EEE459-L1

Reference Texts

➢1. Optoelectronics and Photonics, S. O. Kasap, Pearson

➢2. Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices, 2nd Ed., P.

Bhattacharya, PHI

➢3. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd Ed., Sze & Ng, Wil

➢4. Optoelectronics, an introduction, 3rd Ed., Wilson & Hawkes,

PHI
 Evaluation

➢Class Participation – 10%;

➢Class Tests + Assignment – 20%;
➢Term Final –70%
 Optoelectronics
➢Optoelectronics is the study and
application of electronic devices
that interact with light

4
 Optoelectronics System

Applications
Sources Components Detectors

5
 Optoelectronic Devices

• Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (display, lighting)

• Laser diodes (LDs) (data storage,
telecommunication)
• Photodiodes (telecommunication)
• Solar Cells (energy conversion)
• Electro-Optic Effects (Modulation of Light)

6
Optoelectronic Devices

7
Electromagnetic Spectrum

8
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible and near-visible electromagnetic spectrum. Relative luminosity

function V(λ) as defined by the CIE for normal photopic vision.
Semiconductors of interest for LEDs

Fig. Semiconductors of interest for LEDs, including the relative luminosity

function of the human eye.
A Portion of the Periodic Table
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
A list of some semiconductor materials of the Periodic
Table
Recombination Processes

Recombination through single-

Band-to-band recombination
level traps (nonradiative)

18
Direct and Indirect Bandgap
(Photon emission)

19
Fig. Basic recombination transitions in semiconductor. ED,
EA, Et, are donor-type, acceptor- type, and deep-level traps
respectively.
 Isoelectronic Trap

E-k diagram showing radiative recombination through

isoelectronic trap in indirect-bandgap k=0 material.
Absorption Coefficient

23
Optical absorption coefficients for various
photodetector materials

24
Emission Spectra

GaAs diode emission spectra

25
Fig. (a) Quantum efficiency of GaAs,,PX vs. alloy composition, with and
without isoelec- tronic impurity nitrogen. (b) Peak emission wavelength
vs. composition.
 Types of Solids

Three types of solids, classified according to atomic arrangement:

(a) crystalline and
(b) amorphous materials are illustrated by microscopic views of the atoms, whereas
(c) polycrystalline structure is illustrated by a more macroscopic view of adjacent
single-crystalline regions, such as (a).
The diamond structure
The Zincblende Structure
Semiconductors
Semiconductors /Sources of Semiconductors
Semiconductors
The E-k Diagram
The E-k Diagram of Si and GaAs
 Energy-band structures of (a) Si and (b) GaAs

Fig. Energy-band structures of (a) Si and (b) GaAs, where Eg is the energy bandgap. Plus signs (+)
indicate holes in the valence bands and minus signs (-) indicate electrons in the con- duction
bands.
The E-k Diagram of Si, Ge, InP and GaAs
The E-k Diagram of Ge, Si and GaAs
 The E-k Diagram of AlAs, InAs and InP

Bandstructure of AlAs. Bandstructure of InAs. Bandstructure of InP.

Since no adequate substitute matches InAs directly, it is often used as
an alloy (InGaAs, InAlAs, etc.,) for devices.
InP is a very important material for high speed devices as well as a
substrate and barrier layer material for semiconductor lasers.
Energy gap vs. lattice constant for some common
elementary and binary semiconductors.
Energy gap vs. lattice constant for some common elementary and
binary semiconductors
Properties of Si and GaAs
Properties of Important Semiconductors
Common Semiconductors
Common Semiconductors
Epitaxial Layers on GaAs, InP
Gap of Some Semiconductors
 Types of Solids

Three types of solids, classified

according to atomic arrangement:
(a) crystalline and
(b) amorphous materials are illustrated
by microscopic views of the atoms,
whereas
(c) polycrystalline structure is illustrated
by a more macroscopic view of
adjacent single-crystalline regions,
such as (a).
 Lattice-
Matched/
Mismatched
Epitaxial Layer
(a) on Substrate
Crystal (a0)
Fig. (a) Composition dependence of the direct and indirect
bandgap for GaAsP, (b) Energy-momentum diagram for
GaAsP
Compositional Dependence of AlxIn1-xAs
Compositional Dependence of GaxIn1-xAs
Nitride Semiconductors
Vegard’s Law
Compositional Dependence of Energy Gap of
Ternary III-V Semiconductors
Lattice-Mismatched Epitaxial Layer on Substrate Crystal
Fig. Two materials with slightly mismatched lattice constants as, and ae, (a) In
isolation. (b) Heteroepitaxy with thick, relaxed epitaxial layer having dislocations at
the interface. (c) With thin, strained epitaxial layer without dislocations. Epitaxial
lattice constant ae, is strained to follow that of the substrate as,.
 Lattice-
Matched/
Mismatched
Epitaxial Layer
(a) on Substrate
Crystal (a0)
Lattice-Mismatched Epitaxial Layer (a) on
Substrate Crystal (a0)
Critical Thickness, hc
 Critical Thickness, hc

