ratio of
change in collector current to change in emitter current
αac is always positive but less than unity (very close to unity). It also varies with IE,
VCB and temperature.

Generalized Expression For Collector Current: We know that a small reverse current
flows across a P-N junction diode due to thermally generated minority carriers that are
propelled by the barrier potential. When the junction is reverse biased, this reverse
current increases slightly. For moderate reverse-bias voltages, the reverse current
attains its saturation value, IS (or I0). Because the collector-base junction of a transistor is
reverse biased, there is likewise a reverse current due to thermally generated carriers.
Of course this “reverse” current, in the context of a transistor, is in the same direction as
the main (collector) current flowing through the device due to the injection of minority
carriers into the base. The total collector current is, therefore, the sum of these two
transistor current components: the injected minority carriers and the thermally
generated minority carriers

The reverse current ICBO is given by the volt-ampere relationship of equation I =

I0(eV/ηVT-1) with I0 replaced by -ICO and V by VC where symbol VC represents the voltage
drop across junction JC from the P-side to the N-side and the complete expression for
collector current lC may be written as

If VC is negative and is of large magnitude in comparison with that of VT, Eq. (10.12)
reduces to Eq. (10.4).

The physical interpretation of Eq. (10.12) is that the P-N junction diode current crossing
the collector junction JC is s

Application of transistor as an amplifier

The main application of transistor as an amplifier is in the field of electronics and
communication. Following is the list of these applications:
• Transistor as an amplifier is used in optical fiber communication.
• Since the intensity of the output signal is high, it finds application in long-distance communication.
• The amplification of radio signals is possible because of such amplifiers.
• Amplifiers are used in wireless communication.
• The audio amplification is possible because of the use of amplifiers.
Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about how transistors can be used as a switch and an
amplifier, actions of a transistor, types of switches, and other related topics.

From <https://byjus.com/physics/transistor-as-switch-amplifier/>
Transistor as an Amplifier:
There are two sorts of transistors: switch and amplifier. We’ll look at how transistors are used as
amplifiers in this section. The transistor will be on at saturation, and it will also be ultimately off at
cutoff. Therefore, when we want a transistor to operate as an amplifier, we must make it work in the
active area between saturation and cutoff.

As in the three combinations/configurations below, a transistor could be seen as an amplifier.

CB or Common Base Configuration: Here, the transistor base is connected to the ground, resulting in a
relatively low output impedance with little amplification. This arrangement will have a meagre gain.

CC or Common Collector Configuration: In this design, the collector is linked to the ground, the output
resistance is low for a high power density, and the gain is superior when matched to the CB
configuration.

CE or Common Emitter Configuration: The emitter will be linked to the ground in this setup, and the
input impedance shall become high, the output resistance shall be medium, and the gain shall become
high.

The transistor will function as an amplifier by increasing the intensity of a weak signal. There will be
three terminals on the transistor: base, collector, and emitter. The transistor’s emitter and base will be
forward biassed, but the collector base area is reverse biassed. Forward bias occurs when the P-region
of the transistors gets linked to the positive electrode of the supply, and the N-terminal covers the
hostile network. In contrast, reverse bias occurs when the P-region of the transistors gets attracted to
the supply’s negative terminal.

Advantages & Applications:

Every transistor acting as an amplifier offers various benefits for electronics and communication. They
are:

• The use of transistors as amplifiers for signal enhancement can be used in FM signal transmission.
• Since the received signal at the outcome is of great strength, it may be employed in long-distance
communication.
• In wireless communication, amplifiers play an essential function.
• Such transistor amplifiers are used in the amplification of radio transmissions.
• These sorts of amplifiers are also used in optical fibre communication.
• The transistor amplifier’s primary function is that of an audio amplifier, and it is employed in many
of our day-to-day activities.

How to Calculate AC Current Gain, Voltage

Gain & Power Gain
AC Current Gain:
The proportion of the variation in the collector current to the variation in the emitter current at fixed
collector-base voltage is known as AC current gain (aac).

aac or = Δic / Δie

aac or must be slightly less than one.

Voltage Gain:
The proportion of output voltage change to the varying input voltage is known as voltage gain. AV is the
abbreviation for it. Thus,
Av = Δic × R0 / Δie × Ri

But aac or = Δic / Δie, which is AC current gain.

Av = (R0 / Ri)

AV is relatively high, even though it is a little less than 1, because R0>> Ri.

Power Gain:
The output power variation to the variation in input power is known as power gain.

