UNIT-1

Introduction to Casting
Products go through a series of processes before they are produced
Design
Material selection
Process selection
Manufacture
Inspection and evaluation
Feedback
Materials processing is the science and technologythat converts a material into a product of
a desired shape in the desired quantity
Shape producing process
Four basic categories
Casting processes (sand casting)
Material removal processes (Machining)
Deformation processes (forging, extrusion, rolling)
Consolidation processes (Welding, Mechanicaljoint)
Decisions should be made after all alternatives and limitations are investigated
 Advantages of Casting

The four materials processing families, with subgroups and typical processes
 Advantages of Casting
.
Casting process
Material is melted
Heated to proper temperature
Treated to modify its chemical makeup
Molten material is poured into a mold
Solidifies
Casting can produce a large variety of parts
Complex shapes
Parts can have hollow sections or cavities
Very large parts
Intricate shaping of metals that are difficult tomachine
Different mold materials can be used
Sand, metal, or ceramics
Different pouring methods
Basic requirements of Casting
Six basic steps of casting
1. Mold cavity is produced having the desiredshape and size of the part
 Takes shrinkage into account
 Single-use or permanent mold
2. Melting process
 Provides molten material at the proper temperature
3. Pouring technique
 Molten metal is poured into the mold at a proper rate toensure that erosion and or
defects are minimized
4. Solidification process
Controlled solidification allows the product to have desiredproperties
Mold should be designed so that shrinkage is controlled
5. Mold removal
The casting is removed from the mold
Single-use molds are broken away from the casting
 Permanent molds must be designed so that removal does notdamage the part
 6. Cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations
Excess material along parting lines may have to be machined

Pattern- approximate duplicate of the part to be cast

Molding material- material that is packed around thepattern to provide the mold cavity
Flask- rigid frame that holds the molding aggregate
Cope- top half of the pattern
Drag- bottom half of the pattern
Core- sand or metal shape that is inserted into themold to create internal features
Mold cavity- combination of the mold material andcores
Riser-additional void in the mold that providesadditional metal to compensate for
shrinkage
Gating system- network of channels that delivers themolten metal to the mold
Pouring cup- portion of the gating system thatcontrols the delivery of the metal
Sprue- vertical portion of the gating system
Runners- horizontal channels
Gates- controlled entrances
Parting line- separatesthe cope and drag
Draft- angle or taper ona pattern that
allows foreasy removal of the casting from
the mold
Casting- describes boththe process and the
product when molten
metal is poured andsolidified

Cross section of a typical two-part sand mold, indicating various mold

components and terminology
Solidification Process
Solidification Process
Molten material is allowed to solidify into thefinal shape
Casting defects occur during solidification
Gas porosity (solved by adding the vent)
Shrinkage (solved by using the riser to add themolten metal)
Two stages of solidification
Nucleation
Growth
Stable particles form from the liquid metal
Occurs when there is a net release of energy fromthe liquid
Undercooling is the difference between the meltingpoint and the temperature at which
nucleation occurs
Each nucleation event produces a grain
Nucleation is promoted (more grains) for enhanced
material properties
Inoculation or grain refinement is the process of introducingsolid particles to promote
nucleation
Occurs as the heat of fusion is extracted fromthe liquid
Direction, rate, and type of growth can becontrolled
Controlled by the way in which heat is removed
Rates of nucleation and growth control the sizeand shape of the crystals
Faster cooling rates generally produce finer grainsizes
Chemical reactions can occur betweenmolten metal and its surroundings
Reactions can lead to defects in the finalcastings
Metal oxides may form when molten metal reactswith oxygen
 Dross or slag is the material that can be carried with the molten metal during pouring
and filling ofthe mold
 Affects the surface finish, machinability, and mechanical properties
Gas porosity
Gas that is not rejected from the liquid metal may betrapped upon
solidification
Several techniques to prevent gas porosity
 Prevent the gas from initially dissolving in the liquid
 Melting can be done in a vacuum
 Melting can be done in environments with low-solubility gases
 Minimize turbulence
 Vacuum degassing removes the gas from the liquid before it ispoured into the castings
 Gas flushing- passing inert gases or reactive gases through
the liquid metal
 Metal should flow into all regions of the mold cavityand then solidify
Fluidity is the ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold
Affects the minimum section thickness, maximum length ofa thin section, fineness of
detail, ability to fill mold extremities
Dependent on the composition, freezing temperature,
freezing range, and surface tension
Most important controlling factor is pouring temperature

