GANDHI INSTITUTE FOR TECHNOLOGICAL

ADVANCEMENT BBSR
Project report on
DC Microgrid with Fault Detection and Status Monitoring

Submitted for the Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electrical Engineering
By
BANTI PUJHARI 2210002
VIVEK MOHARANA 2210014
OMM PRAKASH PRADHAN 2310L08
PARSWAJEET BARAL 2210007
BHABANI SANKAR BALABANTARAY 2310L18
ABHAYA KUMAR BISOI 2310L14
SUSHREE SOUMALIN PRIYADARSHINI 2310L16
SUSHREE PRITI PADHAN 2310L20

Guided by
Prof. Rabi Narayan Rout

Department of Electrical Engineering,

GITA, Bhubaneswar

( Affiliated to Bijupattnaik University of technology, Rourkela)

 GANDHI INSTITUTE FOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT BBSR

Ref. no - Date –

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that BANTI PUJHARI (2210002) ,VIVEK MOHARANA (2210014), OMM PRAKASH
PRADHAN (2310L08), PARSWAJEET BARAL (2210007), BHABANI SANKAR
BALABANTARAY(2310L18), ABHAYA KUMAR BISOI (2310L14), SUSHREE SOUMALIN
PRIYADARSHINI (2310L16), SUSHREE PRITI PADHA (2310L20) has submitted the project report
entitled DC Microgrid with Fault Detection and Status Monitoring work carried out by him at GITA under my
guidance. The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for the award of any degree
or diploma to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Head of the Department External Examiner Project Guide

Place – Bhubaneswar
Date -
 GANDHI INSTITUTE FOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT, BBSR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would not have been complete without
the people, whose constant guidance and encouragement crowns all efforts with success. 1 express my deep
sense of gratitude to Prof. Rabi Narayan Rout for his initiative and constant inspiration.

Lastly, I express our gratitude to all the faculties of Electrical Engineering Department and friends for their
support, co-operation, constructive criticism and valuable suggestion during preparation of this project report.

Thanks to all.

Signature
 CONTENT

SL NO ITEMS PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 05

2 FUNCTIONALITY 06

3 PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM 08

4 HARDWARE COMPONENTS 08

5 APPLICATION 22

6 ADVANTAGES 23

7 DISADVANTAGES 24

8 CONCLUSION 25

9 REFERENCES 26
Introduction
• The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technology into smart grid systems has revolutionized the
monitoring and management of energy distribution networks. This report presents the design and
implementation of an IoT-based smart grid monitoring station with fault protection. The system utilizes
NodeMCU, a low-cost IoT development board, to monitor grid parameters and detect faults in real-
time. The key features include monitoring the energy source, such as solar, wind, or conventional, and
automatic fault detection with safety mechanisms.

• The objective of this paper is to develop Arduino based Multi Agent System (MAS) for advanced demand

side management of a solar micro-grid. High penetration of renewable energy resources needs new

coordination and control approaches to meet the stochastic nature of the environment and dynamic

loadings. We use Multi Agent System for advanced distributed, autonomous energy management of the

micro-grid to dynamically and flexibly adapt to the changes in the environment. We consider a micro-grid

which contains two solar Photo Voltaic (PV) system, local consumer, and a battery. We develop a

simulation model in Java Agent Development Environment (JADE) for dynamic energy management,

which choose the best possible action every hour to stabilize and optimize the solar micro-grid.

Furthermore, environment variables are sensed through Arduino microcontroller and given to agents of

MAS. The resulting actions are reflected in the LED out puts which can be readily deployed in the actual

field.

