CBSE Sample Papers

Networking Concepts
Computer networks have shrunk the world and brought people together. They have
extended the power of a computer beyond the expanse of a room. Advancements in
networking techniques, protocols and so on have made a profound impact in areas of
communication and learning. The size of computer networks may vary. The Internet is
an example of a computer network that spreads all across the world. The Internet is
also referred to as the worldwide network of computers and it is growing at a rapid rate.
A computer network
consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources such as
printers, exchange files and allow communication.
Let us learn more about computer networks.

NEED FOR COMPUTER NETWORKS

Nowadays, computer networks are a vital part of any organisation. Some of the
advantages of computer networks are:

 Resource Sharing: All computers in a network can share resources such as

printers, fax machines, modems and scanners.
 File Sharing and Remote Database Access: A computer network allows sharing
of files and access to remote database. We can easily access the files stored on
various computers on a network. Also, networking allows many people to work
simultaneously on the data stored in a database.
 Ease of Communication: Computer networks allow people to communicate
through emails and instant messaging facilities. This makes the transmission of
information easier, more efficient and less expensive.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

The following are the types of networks based on the geographical area covered or
scale of the network.

 Personal Area Network (PAN):

A PAN is a computer network organised around a person. It is used for
communication between devices such as phones, personal digital assistants,
printers and laptops that are in close proximity. We can use these networks to
 transfer files and photos between the various devices

 Local Area Network (LAN):

A LAN is a computer network that is limited to a local area such as a laboratory, a
school or an office building. Cables (wires) or low-power radiowaves (wireless) are
used for the connections in a LAN. A wireless LAN (or WLAN) is also sometimes
called LAWN (Local Area Wireless Network).

 Campus Area Network (CAN):

A CAN is a computer network that connects multiple local area networks (LAN) in
a limited geographical area. A CAN is smaller than a wide area network (WAN) or
metropolitan area network (MAN). It can be set up by a college, company and so
 on.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A MAN is a computer network that usually covers a larger area than a LAN. For
example, a network that connects two offices in a city, a neighbourhood area and
so on.
  Wide Area Network (WAN):
A WAN is a computer network that spans a wide geographical area. A WAN may
be spread across cities, countries and continents. A WAN is formed by connecting
LANs and MANs. Computers or networks across long distances are usually
connected with optical fibre cables, satellite radio links or microwave radio links.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology refers to the layout pattern in which various computers are connected to one
another to form a network. The computers on a network are also referred to as nodes.
There are four main types of topologies. They are:

 Bus Topology: In bus topology, all the computers are connected to a single cable
called the bus (Fig. 1.6). The transmission of data from any computer travels
through the length of the bus in both the directions and can be received by all
other computers on the network. If the address of a computer is that of the
intended recipient, it accepts the data; otherwise, the data is rejected. The
advantage of the bus topology is that it is quite easy to set up. However, a network
cannot function if there are breaks in the bus.
 Ring Topology: In ring topology, each computer is connected to two other
computers so as to form a closed ring-like structure (Fig. 1.7). In this topology,
data is transmitted in one direction only. The disadvantage of the ring network is
that the breakdown of any one computer on a ring can disable the entire system or
network.
 Star Topology: In star topology, all the computers are connected to a central
computer or a central node (Fig. 1.8). The data to be exchanged between any two
computers passes through the central node. The central node controls all the
activities of the nodes. More computers can be easily added to the network. The
breakdown of computers, except the central node, does not affect the functioning
of the network. However, the failure of the central node disables the
communication across the entire network.

 Mesh Topology: In mesh topology, every computer is connected to every other

computer on the network. Full mesh topology (Fig. 1.9) is very expensive to
implement. Normally, partial mesh topology is implemented in which a computer is
connected to a few other computers in the network (Fig. 1.10).
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Computers must be connected to each other to form a network. Computers can be
connected using wires/cables or they can be connected in a wireless manner.

Wired Transmission Media

There are various types of cables that can be used for setting up a network. Some of
them are discussed here.

 Twisted Pair Cable: It consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted together. The
use of two wires twisted around each other helps to reduce disturbances in the
signals.
The twisted pair cable is often used in two or more pairs, all within a single cable.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties—shielded (Shielded Twisted Pair or
STP) and unshielded (Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP). UTP cable is the most
commonly used cable in computer networking.
The twisted pair cable is often used in two or more pairs, all within a single cable.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties—shielded (Shielded Twisted Pair or
STP) and unshielded (Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP). UTP cable is the most
commonly used cable in computer networking.