Typical gating system for a horizontal parting plane mold, showing key components
Involved in controlling the flow of metal into the mold cavity.
Amount of liquid metal contraction depends on
The coefficient of thermal contraction
The amount of superheat
As the liquid metal solidifies, the atomic structurenormally becomes more efficient and
significant amounts of shrinkage can occur
Cavities and voids can be prevented by designingthe casting to have directional
solidification
Hot tears can occur when there is significant tensilestress on the surface of the casting aterial
Risers and Riser Design
Risers are reservoirs of liquid metal that feed extrametal to the mold to compensate for
shrinkage
Risers are designed to conserve metal
Located so that directional solidification occurs fromthe extremities of the mold toward the
riser
Should feed directly to the thickest regions of thecasting
Blind riser- contained entirely within the mold cavity
Live riser- receive the last hot metal that enters themold
 Risers and Riser Design

Schematic of a sand casting mold, showing a) an open-type top riser and b) a blind-
type side riser. The side riser is a live riser, receiving the last hot metal to enter the
mold. The top riser is a dead riser, receiving metal that has flowedthrough the mold
cavity.

Riser must be separated from the casting upon completion so the connection area must be as
smallas possible
Riser’s performance may be enhanced by speedingthe solidification of the casting (chills) or
slowing down the solidification (sleeves or toppings)
External chills
Masses of high-heat capacity material placed in the mold
Absorb heat and accelerate cooling in specific regions
Internal chills
Pieces of metal that are placed in the mold cavity andpromote rapid solidification
Ultimately become part of the cast part
Two basic categories for casting processes
Expendable mold processes
Permanent mold processes
Patterns are made from wood, metal, foam,or plastic
Dimensional modification are incorporatedinto the design (allowances)
Shrinkage allowance is the most important
Pattern must be slightly larger than the desiredpart
Typical allowances
Cast iron 0.8-1.0%
Steel 1.5-2.0%
Aluminum 1.0-1.3%
Magnesium 1.0-1.3%
Brass 1.5%
Shrinkage allowances are incorporated into thepattern using shrink rules
Thermal contraction might not be the only factor fordetermining pattern size
Surface finishing operations (machining, etc.) shouldbe taken into consideration
 WELDING
1. INTRODUCTION

Welding is a process by which metals are joined by heating them to a suitable temperature
with or without the application of pressure and addition of filler materials. Welding processes are
employed in most of the modern fabrication works and industries.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

Welding processes are broadly classified under two main headings:-

i) Pressure welding or Plastic welding processes
ii) Non Pressure welding or Fusion welding processes

i) Pressure welding or Plastic welding : - In this process, the ends of metal pieces to be joined are
heated to plastic state and are joined together by applying pressure on them. No additional
filler material is used.
eg: Blacksmith welding, Resistance welding, Cold pressure welding etc.

ii) Non Pressure welding or Fusion welding:- here the material at the joint is heated to molten state
(fusion state) and allowed to solidify. Thus the two parts are joined together without the
application of any pressure. It uses a filler material such as an electrode.
eg: Gas welding, Arc welding, Thermit welding etc.