Fig. Basic Components of DC Microgrid

Functionality
1. Grid Parameter Monitoring: NodeMCU continuously collects data from sensors to monitor grid parameters
such as voltage, current, power, and energy source type. This information provides insights into the status and
performance of the grid.
2. Fault Detection: The system is capable of detecting various types of faults, including fire detection and line-
to-line faults. These faults are identified based on abnormal variations in monitored parameters beyond
predefined thresholds.
3. Safety Mechanisms: In case of a fault detection, the system triggers safety mechanisms to protect the grid
and connected loads. The relay is activated to disconnect the load from the grid, preventing further damage.
Simultaneously, an alarm buzzer alerts operators about the fault occurrence.
4. Remote Monitoring and Control: The monitoring station can be accessed remotely via the local IP network.
Operators can view real-time data, monitor grid status, and intervene if necessary to resolve faults or
reconfigure the grid connections.
1. System Architecture Diagram:
Visual representation of the components and their connections in the smart grid monitoring station. This
diagram provides a clear overview of how the system is structured and how data flows between different
modules.
2. Schematic Diagram:
Detailed circuit diagram illustrating the connections between NodeMCU, sensors, relay, buzzer, and other
components. This diagram aids in understanding the hardware implementation of the system.
3. Sensor Datasheets:
Documentation for each sensor used in the system, including specifications, pin configurations, and
communication protocols. This information helps in understanding sensor capabilities and interfacing
requirements.
4. NodeMCU Programming Guide:
Step-by-step instructions for programming the NodeMCU board, including code snippets and explanations
of key functions. This guide assists developers in understanding and modifying the firmware to suit specific
requirements.
5. Fault Detection Algorithm Description:
Detailed explanation of the algorithms used for fault detection, including threshold-based methods or
machine learning techniques. This document provides insights into how faults are identified based on sensor
data analysis.
6. Safety Mechanism Workflow:
Flowchart or description outlining the sequence of actions taken by the system in response to fault detection.
This document clarifies how the relay is triggered, load is disconnected, and buzzer is activated to ensure grid
safety.
7. Remote Monitoring Interface Guide:
User manual for accessing the monitoring station remotely via the local IP network. This guide includes
instructions for logging in, viewing real-time data, and controlling the system settings from a remote location.
8. Test Procedures and Results:
Documentation of testing procedures conducted to validate the functionality and performance of the smart
grid monitoring station. This includes test cases, test setups, and results analysis to demonstrate system
reliability and effectiveness.
9. Maintenance and Troubleshooting Guide:
Guidelines for system maintenance, including routine checks, sensor calibration procedures, and
troubleshooting steps for common issues. This document helps operators in ensuring smooth operation and
resolving any technical issues that may arise.
10. Future Enhancements and Roadmap:
Outline of potential enhancements for the smart grid monitoring station, such as integrating additional
sensors, implementing predictive maintenance algorithms, or incorporating advanced analytics capabilities.
This document provides a roadmap for future development and expansion of the system.
By preparing these additional documents, you can provide a comprehensive overview of the smart grid
monitoring system, its implementation details, operational procedures, and plans for future enhancements.
The smart grid monitoring station consists of the following components:
1. NodeMCU Development Board: NodeMCU is used as the central processing unit for data acquisition and
communication. It is equipped with Wi-Fi connectivity, making it suitable for IoT applications.
2. Sensors: Various sensors are employed to monitor grid parameters, including voltage, current, power, and
energy source type (solar, wind, hybrid, or conventional).
3. Relay: A relay module is utilized for controlling the grid connection and disconnecting the load in case of
a fault.
4. Buzzer: An alarm buzzer is activated when a fault is detected to alert the operators.
5. Local IP Network: The system communicates with the monitoring station via a local IP network, enabling
remote access and control.
What is Embedded system?

• An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps additional
mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded system is a
microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system, autonomous, or human or
network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into
a competitive and cost conscious market.
• An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a software
system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end embedded &
lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit Controllers used with
OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower end embedded systems -
Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems and hardware layout designed
for the specific purpose. Examples Small controllers and devices in our everyday life like Washing
Machine, Microwave Ovens, where they are embedded in.
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

System System
Definition Testing

Rapid Hardware-in-
Prototyping the-Loop

Targeting

PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:
1. TRANSFORMER (230 – 12 V AC)

2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7805)

3. RECTIFIER

4. FILTER

5. NODEMCU

6. PUSHBUTTON
 7. LCD

8. RELAY

9. RELAY DRIVER

10. LED

11. 1N4007

12. CAPACITORS

13. RESISTORS

1. TRANSFORMER

• Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-
up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 1.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

• The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
• The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which
is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary
(output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )

Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.
Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element :

• If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted
from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the
incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary
circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:
o
• Giving the ideal transformer equation

o
• Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.
• If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one
circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached
across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
(Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to
the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.
2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

• Features
• • Output Current up to 1A.
• • Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• • Thermal Overload Protection.
• • Short Circuit Protection.
• • Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.
 Fig. Circuit representation of voltage Regulator

Description
• The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-
PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 1.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

1.3 RECTIFIER

• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as
rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors
of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc
valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts
A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a
bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive
 half cycle only two diodes( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining
two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.

