Mathematical Analysis and Linear Algebra - lecture Section 1 Complex numbers

Section 1 Complex numbers

1.1. Construction of field of complex numbers.
1.2. Algebraic, trigonometric and exponential forms of a complex number.
1.3. Power and root of complex numbers.
1.4. Solution to the polynomial equation in ℂ.

Complex numbers were defined in XVI century and became an answer for a question about roots of
algebraic equations. It is well known that even quadratic equations, for instance, 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0, have no solution
in ℝ – in our example a quantity √−1 makes no sense in ℝ. Therefore the cumberstone of the theory of
complex numbers was to give meaning to the roots of negative numbers.
The theory was formulated first by Italian mathematician R. Bombelli in 1572 (paper L’Algebra). In
1748 L. Euler, a Swiss mathematician introduced this idea to analytical calculus. German C.F. Gauss and Irish
W.R. Hamilton developed a strict theory of complex numbers independently in the XIX century. Nowadays
complex numbers are a common tool in mathematics, physics and technical sciences.
1.1 Construction of set of complex numbers

Definition 1.1. Let 𝑖 ≔ √−1 and ℂ = {𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}.

Elements of the set ℂ are called complex numbers.
𝑎 is a real part of complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, i.e. Re (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) = 𝑎.
𝑏 is an imaginary part of complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, i.e. Im (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) = 𝑏.

Complex number 𝑖 = √−1 is imaginary unit.

ComplexIfnumber
Remark. of the form
for a complex 𝑧 =𝑧 𝑖𝑏
number Imis𝑧called purely
= 0, then 𝑧 ∈imaginary.
ℝ. Therefore the set of complex numbers is a superset
of ℝ and any real number is also a complex number.

Definition 1.2. (operations on complex numbers)

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2 , 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ.
Addition of complex numbers: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2 ) = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝑖(𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )
Multiplication of complex numbers:
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑖𝑏1 ) ⋅ (𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑏2 ) = (𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑏1 𝑏2 ) + 𝑖(𝑎1 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 )

𝑧1
Example 1.1 Given 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 2 − 𝑖 find: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 , −𝑧2 , 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 , 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2, 𝑧2−1 , .
𝑧2

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 Mathematical Analysis and Linear Algebra - lecture Section 1 Complex numbers
Remarks.
1. If 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℝ, i.e. Im 𝑧1 = Im 𝑧2 = 0, then the above definitions lead to the standard operations of
addition and multiplication in ℝ.
2. Set of complex numbers ℂ may be identified with the Cartesian plane ℝ2 .

Theorem 1.1. (properties of operations on complex numbers)

Let 𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ. Then:
1. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 , 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧1 addition and multiplication are both commutative
2. (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) + 𝑧3 = 𝑧2 + (𝑧1 + 𝑧3 ), (𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 ) ⋅ 𝑧3 = 𝑧2 ⋅ (𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧3 ) addition and multiplication are
associative;
3. 0 ≡ 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ 0 is the neutral element of addition;
4. −𝑧 = −𝑎 + 𝑖(−𝑏) is the opposite element to 𝑧 (inverse element in sense of addition);
5. 1 ≡ 1 + 𝑖 ⋅ 0 is the neutral element of multiplication;
1 𝑎 −𝑏
6. any nonzero complex number 𝑧 ≠ 0 has its inverse 𝑧 = 𝑧 −1 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 + 𝑖 ⋅ 𝑎2 +𝑏2 (inverse element in sense
of multiplication);
7. (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) ⋅ 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧3 + 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧3 multiplication is distributive with respect to addition;
8. 𝑧 ⋅ 0 = 0 ⋅ 𝑧 = 0
9. 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧1 = 0 ∨ 𝑧2 = 0
10. (−𝑧1 ) ⋅ 𝑧2 = −(𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 )
11. −1 ⋅ 𝑧 = −𝑧
Basing on the definitions of opposite and inverse elements, we define substraction and division in ℂ in the
following way:
𝑧1
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≔ 𝑧1 + (−𝑧2 ); ≔ 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2−1
𝑧2

̅ = 𝒂 − 𝒊𝒃 is called complex conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.

Definition 1.3. (complex conjugate) Number 𝒛

Theorem 1.2. (properties of complex conjugate)

Let 𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ. Then:
̅̅̅̅) = 𝑧
a) (𝑧̅ e) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2
b) 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 2 Re 𝑧, 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ = 2 Im 𝑧 f) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2
c) 𝑧̅ = 𝑧 ⇔ Im 𝑧 = 0 g) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧 𝑧̅
d) 𝑧̅ = 0 ⇔ 𝑧 = 0 h) (𝑧1 ) = 𝑧̅1 (if 𝑧2 ≠ 0)
2 2

Example 1.2. Let 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖. Find 𝑧̅ and calculate 𝑧̅𝑧, 𝑧 + 𝑧̅, 𝑧 − 𝑧̅.

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1.2 Algebraic, trigonometric and exponential forms of complex number

A complex number as 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is called algebraic form of 𝑧.
Complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is represented by the point (𝑎, 𝑏) on the plane or by a pair (|𝑧|, 𝜑), which
denotes the distance of 𝑧 from the origin and the angle between positive half-real axis and chord 𝑂𝑧.
Horizontal axis is called real axis, and vertical – imaginary one.

