CHAPTER 13

BIODIVERSITY AND
CONSERVATION

13.1 Biodiversity

13.2 Biodiversity Conservation If an alien from a distant galaxy were to visit our planet
Earth, the first thing that would amaze and baffle him
would most probably be the enormous diversity of life
that he would encounter. Even for humans, the rich variety
of living organisms with which they share this planet never
ceases to astonish and fascinate us. The common man
would find it hard to believe that there are more than
20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000
species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of orchids.
Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have been trying
to understand the significance of such diversity by asking
important questions– Why are there so many species?
Did such great diversity exist throughout earth’s history?
How did this diversification come about? How and why
is this diversity important to the biosphere? Would it
function any differently if the diversity was much less?
How do humans benefit from the diversity of life?

13.1 BIODIVERSITY
In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity)
exists not only at the species level but at all levels of
biological organisation ranging from macromolecules
within cells to biomes. Biodiversity is the term popularised
by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe the

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combined diversity at all the levels of biological organisation.

The most important of them are–
(i) Genetic diversity : A single species might show high diversity at
the genetic level over its distributional range. The genetic variation
shown by the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in
different Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the potency and
concentration of the active chemical (reserpine) that the plant
produces. India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains
of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
(ii) Species diversity : The diversity at the species level, for example,
the Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
the Eastern Ghats.
(iii) Ecological diversity : At the ecosystem level, India, for instance,
with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands,
estuaries, and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity
than a Scandinavian country like Norway.
It has taken millions of years of evolution, to accumulate this rich
diversity in nature, but we could lose all that wealth in less than two
centuries if the present rates of species losses continue. Biodiversity and
its conservation are now vital environmental issues of international concern
as more and more people around the world begin to realise the critical
importance of biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this planet.

13.1.1 How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many
in India?
Since there are published records of all the species discovered and named,
we know how many species in all have been recorded so far, but it is not
easy to answer the question of how many species there are on earth.
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) (2004), the total number of plant and animal
species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no
clear idea of how many species are yet to be discovered and described.
Estimates vary widely and many of them are only educated guesses. For
many taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in
temperate than in tropical countries. Considering that an overwhelmingly
large proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics,
biologists make a statistical comparison of the temperate-tropical species
217
richness of an exhaustively studied group of insects and extrapolate this
ratio to other groups of animals and plants to come up with a gross
estimate of the total number of species on earth. Some extreme estimates
range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically
sound estimate made by Robert May places the global species diversity
at about 7 million.

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Let us look at some interesting aspects about earth’s biodiversity based

on the currently available species inventories. More than 70 per cent of
all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi,
bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22
per cent of the total. Among animals, insects are the most species-rich
taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total. That
means, out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects. Again, how
do we explain this enormous diversification of insects? The number of
fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species
of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In Figure 13.1, biodiversity
is depicted showing species number of major taxa.

Figure 13.1 Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of

species of major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates

It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for
218
prokaryotes. Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species
there might be. The problem is that conventional taxonomic methods are
not suitable for identifying microbial species and many species are simply
not culturable under laboratory conditions. If we accept biochemical or
molecular criteria for delineating species for this group, then their diversity
alone might run into millions.

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Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share
of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent. That is what
makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India. How many living species are actually there waiting
to be discovered and named? If we accept May’s global estimates, only
22 per cent of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying this
proportion to India’s diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably
more than 1,00,000 plant species and more than 3,00,000 animal species
yet to be discovered and described. Would we ever be able to complete
the inventory of the biological wealth of our country? Consider the immense
trained manpower (taxonomists) and the time required to complete the
job. The situation appears more hopeless when we realise that a large
fraction of these species faces the threat of becoming extinct even before
we discover them. Nature’s biological library is burning even before we
catalogued the titles of all the books stocked there.

13.1.2 Patterns of Biodiversity

(i) Latitudinal gradients : The diversity of plants and animals is
not uniform throughout the world but shows a rather uneven
distribution. For many group of animals or plants, there are
interesting patterns in diversity, the most well- known being the
latitudinal gradient in diversity. In general, species diversity
decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles.
With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to
23.5° S) harbour more species than temperate or polar areas.
Colombia located near the equator has nearly 1,400 species of birds
while New York at 41° N has 105 species and Greenland at 71° N
only 56 species. India, with much of its land area in the tropical
latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of birds. A forest in a tropical
region like Equador has up to 10 times as many species of vascular
plants as a forest of equal area in a temperate region like the Midwest
of the USA. The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South
America has the greatest biodiversity on earth- it is home to more
than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of fishes, 1,300 of birds, 427
of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of more than
1,25,000 invertebrates. Scientists estimate that in these rain forests
there might be at least two million insect species waiting to be
discovered and named.
What is so special about tropics that might account for their greater
219
biological diversity? Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have
proposed various hypotheses; some important ones are (a) Speciation
is generally a function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected
to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have remained
relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long