Fig. Circuit Diagram of Rectifier

FILTER

• Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is
maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point
changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
• The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is very
limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray
and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used
in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below
figure can show how the capacitor changes and discharges.

PUSH BUTTONS

• A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material,
usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or
 hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even
many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed
state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the button, such as press, depress,
mash, and punch.

Fig. Push Button

Uses:

• In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical
linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a
stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual
operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
• Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator will not
push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or process
and green for starting the machine or process.
• Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to facilitate
the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and are mandated
by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape can also
be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could not
actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators and users in industrial or
commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the attention of the user and to
provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is included into the center of the
pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.

FIG 4.6(A): PUSH ON BUTTON

RELAY

• A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled
by one signal.
 Fig : Overload Relay

• A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on
or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch
contacts as shown in the diagram.
• Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first.
For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There
is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
• The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be
as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger
value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is
200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

The figure shows a relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted
by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts.

Fig. Circuit Diagram of Relay

 • There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay
DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
LED

• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons.

• This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability.

Fig 4.11(b): symbol of LED

• Types of LED’S

Fig 4.11(a): Types of LED

• Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow
bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video
displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology.

RESISTORS
• A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
• Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

• The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can dissipate. Other
characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow,
and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials
constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.
• Resistors can be integrated into hybrid smart grid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be
physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Fig. Resistor

• A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance

as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will
flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of
proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R
further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

• Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are
also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated
into hybrid smart and printed circuits.
• The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance
in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the
manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The
temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
 Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
• An ideal capacitor is characterized
CAPACITORS
• A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated
conductors.
• by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce
an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.
• The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of
a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy
capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

Fig. Capacitor

• A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.

Fig. capacitor Internal diagram

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

• NodeMCU is a low-cost open source IoT platform.[4][5] It initially included firmware which runs on
the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC from Espressif Systems, and hardware which was based on the ESP-12
module.[6][7] Later, support for the ESP32 32-bit MCU was added

• NodeMCU is an open source firmware for which open source prototyping board designs are available.
The name "NodeMCU" combines "node" and "MCU" (micro-controller unit).[8]. The term
"NodeMCU" strictly speaking refers to the firmware rather than the associated development kits.[citation
needed]

• Both the firmware and prototyping board designs are open source.[9]
• The firmware uses the Lua scripting language. The firmware is based on the eLua project, and built on
the Espressif Non-OS SDK for ESP8266. It uses many open source projects, such as lua-
cjson[10] and SPIFFS.[11] Due to resource constraints, users need to select the modules relevant for their
project and build a firmware tailored to their needs. Support for the 32-bit ESP32 has also been
implemented.
• The prototyping hardware typically used is a circuit board functioning as a dual in-line package (DIP)
which integrates a USB controller with a smaller surface-mounted board containing the MCU and
antenna. The choice of the DIP format allows for easy prototyping on breadboards. The design was
initially was based on the ESP-12 module of the ESP8266, which is a Wi-Fi SoC integrated with
a Tensilica Xtensa LX106 core, widely used in IoT applications (see related projects).
HISTORY
NodeMCU was created shortly after the ESP8266 came out. On December 30, 2013, Espressif
Systems[6] began production of the ESP8266.[12] NodeMCU started on 13 Oct 2014, when Hong committed
the first file of nodemcu-firmware to GitHub.[13] Two months later, the project expanded to include an open-
hardware platform when developer Huang R committed the gerber file of an ESP8266 board, named devkit
v0.9.[14] Later that month, Tuan PM ported MQTT client library from Contiki to the ESP8266 SoC
platform,[15] and committed to NodeMCU project, then NodeMCU was able to support the MQTT IoT
protocol, using Lua to access the MQTT broker. Another important update was made on 30 Jan 2015, when
Devsaurus ported the u8glib[16] to the NodeMCU project,[17] enabling NodeMCU to easily drive LCD, Screen,
OLED, even VGA displays.
• In the summer of 2015 the original creators abandoned the firmware project and a group of independent
contributors took over. By the summer of 2016 the NodeMCU included more than 40 different
modules.