 Coaxial Cable (coax): Coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a conductor at its
centre (Fig. 1.13). The inner conductor is surrounded by a tubular insulating layer.
The insulating layer is surrounded by a conductive layer called the shield, which is
finally covered with a thin insulating layer on the outside.
  Optical Fibre Cable: Optical fibre cable consists of a central glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective material (Fig. 1.14). It transmits data in
the form of light rather than electronic signals, thus eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. Fibre optic cable is expensive as compared to coaxial and
twisted pair cables but can transmit signals over much longer distances. It also
has the capability to carry data at a very high speed.

Wireless Transmission Media

In wireless networks, data is transmitted without wires. Some of the ways in which
wireless networks may be set up are as follows.

 Infrared: The infrared communication range of the devices communicating

through infrared waves is very limited. Infrared waves cannot penetrate walls or
other obstructions and so there should be no physical barrier between the
communicating devices. The communication between a TV set and a remote
 control happens through infrared waves. Infrared mouse and keyboard are other
examples of devices that make use of infrared waves for data transmission.
 Microwave Transmission: Microwave communications are unidirectional. They
can be used for terrestrial communication (on ‘the surface of the earth) or for
satellite communication.
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight communication. So, when used for
terrestrial communication, the towers with antennas mounted on them need to be
in direct sight of each other. The antennas are usually located at substantial
heights above the ground level to extend the range between antennas and to be
able to transmit over obstacles. You must have noticed high towers with
microwave antennas in your city.
Microwaves can pass through the earth’s atmosphere easily and can be used to
transmit information between satellites and the earth’s base station

 Radiowave Transmission: Radiowave communications are omnidirectional,

which means that they travel in all directions from the source, so that the
transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically. Radio
waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and penetrate through
buildings easily. So they are widely used for communication both indoors and
outdoors (Fig. 1.17). However, at all frequencies, radio waves are subject to
interference from motors and other electrical equipment.
 Bluetooth technology: is used for exchanging data over short distances using
radio waves. This technology uses low power, has a short range [30 feet
(approx.)] and medium transmission speed. Bluetooth technology can be used to
transfer songs or pictures between two mobile phones or a Bluetooth headset can
be used with a mobile phone.

 WiFi technology: also makes use of radio waves to transmit and receive data.
This technology requires more energy but enables the signal to go farther (300
feet approx.) with a faster rate of transmission. This technology is used to set up
networks in which a computer’s wireless adapter translates the data into a radio
signal and transmits it. A wireless router receives the signal, decodes it and sends
it to the Internet using a wired connection.
  WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): Its technology is
similar to WiFi, but it operates at higher speeds and can cover greater distances
and greater number of users as compared to WiFi.

NETWORK DEVICES
Various devices are used for setting up a computer network. Let us discuss a few
devices that play a crucial role in a computer network.

 NIC (Network Interface Card): It is a hardware device that is attached to a

computer to enable it to communicate over the network (Fig. 1.21). The NIC has a
ROM chip that contains a unique number, which is the hardware address or the
Media Access Control (MAC) This hardware address uniquely identifies a
computer on the network.
 Modem (Modulator-demodulator): It is an electronic device that converts the
digital signals of a computer into an analog form so that they can travel over a
telephone line (Fig. 1.22). At the destination, the receiving modem converts the
analog signals back into their digital form so that the destination computer
understands them.

 Modems are used for connecting computers to the Internet. Modems are
connected to a computer and a telephone line.(Fig. 1.24).
 Hub: A hub is a device that is used to connect computers in a network (Fig. 1.23).
In a hub, when one computer sends data on the network, the hub simply forwards
the packets to all the other computers connected to it (Fig. 1.26). Each computer
is responsible for determining which packets are destined for it and which are to
be ignored.

 Switch: A switch is a device that is also used to connect computers in a network

(Fig. 1.27). However, a switch is a more intelligent device than a hub. Unlike a
hub, the switch sends the incoming data to the desired destination only. It records
the addresses of all the computers connected to it. So, when a packet is received,
the switch reads the information about the destination address to determine if the
destination device is connected to it or not. If the destination device is connected,
the switch forwards the packet only to that destination device. In this way, the
other computers do not have to read and deal with data that is not meant for them.
  Router: A router is a network device that connects two or more networks. It is
commonly used to connect a computer or a network to the Internet. Lines from
different networks are connected to a router. Wireless routers are also available. A
router examines the address of the packet coming on the line, uses the routing
information stored in it and forwards the packet to the next network. In this way, a
packet after going through multiple routers reaches its destination.