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evolutionary time for species diversification, (b) Tropical environments,

unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable. Such constant environments promote niche
specialisation and lead to a greater species diversity and (c) There
is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to
higher productivity; this in turn might contribute indirectly to greater
diversity.
(ii) Species-Area relationships : During his pioneering and extensive
explorations in the wilderness of South American jungles, the great
German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt
observed that within a region species
richness increased with increasing
explored area, but only up to a limit. In
fact, the relation between species richness
and area for a wide variety of taxa
(angiosperm plants, birds, bats,
freshwater fishes) turns out to be a
rectangular hyperbola (Figure13.2). On
a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a
straight line described by the equation
log S = log C + Z log A
where
S= Species richness A= Area
Z = slope of the line (regression
coefficient)
C = Y-intercept
Ecologists have discovered that the
Figure 13.2 Showing species area relationship.
value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2,
Note that on log scale the relationship
becomes linear regardless of the taxonomic group or the
region (whether it is the plants in Britain,
birds in California or molluscs in New York state, the slopes of the regression
line are amazingly similar). But, if you analyse the species-area
relationships among very large areas like the entire continents, you will
find that the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z values in the range
of 0.6 to 1.2). For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and
mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, the slope is found
to be 1.15. What do steeper slopes mean in this context?

220 13.1.3 The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

Does the number of species in a community really matter to the functioning
of the ecosystem?This is a question for which ecologists have not been
able to give a definitive answer. For many decades, ecologists believed
that communities with more species, generally, tend to be more stable
than those with less species. What exactly is stability for a biological

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community? A stable community should not show too much variation

in productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient to
occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be
resistant to invasions by alien species. We don’t know how these attributes
are linked to species richness in a community, but David Tilman’s
long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots provide some
tentative answers. Tilman found that plots with more species showed
less year-to-year variation in total biomass. He also showed that in his
experiments, increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
Although, we may not understand completely how species richness
contributes to the well-being of an ecosystem, we know enough to realise
that rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health but
imperative for the very survival of the human race on this planet. At a
time when we are losing species at an alarming pace, one might ask–
Does it really matter to us if a few species become extinct? Would Western
Ghats ecosystems be less functional if one of its tree frog species is lost
forever? How is our quality of life affected if, say, instead of 20,000 we
have only 15,000 species of ants on earth?
There are no direct answers to such näive questions but we can develop
a proper perspective through an analogy (the ‘rivet popper hypothesis’)
used by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich. In an airplane (ecosystem) all
parts are joined together using thousands of rivets (species). If every
passenger travelling in it starts popping a rivet to take home (causing a
species to become extinct), it may not affect flight safety (proper functioning
of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more rivets are removed, the
plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time. Furthermore,
which rivet is removed may also be critical. Loss of rivets on the wings
(key species that drive major ecosystem functions) is obviously a more
serious threat to flight safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or
windows inside the plane.

13.1.4 Loss of Biodiversity

While it is doubtful if any new species are being added (through speciation)
into the earth’s treasury of species, there is no doubt about their continuing
losses. The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly
and the accusing finger is clearly pointing to human activities. The
colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by humans is said to have led to
the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN Red
List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including 338 221
vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years. Some
examples of recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga
(Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three
subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years alone
have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species. Careful analysis of records

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shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction. Adding to the
grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species
world-wide are facing the threat of extinction. Presently, 12 per cent of
all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all
amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world
face the threat of extinction.
From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, we
learn that large-scale loss of species like the one we are currently
witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans appeared on
the scene. During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and
diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinction
of species. How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different
from the previous episodes? The difference is in the rates; the current
species extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster
than in the pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the
faster rates. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue,
nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within the next
100 years.
In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in
plant production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations
such as drought and (c) increased variability in certain ecosystem processes
such as plant productivity, water use, and pest and disease cycles.
Causes of biodiversity losses: The accelerated rates of species
extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human
activities. There are four major causes (‘ The Evil Quartet ’ is the sobriquet
used to describe them).
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important
cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic
examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once
covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these
rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent. They are being
destroyed fast. By the time you finish reading this chapter, 1000
more hectares of rain forest would have been lost. The Amazon
rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’)
harbouring probably millions of species is being cut and cleared
for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising
beef cattle. Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by
222 pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large
habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human
activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain
animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to
population declines.
(ii) Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for
food and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to

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over -exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinctions

in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due
to overexploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish
populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the
continued existence of some commercially important species.
(iii) Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced
unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them
turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led
eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of
more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. You must be
familiar with the environmental damage caused and threat posed
to our native species by invasive weed species like carrot grass
(Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia). The recent
illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for
aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes
in our rivers.
(iv) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and
animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also become
extinct. When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique
assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. Another example
is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where
extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other.