ESP8266 Arduino Core

• As Arduino.cc began developing new MCU boards based on non-AVR processors like
the ARM/SAM MCU and used in the Arduino Due, they needed to modify the Arduino
IDE so that it would be relatively easy to change the IDE to support alternate toolchains
to allow Arduino C/C++ to be compiled for these new processors. They did this with
 the introduction of the Board Manager and the SAM Core. A "core" is the collection of
software components required by the Board Manager and the Arduino IDE to compile
an Arduino C/C++ source file for the target MCU's machine language. Some ESP8266
enthusiasts developed an Arduino core for the ESP8266 WiFi SoC, popularly called the
"ESP8266 Core for the Arduino IDE".[18] This has become a leading software
development platform for the various ESP8266-based modules and development
boards, including NodeMCUs.

• INDIVISUAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

• POWER SUPPLY:-( +ve)
• In this project the power supply required is very much precession and also requires different level of
power supply. Basically the power supply used for the transmitter and receiver is arranged from a
battery. Along with the battery the power supply requirement are +12Volt and +5Volt
• description
• The power supply designed for catering a fixed demand connected in this project. The basic requirement
for designing a power supply is as follows,
• The different voltage levels required for operating the devices. Here +5Volt required for operating
microcontroller. And +12Volt required for drivers etc.
• The current requirement of each device or load must be added to estimate the final capacity of the
power supply.
• The power supply always specified with one or multiple voltage outputs along with a current capacity.
As it is estimate the requirement of power is approximately as follows,
Out Put Voltage = +5Volt, +12Volt
Capacity = 1000mA
• The power supply is basically consisting of three sections as follows,
➢ Step down section
➢ Rectifier Section
➢ Regulator section
• Design principle:
• There are two methods for designing power supply, the average value method and peak value method.
In case of small power supply peak value method is quit economical, for a particular value of DC output
the in put AC requirement is appreciably less. In this method the Dc out put is approximately equal to
Vm. The rectifier output is approximately charged to Vcc due to charging of the capacitor. The
capacitance provides the backup during the discharge period. So, the value of the capacitor is calculated
• Circuit connection: - In this we are using Transformer (0-12) vac, 1Amp, IC 7805 & 7812, diodes IN
4007,LED & resistors.
• Here 230V, 50 Hz ac signal is given as input to the primary of the transformer and the secondary of the
transformer is given to the bridge rectification diode. The o/p of the diode is given as i/p to the IC
regulator (7805 &7812) through capacitor (1000mf/35v). The o/p of the IC regulator is given to the
LED through resistors.
• Circuit Explanations: - When ac signal is given to the primary of the transformer, due to the magnetic
effect of the coil magnetic flux is induced in the coil(primary) and transfer to the secondary coil of the
transformer due to the transformer action.” Transformer is an electromechanical static device which
transformer electrical energy from one coil to another without changing its frequency”. Here the diodes
are connected in a bridge fashion. The secondary coil of the transformer is given to the bridge circuit
for rectification purposes.
• During the +ve cycle of the ac signal the diodes D2 & D4 conduct due to the forward bias of the diodes
and diodes D1 & D3 does not conduct due to the reversed bias of the diodes. Similarly during the –ve
cycle of the ac signal the diodes D1 & D3 conduct due to the forward bias of the diodes and the diodes
D2 & D4 does not conduct due to reversed bias of the diodes. The output of the bridge rectifier is not a
power dc along with rippled ac is also present. To overcome this effect, a capacitor is connected to the
o/p of the diodes (D2 & D3). Which removes the unwanted ac signal and thus a pure dc is obtained.
Here we need a fixed voltage, that’s for we are using IC regulators (7805 & 7812).”Voltage regulation
is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load current.” This IC’s are designed
as fixed voltage regulators and with adequate heat sinking can deliver output current in excess of 1A.
The o/p of the bridge rectifier is given as input to the IC regulator through capacitor with respect to
GND and thus a fixed o/p is obtained. The o/p of the IC regulator (7805 & 7812) is given to the LED
for indication purpose through resistor. Due to the forward bias of the LED, the LED glows ON state,
and the o/p are obtained from the pin no-3.