3. ARC WELDING

Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which welding is done by producing heat from an
electric arc between the work and electrode. Both D.C. and A.C. electric supply are used for this.
The arc between the two terminals produces heat to melt the metal. If two pieces of metal that are to
be joined are placed so that they touch or almost touch one another and the arc from the electrode is
directed at this junction, the heat generated by the arc (approx. 3500oC) causes a small section of the
edges of both pieces to melt. These molten portions along with the molten portions of the electrode
flow together. As the arc column is moved, the molten puddle solidifies joining the two pieces of
metal with a combinmation of electrode and base metal.

There are different methods of arc welding in practice as listed below:

i) Metal Arc Welding

ii) Carbon Arc Welding
iii) Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
iv) Tungsten inert gas Arc Welding (TIG)
v) Metal inert gas Arc Welding (MIG)
vi) Submerged Arc Welding
vii) Plasma Arc Welding

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3.1 Metal Arc Welding

The commonly used arc welding method is metal arc welding. In this process a metal
electrode is used. The metal electrode itself melts and acts as a filler material.

An arc welding circuit consists of the following essential items:

a) The power source ie the Welding machine

b) Welding lead cable and electrode holder
c) Welding return cable and clamp
d) Welding earth

3.2 Arc Welding Machines

There are three types of welding machines in use:

i) Welding transformer
ii) Welding generator
iii) Welding rectifier

i) Welding transformer
It is used to change the voltage and current to the desired range suitable for welding. Normally
low voltage high current (high amperage) supply is preferred for welding. The welding transformer
operates on A .C. supply only and it has no rotating parts. It is a step down transformer which reduces
the main supply voltage (220 or 440 V) to the welding supply open circuit voltage between 40 and
100 V.

ii) Welding generator

It is used to generate D.C supply for arc welding. It may be driven by an A.C. motor or driven
by a petrol or diesel engine. It can be used anywhere in the field work, away from the electriclines.

iii) Welding rectifier

It is used to convert A.C. into D.C welding supply and does not have any rotating parts. It is
basically a transformer, but the output of which is connected with a rectifier to change the A.C in to
D.C

3.3 Welding Electrode

Electrode is a conductor from which an arc struck. The arc melts electrode and parent metal.
They join together to form a good weld when solidifies. The electrode is a core, coated with a solid
flux acts as a filler material and is consumed during welding by keeping a constant arc length. The
flux when melts produces a slag which floats on the metal pool, protects the weld from oxidation. The
flux of electrode mainly contains cellulose (burns and produces a gaseous shield around thearc),
calcium carbonate and calcium fluoride (impart fluidity to the slag), Iron powder (for higher
penetration and deposition), Titania (for stabilising the arc), asbestos etc.

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 Electrodes are available in different standard lengths of 450, 350, 300and 200 mm. A core
length of 25mm from one end is left uncoated for holding in the electrode holder. It is mainly specified
by its core diameter.

Electrode size in mm Gauge No.(SWG) Current range in ampere (A)

1.6 16 40-60
2.5 12 50-80
3.2 10 90-130
4.0 8 120-170

5.0 6 130-270
6.0 4 300-400

4. GAS WELDING

Oxy-fuel welding, commonly referred to as oxy welding or gas welding is a process of joining
metals by application of heat created by gas flame. The fuel gas commonly acetylene, when mixed
with proper proportion of oxygen in a mixing chamber of welding torch, produces a very hot flame of
about 3150 - 3300 oC .

Different gases suitable for welding and cutting are Acetylene, hydrogen, LPG, Methane etc.

4.1 Oxy- Acetylene Gas Welding

The oxy-acetylene welding process uses a combination of oxygen and acetylene gas to provide
a high temperature flame. The high temperature flame melts the metal faces of the work- pieces to be
joined, causing them to flow together. A filler metal alloy is normally added and sometimes used to
prevent oxidation and to facilitate the metal union.