Power Gain = Voltage Gain × AC Current Gain

Power Gain = α 2 (R0 / Ri)

Conclusion:
Every transistor acting as an amplifier offers various benefits with regard to electronics and
communication. The proportion of the variation in the collector current to the variation in the emitter
current at fixed collector-base voltage is known as AC current gain (aac). The formula
is aac or = Δic / Δie. The proportion of output voltage change to the varying input voltage is known as
voltage gain. Av = (R0 / Ri) is voltage gain. AV is the abbreviation for it. The proportion of output power
variation to the variation in input power is known as power gain (α 2 (R0 / Ri)).

From <https://unacademy.com/content/neet-ug/study-material/physics/an-explanation-of-transistor-as-an-amplifier/>

#SCR:
A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer
solidstate current-controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is
General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor.
SCRs are mainly used in electronic devices that require control of high voltage and
power. This makes them applicable in medium and high AC power operations such
as motor control function.
An SCR conducts when a gate pulse is applied to it, just like a diode. It has four
layers of semiconductors that form two structures namely; NPNP or PNPN. In
addition, it has three junctions labeled as J1, J2 and J3 and three
terminalsanode,cathode and gate 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒,𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒. An SCR is
diagramatically represented as shown below.

The anode connects to the P-type, cathode to the N-type and the gate to the P-type
as shown below.
In an SCR, the intrinsic semiconductor is silicon to which the required dopants are
infused. However, doping a PNPN junction is dependent on the SCR application.
Modes of Operation in SCR
• OFF state forwardblockingmode𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 − Here the anode
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡
is assigned a positive voltage, the gate is assigned a zero voltage
𝑒𝑑 and the cathode is assigned a negative voltage. As a result, Junctions J1
and J3 are in forward bias while J2 is in reverse bias. J2 reaches its breakdown
avalanche value and starts to conduct. Below this value, the resistance of J1 is
significantly high and is thus said to be in the off state.
• ON state conductingmode𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 − An SCR is brought to this
state either by increasing the potential difference between the anode and
cathode above the avalanche voltage or by applying a positive signal at the
gate. Immediately the SCR starts to conduct, gate voltage is no longer needed
to maintain the ON state and is, therefore, switched off by −
○ Decreasing the current flow through it to the lowest value called holding
current
○ Using a transistor placed across the junction.
• Reverse blocking − This compensates the drop in forward voltage. This is due to
the fact that a low doped region in P1 is needed. It is important to note that
the voltage ratings of forward and reverse blocking are equal.

TRIAC – Operation, symbol, circuits &

applications
A TRIAC or TRIode for Alternating Current is a three-terminal bidirectional thyristor,
meaning that can conduct current in both directions when activated properly. It is used in
AC switching applications. It can be considered as two SCRs connected in antiparallel.
Unlike a silicon-controlled rectifier, it is capable of conducting positive and negative cycles
of electric current.

From <https://www.electricalclassroom.com/triac-operation-symbol-circuits/>

Symbol of TRIAC
The symbol of TRIAC and its equivalent circuit is shown in the above picture. It has two
conducting main terminals MT1 (Main terminal-1) and MT2 (Main terminal-2), and a gate
signal terminal G. The equivalent circuit shows the two-SCR model of
a TRIAC.

Construction of TRIAC
As mentioned earlier, a TRIAC looks like two SCR thyristors connected in anti-parallel and
shares a common gate. Its basic structure is shown below:
Structure of TRIAC
It is a 5-layered device. As the equivalent circuit shows, these layer makes up two
complementary SCRs with a common gate. The region between MT1 and MT2 behaves
like a P-N-P-N SCR in parallel with N-P-N-P SCR. Since MT1 and MT2 have contact with
both p and n regions, they cannot be designated as anode or cathode.

Working of TRIAC
The TRIAC can be turned on by applying a gate signal. The polarity of the gate signal
depends on the polarity of MT1 and MT2. If MT2 is positive with respect to MT1, it can be
turned on by applying a positive gate signal with reference to MT1, and if MT1 is positive
with respect to MT2, it can be turned on by applying a negative gate signal with reference
to MT1. When in operation it blocks both positive and negative voltages if there is no gate
signal and the applied voltage is less than its breakdown voltage.