POWER SUPPLY

7805 +5V
1k

9-0-9Vac/1Amp
LED

230VAC - +
7812 +12V
50Hz 2.2k
IN4007 * 4

1000uF/35V
LED

GND

Fig. Power supply

ELECTRO MAGNETIC RELAY

• These are very much reliable devices and widely used on field. The operating frequency of these
devices are minimum 10-20ms.That is 50Hz – 100Hz.The relay which is used here can care 25mA
 currents continuously. The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle magnetism. When the
base voltage appears at the relay driver section, the driver transistor will be driver transistor will
be driven into saturation and allow to flow current in the coil of the relay, Which in turn create a
magnetic field and the magnetic force produced due to that will act against the spring tension and
close the contact coil. Whenever the base voltage is withdrawn the transistor goes to cutoff .So no
current flow in the coil of the relay. Hence the magnetic field disappears so the contact point breaks
automatically due to spring tension. Those contact points are isolated from the low voltage supply,
so a high voltage switching is possible by the help of electromagnetic relays.
• The electromagnetic relays normally having 2 contact points. Named as normally closes (NC),
normally open (NO). Normally closed points will so a short CKT path when the relay is off.
Normally open points will so a short CKT path when the relay is energized.

RELAY DRIVER

VCC

5
3
4
1
2
IN 4007
10uF RELAY SPDT

DATA 1.5K
INPUT BC547

Fig. Relay Driver Circuit

LED INDICATOR

• The indicator section consists of a light emitting diode and its driver circuit is designed on the basis of
current required to glow the light emitting diode. Here the driver circuit is required for the following
functionality.
• The Microcontroller cannot provide adequate current for glowing the LED. The LEDs requires a current
between 10mA to 20mA of current to glow.
• The driver circuit provides current to the load from a separate source, so the load current used not pass
through the Microcontroller.
• The driver circuit activates the load on receipt of a logic signal from the Microcontroller and of the load
in the absence of the signal as he current requirement Is very less to glow a LED a single stage driver
is sufficient to drive the load. The driver circuit is nothing other than a perfect a transistor switch. The
driver transistor goes in to saturation on receipt of base signal and drives into cut-off region, in absence
of base signal.
 o The driver designs around a BC548/BC547 transistor and designed for a working voltage of +5
V dc and 10mA current.

Rc= Vcc-VCEsat = 5-0.2V

IC 10mA
• = 4.8K
o Ib=Ic/=10mA/200=5x10-5 A=0.5x10-6A
▪ =0.5A
• As per the design a 0.5A current is sufficient to trigger the driver circuit. As this current is very small
and to avoid mistriggering a base current of 100A is assumed
• VB-IBRB-VBE=0
 IBRB = 5-0.7
 RB = 5-0.7V/100A = 4.3/100 M
• = 0.043x10-6
• = 43K
• On approximation 68K is connected by calculating back
• IB = 4.3/68K = 60 70A
• Which is adequate to avoid mis-triggering level also this amount of current can be drawn from the
Microcontroller without any problem.
• The indicator section consists of 8 no of driver with 8 no of LED as indicator load. The circuit diagram
is enclosed.
• Whenever there is a fault in any of the condition (parameter) it indicates a high output at the
Microcontroller, which is given to the base of the driver transistor (BC547/BC548) with a base
resistance (68k/56k) & thus transistor comes to saturation condition i.e. ON condition, thus the emitter
current flows to the collector of the transistor at which the LED is connected through a current limiting
resistor (330E/470E) thus the LED gets forward biased which turns ON the LED it indicates the
channels fault .

LED INDICATOR

VCC

330E

LED

DATA 68k
INPUT BC547
APPLICATIONS

1. Residential Solar Power Systems

• Small-scale solar panels with DC microgrids for direct power distribution, reducing conversion losses.
2. Electric Vehicle (EV) Charging Stations
• Providing direct DC power to EVs for faster and more efficient charging.
3. Data Centers
• Using DC microgrids to improve energy efficiency and reduce power conversion losses in data centers.
4. Telecommunication Towers
• Integrating solar power and batteries with DC microgrids for uninterrupted power in remote areas.
5. Industrial Facilities
• Powering DC machinery directly to improve efficiency and reduce conversion costs.
6. Hospitals and Medical Facilities
• Ensuring reliable power for sensitive medical equipment with DC microgrids and battery backup.
7. Military Bases
• Providing resilient and self-sustained power systems with DC microgrids in remote or conflict zones.
8. Off-Grid Rural Electrification
• Deploying solar-powered DC microgrids to supply reliable electricity to remote and off-grid
communities.
9. Commercial Buildings
• Enhancing energy efficiency by directly powering lighting, HVAC systems, and other DC-based
systems.
10. Agricultural Applications
• Powering irrigation pumps and sensors in farms with renewable energy sources connected to a DC
microgrid.