OXY-ACETYLENE GAS WELDING APPARATUS

Oxy-fuel apparatus consists of two cylinders (one oxygen and one acetylene) equipped with
two regulators, pressure gauges, two lengths of hose, and a blow torch. The regulators are attached
to cylinders and are used to reduce and maintain a uniform pressure of gases at the torch. The gases
at reduced pressure are conveyed to the torch by the hoses. The regulators include high pressure and
low pressure gauges to indicate the contents of the cylinder and the working-pressure on each hose.
When the gases reach the torch they are there mixed and combustion takes place at the welding tip
fitted to the torch.

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The basic equipments used to carry out gas welding are:
1. Oxygen gas cylinder (coloured in black) with valve made of brass having right hand threads
2. Acetylene gas cylinder (coloured in maroon/red) with valve having left hand threads
3. Oxygen pressure regulator
4. Acetylene pressure regulator
5. Oxygen gas hose(Black)
6. Acetylene gas hose(Red/maroon)
7. Welding torch or blow pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders
9. Set of keys and spanners
10. Filler rods and fluxes
11. Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.)

WELDING TORCH ( BLOW PIPE)

A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, burns the mixture at
the end of the tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame.

Fig : Welding Torch

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There are two types of welding torches, namely:
a) High pressure (or equal pressure) type
b) Low pressure (or injector) type

High pressure blowpipes or torches are used with (dissolved) acetylene stored in cylinders at a
pressure of 117 psi. Low pressure blowpipes are used with acetylene obtained from an acetylene
generator at a pressure of 8 inch - head of water (approximately 0.3 psi).
To change the power of the welding torch, it is only necessary to change the nozzle tip (size) and
increase or decrease the gas pressures appropriately.

4.2 Types of Gas Welding Flames

In oxyacetylene welding, flame is the most important tool. All the welding equipment simply serves
to maintain and control the flame. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order
to operate with maximum efficiency. Three distinct types of flames are possible on adjusting the
proportions of acetylene and oxygen:
1. Neutral Flame (Acetylene oxygen in equal proportions)
2. Oxidizing Flame (Excess of oxygen)
3. Reducing Flame (Excess of acetylene)

Fig : Types of Welding Flames

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5. TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES USED IN WELDING SHOP

i) Flat file

A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting rows of teeth and is used for
removing excess material to smooth or fit metal parts. Files are generally forged out of high
carbon steel or tungsten steel followed by cutting of teeth, hardening and tempering.

iii) Hack saw

The hack saw is used to cut metals of different sections. The main parts are frame,
handleand a replaceable blade. The blades are available in standard lengths 225, 250 and 300mm.

iv) Try square

Try square is mainly used for checking the squarness of surfaces or edges which are
adjacent, flatness of a filed surface and for marking out lines on workpieces. It consists of a
blade and stock which are made of steel fixed rigidly at 90o to each other.

v) Steel rule/ Brass rule

The steel rule consists of a hardened steel strip having line graduations etched or
engraved init. They are usually 150mm or 300mm long and is used to take linear measurements
to an accuracy of 1mm or 0.5mm. The brass rule is similar to steel rule, but it is made of brass.
Since the brass possess low coefficient of linear expansion, its dimensional accuracy will be
more reliable in heatedregions.

vi) Ball peen hammer

Hammer is a hand tool made of tool steel, largely used for striking on the metals. A hammer is
named by its peen. The ball shaped peen hammer is known as ball peen hammer. The peen and
face are hardened.

vii) Punches

Punches are percussion tools and are manufactured from tool steel. They are used on any scribed
lines by indentations. Tips are tapered, hardened and tempered. The shanks are knurled for easier
handling and gripping. The punch whose tip is tapered at an angle of 90o is known as centre
punch used to mark centres to be drilled or to mark centre of an edge. A dot punch with tip
tapered at 60ois used to punch a chain of dots on a scribed line.

viii) Chipping hammer

It is a welding tool used to remove slag from the weldment
ix) Electrode holder
It is used to hold the electrode properly. Its mouth grips the electrode and passes current
to the electrode through the welding cable connected at the other end of the holder. It should be
well insulated.