PROTOCOLS
Just the way we follow certain rules while communicating or travelling on the road,
similarly rules or protocols have to be followed for effective network communication.
Protocol is a set of rules used by computers on a network to communicate with each
other. Some examples of protocols are:

 HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): It is a protocol used between a web

server and a web browser for transferring HTML pages.
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP is a protocol
that is used along with the IP to send data over the Internet. The information is
transmitted across the Internet in the form of bundles called TCP is responsible for
dividing the data into packets before they are sent and for reassembling the
packets when they arrive at the destination. IP is a set of specifications that
determines the best route for the packets across the Internet so that the packets
reach their destination address.
PACKET SWITCHING IN NETWORKS
Let us explain the process of packet switching in a LAN. Suppose data has to be sent
from Computer A to Computer B. The data at Computer A is split into small chunks,
called packets. A header is added to every packet. The address of sender i.e. Computer
A and address of receiver i.e. Computer B are put in the header. Then Computer A
sends the packets to the switch. The switch has in-built software that

reads the header of each packet, determines the port at which the receiver is connected
and forwards the packet on the corresponding cable (Fig. 1.29). Such a type of
communication in which small units of data (or packets) are routed through a network,
based on the destination address contained within each packet, is called packet
switching. When packets have to be sent to a computer on a different network, they
pass through a number of routers. Every packet is numbered. Packets may follow
different paths to reach the destination.
NETWORK SECURITY
A computer on a network can be accessed by many users. Security measures have to
be taken to protect networks from unauthorised access and to prevent data or
information theft.

Threats to Computer
Files can be shared between the computers on a network. This makes a computer
vulnerable to attacks by viruses, worms, Trojan horses and so on that can easily spread
because of the underlying network. Let us discuss some of the common threats to
computers.

 Virus: A computer virus spreads itself from one computer to another and
interferes with the normal operations of a computer. Viruses attach themselves to
any type of file and spread when these infected files are copied to other
 computers. People unknowingly spread a computer virus by sharing infected files
or sending emails with viruses as attachments.
 Worm: A worm is a computer program that uses computer networks to send
copies of itself to other computers on a network. A virus requires human action
such as transferring of an infected file to spread itself. A worm can spread without
any human action too. It replicates itself without the knowledge of the user. Worms
can cause severe harm to a computer network such as blocking the network and
reducing the speed of the network.
 Trojan Horse: A computer program that appears to be a useful software but
actually causes damage once installed or executed onto your computer system is
known as a Trojan horse or a Trojan. After getting installed, it allows unauthorised
access to the computer. Trojan horses are very dangerous as they allow your
computer to be remotely controlled by someone else and can cause loss of
personal and confidential information.
Viruses, worms and Trojan horses may harm the data or affect the performance
and the speed of a computer.

 Data Theft: It is a very serious problem for computer networks. People break into
computer networks to either disrupt their functioning or to steal confidential
information. Hackers are the computer experts who can break into computer
systems and networks. There are two types of hackers—white hackers and black
hackers.
 White hackers: study and break into networks to find and fix security loopholes.
They offer their to corporations, public organisations and educational institutions to
make their networks more secure.
 Black hackers or crackers: have a criminal intention. Some examples are
cracking bank accounts in order to transfer money to their own accounts, stealing
confidential information and attacking the computer network of an organisation for
money.
Computer Security

 Antivirus Software: Every computer on a computer network must have an

antivirus software installed in it and it should be updated on a regular basis.
Antivirus software can be used to protect the computer from various types of
malware. Antivirus software can detect viruses, worms and so on, and warn you of
their presence in your computer. It can also deactivate and clean up the computer
of malicious software.
There are various types of antivirus software such as AVG, Avira, Norton and
McAfee

 Firewall: A firewall is used to prevent unauthorised access to a computer network.

A firewall can be implemented as a software, a hardware or a combination of
both. All data or messages entering or leaving a computer network pass through a
firewall (Fig. 1.33). A firewall examines each message and blocks those that do
not meet the specified security criteria.