To fully understand the operation of a TRIAC, it is necessary to understand how it

responds to positive and negative gate signals. Based on the polarity of the gate signal
and that of the applied voltage four triggering quadrants can be defined.
From <https://www.electricalclassroom.com/triac-operation-symbol-circuits/>

A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. The main

characteristics of UJT is when it is triggered, the emitter current increases re-
generatively until it is limited by emitter power supply. Due to this characteristic
feature, it is used in applications like switching pulse generator, saw-tooth wave
generator etc.
Construction of UJT
The UJT consists of an n-type silicon semiconductor bar with an electrical on each
end. The terminals of these connections are called Base terminals (B1 and B2).
Near to base B2, a pn-junction is formed between a p-type emitter and the n-type
silicon bar. The terminal of this junction is called emitter terminal (E).
Since the device has three terminals and one pn-junction, for this region this is
called as a Unijunction Transistor (UJT).

The device has only pn-junction so it forms a diode. Because the two base leads
are taken from one section of the diode, hence the device is also called as Double-
Based Diode.
The emitter is heavily doped while the n-region is lightly doped. Thus, the
resistance between base terminals is very high when emitter terminal is open.
Operation of UJT
With Emitter Open
When the voltage VBB is applied with emitter open. A potential gradient is
established along the n-type silicon bar. As the emitter is located close to the
base B2, thus a major part of VBB appears between the emitter and base B1. The
voltage V1 between emitter and B1, establishes a reverse bias on the pn-junction
and the emitter current is cut off, but a small leakage current flows from B2 to
emitter due to minority charge carriers. Thus, the device is said to be in OFF
state.
With Emitter at Positive Potential
When a positive voltage is applied at the emitter terminal, the pn-junction will
remain reverse biased till the input voltage is less than V1. A soon as the input
voltage at emitter exceeds V1, the pn-junction becomes forward biased. Under
this condition, holes are supplied from p-type region into the n-type bar. These
holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and attracted towards the B1 terminal.
This increase in the number of holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the
decrease of resistance of this section of the bar. Because of this, the internal
voltage drop from emitter to B1 region is reduced, thus the emitter current (IE)
increases. As more holes are supplied, a condition of saturation is reached. At the
point of saturation, the emitter current is limited by the emitter power supply.
Now, the device is conducting, hence said to be in ON state.

Equivalent Circuit of UJT

• The resistance of silicon bar is called as the inter-base resistance (has a value from 4 kΩ to 10
kΩ).
• The resistance RB1 is the resistance of the bar between emitter and B1 region. The value of this is
variable and depends upon the bias voltage across the pn-junction.
 • The resistance RB2 is the resistance of the bar between emitter and B2 region.
• The emitter pn-junction is represented by a diode.
• With no voltage applied to the UJT, the value of inter-base resistance is given by
RBB=RB1+RB2RBB=RB1+RB2
• The intrinsic stand-off ration (ƞ) of UJT is given by
η=V1VBB=RB1RB1+RB2𝜂=V1VBB=RB1RB1+RB2
ThevoltageacrossRB1isV1=RB1RB1+RB2VBB=ηVBBThevoltageacrossRB1isV1=RB1RB1
+RB2VBB=𝜂VBB
• The value of ƞ generally lies between 0.51 and 0.82.
• The Peak Point Voltage (VP) of the UJT
Vp=ηVBB+VDVp=𝜂VBB+VD
Characteristics of UJT
The curve between emitter voltage (VE) and emitter current (IE) of UJT, at a given
value of VBB is known as emitter characteristics of UJT.

Important points from the characteristics are −

• At first, in the cut off region, when the emitter voltage increases from zero, due to the minority
charge carriers, a small current flows from terminal B2 to emitter. This is called as leakage
current.
• Above the definite value of VE, the emitter current (IE) starts to flow and increases until the peak
(VP and IP) is reached at point P.
• After point P, an increase in VE causes a sudden increase in IE with a corresponding decrease in
VE. This is the Negative Resistance Region of the curve as with the increase in IE, VE decreases.
• The negative resistance region of the curve ends at the valley-point (V), having valley-point
voltage VV and current IV. After the valley-point the device is driven to saturation.
Advantages of UJT
• Low cost
• Excellent characteristics
• Low power absorbing device under normal operating conditions
Applications of UJT
• Oscillators
• Trigger Circuits
• Saw tooth generator
• Bi-stable networks
• Pulse and voltage sensing circuits
• UJT relaxation oscillators
 • Over voltage detectors

From <https://www.tutorialspoint.com/unijunction-transistor-construction-working-principle-and-characteristic-features>