x) Tongs
They are used to handle the hot metal (welding job) for positioning or while cleaning.
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xi) Wire brush

It is used for cleaning the surface of the metal as well as for the slag from the welds.
Thewire brush is made of steel wires fitted on a wooden piece.

xii) Apron
It protects the welder’s body and clothes from heat and sparks. Usually leather apron is
employed.
xiii) Face shield / eye shield ( Welding screen)
It is used to prevent direct rays of arc, weld spatter and slag and protects the operator’s
eyes and face. It consists of a cover slag and a dark filter glass. The filter glass absorbs the ultra
violet rays radiated by the arc.

xiv) Hand gloves

Mainly leather gloves are used to protect arm from welding spark and heat.
xv) Earth clamp

It is used to connect the return lead firmly to the work piece or to the welding table.

6. POSITIONS OF WELDING

All welding can be classified according to the position of the workpiece or the position
of thewelded joint on the plates or sections being welded.

There are four basic welding positions, which are illustrated in figure below

Fig : Positions of welding

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 Metal Joining Processes
Joining process is where two or more pieces of parts are joined together to produce a single
product of required shape and size. The parts required for joining are produced by any other
manufacturing technique. There are different methods used to join the parts. The joining
process can be classified as
a) Permanent joining process b) Semi – permanent or temporary joining process
Permanent joining process is done by fusing the metal together. In this process the metal is
heated to its melting state and then it is fused to become one. Some of the examples for
permanent joining process are welding soldering and brazing Temporary joining process is
where the metal is not heated. The joining process is carried out at room temperature.
Temporary joining process can be done using nuts, bolts, screws and adhesives.

SOLDERING
It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding 427oC and below
the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills in the gap of the joint
by capillary action. Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals know as solder. Ordinary gas
flames or electric soldering iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder. Fluxes are used
with solder in soldering process. Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous material
when heated accelerates the wetting of metal with the solder. Due to wetting molten solder flow
into the joint and fills the space between the two pieces to be soldered. At elevated temperature
flux is highly reducing in nature preventing the formation of metal oxides. Fluxes that are
generally used in soldering are Rosin, Zinc Chloride and Aluminum Chloride.
The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two different types of
solders:
a) Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver solder brazing. The
hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the hard solder is inthe
range of 3500C and above. This process gives greater strength and will stand more heat than
soft solder.
b) Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a temperature
below that of the base metal, and always below 4270C. The melting range of soft solder is
1500C to 2000C. The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.

Figure: Mechanical and Electric Soldering gun

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 Advantages
1. The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to the base metal.
2. The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.
3. It is cost effective

Disadvantages
1. The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.
2. Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes are corrosive in nature.

BRAZING
Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials by heating to a suitable
temperature and using a filler metal having a melting temperature above 427°C and below the
solidification temperature of the base metals being joined. The filler metal is distributed between the
closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction. Brazing is distinguished from soldering in
that soldering employs a filler metal having a melting point below 427°C.

Brazing procedure: The metal to be joined is cleaned for oxides, dust and oil. Fluxes are applied
on the entire surface where the brazing is carried out. The parts are aligned in position for brazing.
The joint is heated using a gas torch with a Carburizing flame. Filler metal is addedinto the space
where the metal is to be joined. Due to the wetting action of the flux, the moltenfiller metal fills the
space by capillary action. The joint is allowed to cool and then the fluxes are cleaned from the
surface.
The fluxes used in brazing are borax, boric acid, borates, chlorides and fluorides. Some of thefiller
metal alloys used for brazing are Aluminum – Silicon, magnesium, copper and copper zinc etc.

Advantages
1. It can be used to join dissimilar metals.
2. It provides good pressure tight joints.
3. Different cross sectional thickness material can be brazed.
4. Brazing avoids metallurgical damage to the metal.