Im z
z=(a,b)
b
|z|
 Re z
0 a

-b
z=(a,-b)

Remarks.
1. Set of complex numbers ℂ may be identified with a real vector space ℝ × ℝ = ℝ2 of dimension two
called a Cartesian (or complex) plane with operations:
 (𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑)
 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∙ (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑, 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)

2. In a rectangular coordinate system, we were plotting points based on an ordered pair of (𝑥, 𝑦).
3. In a polar coordinate system each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and
an angle from a reference direction.

Definition 1.4. Let 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏. Then:

a) |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 is called the modulus of 𝑧.
𝒂 𝒃
b) an angle 𝜑, such that 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 = |𝒛| and 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 = |𝒛|, is called the argument of 𝑧 : arg(𝑧)= 𝜑.
𝑎 𝑏
c) an angle 𝜑 ∈ [0,2𝜋), such that cos 𝜑 = |𝑧| and sin 𝜑 = |𝑧|, is called the principal argument of 𝑧:
Arg(𝑧) = 𝜑.

This definition leads us to trigonometric form of complex number:

𝑎 𝑏
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = |𝑧| (|𝑧| + 𝑖 ⋅ |𝑧|) = |𝑧|(cos 𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑)

Trigonometric form of a complex number: 𝑧 = |𝑧|(cos 𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑)

Trigonometric form of a complex number is extremely useful in finding powers and roots of it.

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Theorem 1.3. (operations on trigonometric forms)

Let 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧1 = |𝑧1 |(cos 𝜑1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑1 ), 𝑧2 = |𝑧2 |(cos 𝜑2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑2 ) . Then:

a) 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = |𝑧1 | ⋅ |𝑧2 |(cos(𝜑1 + 𝜑2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜑1 + 𝜑2 ))

𝑧1 |𝑧 |
b) = |𝑧1 | (cos(𝜑1 − 𝜑2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜑1 − 𝜑2 )) for 𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧2 2

𝑧1
Example 1.3. a) Let 𝑧1 = 1 − 𝑖√3, 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖. Find their trigonometric forms and numbers 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 , .
𝑧2

Exponential form of complex number: 𝑧 = |𝑧|𝑒 𝑖𝜑

Theorem 1.4. (operations on trigonometric forms)

Let 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧1 = |𝑧1 |𝑒 𝑖𝜑1 , 𝑧2 = |𝑧2 |𝑒 𝑖𝜑2 . Then:
𝑧1 |𝑧 |
a) 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = |𝑧1 | ⋅ |𝑧2 |𝑒 𝑖(𝜑1+𝜑2) ; b) = |𝑧1| 𝑒 𝑖(𝜑1−𝜑2) for 𝑧2 ≠ 0.
𝑧2 2

𝑧1
Example 1.3. b) Find exponential forms for numbers 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 , , where 𝑧1 = 1 − 𝑖√3, 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖.
𝑧2

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 Mathematical Analysis and Linear Algebra - lecture Section 1 Complex numbers
1.3 Power and root of complex number

Definition 1.5. Power of a complex number 𝑧 of natural exponent is defined by recurrence:

𝑧 1 = 𝑧, 𝑧 𝑘+1 = 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑧 𝑘 for 𝑘 ∈ ℕ
It is possible to extend this definition for (negative) integer exponent, if 𝑧 ≠ 0:

𝑧 −𝑘 = (𝑧 −1 )𝑘 for 𝑘 ∈ ℕ

The following theorem provides a tool to find quickly any power (especially large) of a complex number.

Theorem 1.5. (de Moivre’s formula) Let 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧 = |𝑧|(cos 𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑).

Then: 𝑧 𝑛 = |𝑧|𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜑) and 𝑧 −𝑛 = |𝑧|−𝑛 (cos(−𝑛𝜑) + 𝑖 sin(−𝑛𝜑)).

24
Example 1.4. Find (1 − 𝑖√3) .

The root of a complex number is defined in analogical way as in set of reals.

Definition 1.6. Let 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑧 ∈ ℂ. Number 𝑥 ∈ ℂ is a root of a complex number 𝑧 if 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑧.

Remark. Each complex number 𝑧 has precisely 𝑛 distinct roots of 𝑛th degree.

Theorem 1.6. (de Moivre’s formula for roots) Let 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧 = |𝑧|(cos 𝜑 + 𝑖 sin 𝜑).
Then there exist 𝑛 solutions to the equation 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑧, which are given by
𝑛 𝜑 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜑 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = √|𝑧| (cos + 𝑖 sin ), 𝑘 ∈ {0,1, … , 𝑛 − 1}.
𝑛 𝑛

𝑛 2𝜋
Remark. For any 𝑘 ∈ {0,1, … , 𝑛 − 1} |𝑥𝑘 | = √|𝑧| and arguments of successive roots increase by ,
𝑛

therefore all roots 𝑥𝑘 are equally spaced around the circle of radius |𝑥𝑘 |.
3
Example 1.5. Find √−1.

Example 1.6. Solve the quadratic equation: 𝑥 2 = 𝑧.

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1.4 Solution to polynomial equation in ℂ

Theorem 1.7. (Fundamental theorem of algebra)

Let 𝑃 ∈ ℂ[𝑥], i.e. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where ∀𝑖: 𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℂ.
Then there exist 𝑛 roots of 𝑃(𝑥) = 0.

Theorem 1.8. Let 𝑃 ∈ ℝ[𝑥] and 𝑃(𝑧) = 0. Then 𝑃(𝑧̅) = 0.

Example 1.7. Solve the equation 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 0.

Example 1.8. Solve the equation: 𝑥 2 + (1 + 4𝑖)𝑥 − (5 + 𝑖) = 0.

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