➢ Below hc, the minimum energy of the bilayer

system is achieved by strain
➢ Above hc, the minimum energy of the bilayer
system is achieved by the formation of dislocations

hc, depends upon:

➢ lattice mismatch,
➢ material parameter,
➢ properties of dislocations
Critical Thickness, hc
 Varshni Equation
➢ At room temperature and under normal atmospheric
pressure, the values of the bandgap are 1.12 eV for Si and
1.42 eV for GaAs. These values are for high-purity
materials.
➢ For highly doped materials the bandgaps become smaller.
➢ Experimental results show that the bandgaps of most
semiconductors decrease with increasing temperature.
➢ The bandgap approaches 1.17 and 1.52 eV respectively for
Si and GaAs at 0 K.
➢ The variation of bandgaps with temperature can be
expressed approximately by a universal function
 Varshni Equation
Energy bandgaps as a function of temperature
 Varshni Equation

• The energy band-gaps decrease with increasing

temperature. The variation of the energy band-gaps with
temperature can be expressed with a universal function:
2
E g (T ) = E g (0) − T /(T + )

Si Ge GaAs
Eg (eV) 1.12 0.66 1.42
 Varshni Equation

Fig. Energy bandgaps of Si and GaAs as a function of temperature.

 Band Gap of Alloyed Semiconductor
Emperical Relation and Virtual Crystal Approximation
The band gap Eg, is usually given by empirical relationship,
Eg(x)= Eg0+ bx+ cx2

Eg0 is the bandgap of the lower bandgap binary

b is a fitting parameter
c is the bowing parameter (may be calculated theoretically or
determined experimentally)
The bowing in the bandgap arises from increasing disorder due to
alloying.

Virtual Crystal Approximation:

A simple approach from the weighted constituents A and B
Eg(x)= xEgA+ (1-x)EgB
Known as “Virtual Crystal Approximation.”
Electron Velocity with Electric Field

Electron Velocity
vs. Electric Field
Near the absorption edge, the absorption coefficient can be
expressed as:
Light

(
  hf − E g )g intensity

Distance
hf = photon energy
1/
Eg = bandgap light-penetration depth

g = constant
➔ g=1/2 and 1/3 for allowed direct
transitions and forbidden direct transitions
➔ g=2 for indirect transitions where phonons
are involved
EEE459-L2
Model Energy Bands in III-V and IV Semiconductors

• Conduction Band - 3 Valley Model (, L, X minima).

Lowest minima: X (Si), L (Ge),  (GaAs, most III-Vs)
• Valence Band - Light hole, heavy hole, spin-split off band
Energy Bands in AlGaAs Semiconductors

Variation of direct and

indirect conduction
bands in AIGaAs as a
function of composition
 Doping-Ionization Energy

Measured ionization energies for varies impurities in (a) Si and (b) GaAs.
Levels below the gap center are measured from E, Levels above the gap
center are measured from E,. Solid bars represent donor levels and hollow
boxes represent acceptor levels
Phonon Spectra
Phonon Spectra
 Phonon Spectra

Longitudinally polarized modes are modes with the displacement

vectors of each atom along the direction of the wave vector; thus we
have one longitudinal acoustic mode (LA) and one longitudinal optical
mode (LO). Modes with atoms moving in the planes normal to the
wave vector are called transversely polarized modes. We have two
transverse acoustic (TA) and two transverse optical modes (TO)
Excess Carriers in Semiconductors

Optical absorption of
a photon with hν>Eg;
(a) An EHP is created
during photon
absorption;
(b) the excited
electron gives up
energy to the lattice
by scattering events;
(c) the electron
recombines with a
hole in the valence
band
Absorption in Semiconductors
 Absorption in Semiconductors

The beam contains only photons of wavelength λ,

selected by a monochromator. As the beam passes
through the sample, its intensity at a distance x from the
surface can be calculated by considering the probability
of absorption within any increment dx. Since a photon
which has survived to x without absorption has no
memory of how far it has travelled, its probability of
absorption in any dx is constant. Thus the degradation of
the intensity -dl(x)/dx is proportional to the intensity
remaining at x:
Refractive Index
Light Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
Light Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
Absorption of Light
Optical Properties
Absorption Coefficient
Dielectric Constant
Propagation Constant
Optical Properties
Optical Properties
Optical Properties
Optical Properties
Optical Properties
Transmittance/ Reflectance
Optical Properties
 Density of States

Density of states N(E)

(a) bulk semiconductor (3-D)
(b) quantum well (2-D)
(c) quantum wire (1-D)
(d) quantum dot (0-D)