Disadvantages
1. Size limitations of the parts to be brazed. As the outer area has to be elevated to the higher
temperature, in large sections increasing the temperature is difficult.
2. Tight mating parts are necessary for capillary action.
Flux are corrosive in nature, they have to be cleaned properly after br

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 METAL FORMING
INTRODUCTION
Metal forming can be defined as a process in which the desired size and shape are obtained
through the deformation of metals plastically under the action of externally applied forces.
Metal forming processes like rolling, forging, drawing etc. are gaining ground lately. It is due
to the fact that metal forming is the wasteless process which is highly economical. They give
high dimensional accuracy, easy formability for complex shapes and good surface finish with
desired metallurgical properties.
The metal forming is based upon the plastic deformation of metals. For finding out the
complete information of the stresses and strains that developed in the metal due to application
of loads, comprehensive study and calculations are required.

To start with, there are three conditions to be satisfied, while going for stress estimation:
 There should be equilibrium at all points.
 The volume should remain same before and after the forming.
 Stress-strain relationship of material should be maintained.

There are two methods for analysing forming processes:

1. Lower bound method
2. Upper bound method

The main objective is to find out the yield stress developed in the material body and its
distribution in the material. This helps in estimating the load required for the initiation of the
process and its maximum value that a body can bear. If the body is under single load e.g., only
tensile load or only compressive load is applied to a body, then the yield stress can be measured
easily by stress-strain diagram, but in reality different loads are there on body which make the
process complex and thus also make it difficult to find out the yield stress distribution in the
body.

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS

Deformation is the change in dimensions or form under the action of applied load. Deformation
is caused either by mechanical action of external load or by various physical and
Physicochemical processes. The process of deformation comprises the following consecutive
stages
(a) Elastic deformation
(b) Plastic deformation
(c) Fracture

Elastic deformation of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after
deformation when the stress or load is removed i.e., deformation completely disappears after
removal of load.
The plastic deformation means that the material undergoes some degree of permanent
deformation without failure on application of load. Plastic deformation will take place only
after the elastic range has been exceeded. Plastic deformation is important in case of forming,
shaping, extruding and many other hot and cold working processes.
Due to this various metal can be transformed into different products of required shape and size.
This conversion into desired shape and size is affected either by the application of pressure,
heat or both.
The plastic deformation of metals may occur in the following ways
(1) By slip
(2) By formation of twins
(3) Deviations from regular positions of atoms
(4) Breakdown of structure.

HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING

Hot Working
(a) Properties
1. Hot working is done at a temperature above recrystallization but below its melting point. It
can therefore be regarded as a simultaneous process of deformation and recovery.
2. Hardening due to plastic deformation is completely eliminated by recovery and
recrystallization.
3. Improvement of mechanical properties such as elongation, reduction of area and impact
values.
4. Difficult to handle a hot worked metal.
5. Poor surface finish due to oxidation and scaling.
6. Refinement of crystals occurs.
7. Due to hot working cracks and blowholes are welded up.
8. No internal or residual stress developed.
9. Force required for deformation is less.
10. Light equipment is used in hot working.
11. Hot working processes are—hot forging, hot rolling, hot spinning, hot extrusion, hot

drawing, and hot piercing.

(b) Advantages of Hot Working

1. Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated. Most ingots contain many small blow holes.
These are pressed together and eliminated.
2. Impurities in the form of inclusions are broken up and distributed throughout the metal.
3. Coarse or columnar grains are refined. Since this hot work is in the recrystalline temperature
range, it should be continued until the low limit is reached to provide a tine grain structure.
4. Physical properties are generally improved owing principally to grain refinement. Ductility
and resistance to impact are improved, strength is increased, and greater homogeneity is
developed in the metal. The greatest strength of rolled steel exists in the direction of metal
flow.
5. The amount of energy necessary to change the shape of steel in the plastic state is far less
than that required when the steel is cold.