ADVANTAGES
1. Higher Efficiency
• DC microgrids reduce conversion losses as many devices and renewables naturally operate in DC,
eliminating the need for multiple AC-DC conversions.
2. Improved Integration with Renewable Energy Sources
• Solar panels and batteries inherently produce and store DC power, making DC microgrids a more
natural choice.
3. Reduced Energy Conversion Losses
 • DC systems avoid unnecessary AC-DC conversion steps, saving energy that would otherwise be lost
in these processes.
4. Increased System Reliability
• Fewer conversion components mean fewer points of failure, enhancing system reliability and reducing
maintenance.
5. Better Power Quality
• DC power can reduce issues associated with frequency variations and harmonics, leading to improved
power quality.
6. Enhanced Compatibility with Energy Storage
• Batteries store energy in DC, making them more compatible with DC microgrids and simplifying
system architecture.
7. Reduced Infrastructure Costs
• By bypassing AC-DC converters, DC microgrids can reduce capital costs for power electronics and
associated infrastructure.
8. Easier Load Management
• DC microgrids allow for more straightforward load management, especially with constant power loads
that can be easily controlled.
9. Seamless Integration with DC Loads
• Many modern devices (e.g., LED lighting, electronics, data centers) are DC-based, making direct
compatibility with DC microgrids advantageous.
10. Improved Scalability
• DC microgrids can be easily expanded or reduced by adding or removing modules, making them highly
scalable.
11. Lower Transmission Losses
• DC transmission reduces resistive losses over longer distances compared to AC transmission,
especially in low-voltage systems.
12. Improved Safety with Low Voltage DC
• Low voltage DC systems reduce the risk of electrical shock, making them safer for residential and
community applications.
13. Simplified Control and Protection Systems
• DC systems often require simpler control and protection schemes, which can be easier and more cost-
effective to implement.
14. Enhanced Energy Independence
• DC microgrids support localized power generation and storage, fostering greater energy independence
for communities.
15. Lower Carbon Footprint
 • By increasing efficiency and integrating renewables more effectively, DC microgrids help reduce the
overall carbon footprint.

DISADVANTAGES
1. High Initial Costs: Setting up DC microgrids can be costly due to specialized equipment and
infrastructure, including DC-DC converters and custom components that can add to initial investment
costs.
2. Compatibility Issues: Many appliances and devices are built to run on AC power, so DC microgrids
may require additional adapters or converters, which can lead to efficiency losses and add complexity.
3. Limited Equipment Availability: Fewer options exist for DC-based equipment, especially for
industrial applications, as most equipment on the market is designed for AC grids.
4. Voltage Drop Over Distance: DC power is more susceptible to voltage drops over long distances than
AC, which can limit the distance DC power can be effectively transmitted without significant loss,
making it less suitable for large-scale applications.
5. Control and Protection Challenges: DC systems require specialized protection and control
mechanisms, such as DC circuit breakers, which are often more complex and costly than AC
counterparts. The lack of established standards for DC protection also adds complexity.
6. Lack of Industry Standards: The industry lacks universal standards and guidelines for DC microgrids,
creating uncertainty and potential interoperability issues across different manufacturers' equipment
and systems, potentially slowing down adoption.

CONCLUSION

• Instrument and Device Protection System has become a one of the major focus areas in the present
social and industrial environment. In the industries, society security system is one of the important
part. The growth and economy all depends on this. In this project We have designed a new architecture
for the an general purpose Industrial protection system. It may be installed in small processing firms
, manufacturing industries as a major protective controller with greater reliability and efficiency. There
are four sensors connected to the system if there is a security detection at any of the channel the
automatically the system detect the same and gives indication to the local indicators and alarms. Our
system includes a Microcontroller based Design with Over Current Detector to protect the
transformer from failing or damage having applied more loads on it & share these over loads with
another transformer.
• All these operations makes our project a complete one stop solution for the real implementations.
Flexibility with the technical customization and economy are the main advantages of the design .This
project will have a large effect to the living standard of human being. In the system, a lot of other
features can be added to the user's requirement depending upon the situation.
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