(c) Disadvantages/Limitations of Hot Working

1. Because of the high temperature of the metal, there is rapid oxidation or scaling of the surface
with accompanying poor surface finish.
2. Difficult to achieve close tolerances due to scaling.
3. Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their brittleness at high temperatures.
4. Hot working equipment and maintenance costs are high.

2.2.1 Cold Working

(a) Properties
l. Cold working is done at temperature below recrystallization temperature. So, no appreciable
recovery can take place during deformation.
2. Hardening is not eliminated since working is done below recrystallization temperature.
3. Decreases elongation, reduction of area etc.
4. Increase in ultimate tensile strength, yield point and hardness.
5. Good surface finish is obtained.
6. Crystallization does not occur. Grains are only elongated.
7. Possibility of crack formation and propagation is great.
8. Internal and residual stresses are developed in the metal.
9. Force required for deformation is high.
10. Heavy and powerful equipment is used for cold working.
11. Easier to handle cold parts.
12. Cold working processes are—cold rolling, cold extrusion, press work (drawing, squeezing,
bending, and shearing).

(b) Advantages of Cold Working

1. Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the material due to the strain hardening
which would be beneficial in some situations. Further, there is no possibility of decarburisation
of the surface.

2. Since the working is done in cold state, hence no oxide formation on the surface and
consequently,
good surface finish is obtained.
3. Greater dimensional accuracy is achieved.
4. Easier to handle cold parts and also economical for small sizes.
5. Better mechanical properties are achieved.

(c) Disadvantages/Limitations of Cold Working

1. Only small sized components can be easily worked as greater forces are required for large
sections. Due to large deforming forces, heavy and expensive capital equipment is required.
2. The grain structure is not refined and residual stresses have harmful effects on certain
properties of metals.
3. Many of the metals have less ductility e.g., carbon steel and certain alloy steels, cannot be
cold worked at room temperature. It is therefore, limited to ductile metals and the range of
shapes produced is not as wide as can be obtained by machining.
4. Tooling costs are high and as such it is used when large quantities of similar components are
required.
ROLLING
It is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls. One effect of the hot working rolling
operation is the grain refinement brought about by recrystallization, which is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Coarse grain structure is broken up and elongated by the rolling action. Because of the high
temperature, recrystallization starts immediately and small grains begin to form. These grains
Grow rapidly until recrystallization is complete. Growth continues at high temperatures, if
further work is not carried on, until the low temperature of the recrystalline range is reached.

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 2.5. Hot-rolling Process

 Principle of Rolling
In Fig. 2.5 (a) AB and A’B’ are the contact arcs on the rolls. The wedging action on the work
is overcome by the frictional forces that act on these arcs and draw the metal through the rolls.
In the process of rolling, stock enters the rolls with a speed less than the peripheral roll speed.
The metal emerges from the rolls travelling at a higher speed than it enters. At a point midway
between A and B, metal speed is the same as the roll peripheral speed. Most deformation takes
place in thickness, although there is some increase in width. Temperature uniformity is
important in all rolling operations. Since it controls metal flow and plasticity. In rolling, the
Quantity of metal going into a roll and out of it is the same, but the area and velocity are
changed.
In the process of becoming thinner, the rolled steel becomes longer and may become wider,
but it is constrained by vertical rolls set to restrict this sideways growth. As the cross-sectional
area is decreased, the velocity increases as does the length of the material. For example, a
heated slab 18 cm thick weighing more than 12 tons is reduced to a coil of thin sheet in a matter
of minutes.

2.5.1. Rolling Mill

A rolling mill consists of one or more roll stands, motor drive, reduction gears, and flywheel
and coupling gears between units. The roll stand is the main part of the mill, where the rolling
process is performed. It basically consists of housings in which bearings are fitted, which are
used for mounting the rolls. Depending upon the profile of the rolled product, the body of the
roll may be either flat for rolling sheets (plates or strips) or grooved for making structural
members (channel, I-beam, rail).
Rolling mills are classified according to the number and arrangement of rolls in a stand (Fig.
2.6). They are classified as:
(A) For hot rolling of metals (Two-high rolling mill, Three-high rolling mill)
(B) For cold rolling of metals (Four high rolling mill, Cluster rolling mill)
 Fig. 2.6. Various roll arrangement used in rolling mills

(1) Two-high rolling mill: It is basically of two types i.e., non-reversing and reversing rolling
mill. The two high non-reversing rolling stand arrangements is the most common arrangement.
In this the rolls always move in only one direction, while in a two-high reversing rolling stand
the direction of roll rotation can be reversed. This type of stand is particularly useful in reducing
the handling of the hot metal in between the rolling passes. About 30 passes are required to
reduce a large ingot into a bloom. This type is used in blooming and slabbing mills.
(2) Three-high rolling mill: It is used for rolling of two continuous passes in a rolling sequence
without reversing the drives. After all the metal has passed through the bottom roll set, the end
of the metal is entered into the other set of the rolls for the next pass. For this purpose, a table-
tilting arrangement is required to bring the metal to the level with the rolls. Such type of
arrangement is used for making plates or sections.
(3) Four-high rolling mill: It is generally a two-high rolling mill, but with small sized rolls.
The other two rolls are the backup rolls for providing the necessary rigidity to the small rolls.
It is used for both hot and cold rolling of wide plates and sheets.
(4) Cluster rolling mill: It uses backup rolls to support the smaller work rolls. In this type of
mill, the roll in contact with the work can be as small as 1/4 in. in diameter. Foil is always
rolled on cluster mills since the small thickness requires small-diameter rolls.

2.5.2. Roll Passes

The final rolled products such as plates, flats, sheets, rounds and sections are obtained in a
number of passes starting from billet or slabs. For rolling the flat product, plain cylindrical rolls
are used but for sections, grooved rolls are used. The type of grooving done is decided by the
final section desired.
The roll pass sequence can be broadly classified into three types:
 1. Breakdown passes: These are used for reducing the cross-sectional area nearer to what is
desired. These would be the first to be present in the sequence.
2. Roughing passes: In these passes also, the cross-section gets reduced, but along with it, the
shape of the rolled material comes nearer to the final shape.
3. Finishing passes: These are the final passes which give the required shape of pass follows
a leader pass.

2.5.3. Defects in Rolling

There may be defects on the surfaces of the rolled plates and sheets or there may be structural
defects within the material. The various defects are
(1) Surface defects may result from inclusions and impurities in the material, scale, rust, dirt,
roll marks and other causes related to the prior treatment and working of the material. In hot
rolling blooms, billets and slabs, the surface is usually preconditioned by various means, such
as torch to remove scale.
(2) Structural defects are defects that distort or affect the integrity of the rolled product.
(3) Wavy edges are caused by bending of the rolls; the edges of the strip are thinner than the
centre. Because the edges elongate more than the centre and are restrained from expanding
freely, they buckle.
(4) Zipper cracks are usually caused by low ductility and barreling.
(5) Edge cracks are occurs in plates and slabs because of either limited ductility of metal or
uneven deformation especially at the edges.
(6) Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon that results from inhomogeneous deformation of
the material during rolling or from defects in the original cast ingot, such as piping. The work
piece splits along a horizontal plane on exit from the rolls.
2.5.4. Applications of Rolling
Rolling is used to produce components having constant cross-section throughout its length. The
whole range of rolled products can be divided into the following types:
(a) Structural shapes or sections: This includes sections like round, square, hexagonal bars,
channels, H and I beams and special sections like rail section. Fig. 4.13 shows some of the
rolled structural shapes.
(b) Plates and sheets: These are produced of varying thickness.
(c) Special purpose rolled products: These include rings, balls, wheels and ribbed tubes