13.2 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

13.2.1 Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?
There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all
equally important. They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly
utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and ethical.
The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are
obvious; humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-
food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre, construction material,
industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes ) and
products of medicinal importance. More than 25 per cent of the drugs
currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000
species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by native
peoples around the world. Nobody knows how many more medicinally
useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be explored.
223
With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular,
genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic importance),
nations endowed with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormous
benefits.
The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a
major role in many ecosystem services that nature provides. The fast-

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dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through

photosynthesis, 20 per cent of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.
Can we put an economic value on this service by nature? You can get
some idea by finding out how much your neighborhood hospital spends
on a cylinder of oxygen. Pollination (without which plants cannot give
us fruits or seeds) is another service, ecosystems provide through
pollinators layer – bees, bumblebees, birds and bats. What will be the
costs of accomplishing pollination without help from natural
pollinators? There are other intangible benefits – that we derive from
nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking through thick woods, watching
spring flowers in full bloom or waking up to a bulbul’s song in the
morning. Can we put a price tag on such things?
The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we
owe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we share
this planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that every
species has an intrinsic value, even if it may not be of current or any
economic value to us. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being
and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations.

13.2.2 How do we conserve Biodiversity?

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all
levels is protected - we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach
is called in situ (on site) conservation. However, when there are situations
where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened (organisms facing
a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future) and needs
urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation
is the desirable approach.
In situ conservation– Faced with the conflict between development and
conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and economically not feasible
to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the number of species
waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation resources
available. On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent
conservationists. They identified for maximum protection certain
‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness
and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region
and not found anywhere else). Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were
identified but subsequently nine more have been added to the list,
bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
224 These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of
these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and
Himalaya – cover our country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than
2 per cent of the earth’s land area, the number of species they collectively

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harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hotspots could

reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.
In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally
protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. India
now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife
sanctuaries. India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions
that emphasised protection of nature. In many cultures, tracts of forest
were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and
given total protection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia
Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of
Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas
of Madhya Pradesh. In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges
for a large number of rare and threatened plants.
Ex situ Conservation– In this approach, threatened animals and plants
are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting
where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks,
botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There are
many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks. In recent years ex situ conservation has
advanced beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. Now gametes
of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for
long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in
vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds
of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept
for long periods in seed banks.
Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is
therefore a collective responsibility of all nations. The historic Convention
on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for
conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits. In
a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002
in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment
to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity
loss at global, regional and local levels.

SUMMARY
Since life originated on earth nearly 3.8 billion years ago, there had
been enormous diversification of life forms on earth. Biodiversity refers
to the sum total of diversity that exists at all levels of biological 225
organisation. Of particular importance is the diversity at genetic, species
and ecosystem levels and conservation efforts are aimed at protecting
diversity at all these levels.
More than 1.5 million species have been recorded in the world, but
there might still be nearly 6 million species on earth waiting to be

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discovered and named. Of the named species, > 70 per cent are animals,
of which 70 per cent are insects. The group Fungi has more species
than all the vertebrate species combined. India, with about 45,000
species of plants and twice as many species of animals, is one of the 12
mega diversity countries of the world.
Species diversity on earth is not uniformly distributed but shows
interesting patterns. It is generally highest in the tropics and decreases
towards the poles. Important explanations for the species richness of
the tropics are: Tropics had more evolutionary time; they provide a
relatively constant environment and, they receive more solar energy
which contributes to greater productivity. Species richness is also
function of the area of a region; the species-area relationship is generally
a rectangular hyperbolic function.
It is believed that communities with high diversity tend to be less
variable, more productive and more resistant to biological invasions.
Earth’s fossil history reveals incidence of mass extinctions in the past,
but the present rates of extinction, largely attributed to human activities,
are 100 to 1000 times higher. Nearly 700 species have become extinct
in recent times and more than 15,500 species (of which > 650 are from
India) currently face the threat of extinction. The causes of high
extinction rates at present include habitat (particularly forests) loss
and fragmentation, over -exploitation, biological invasions and
co- extinctions.
Earth’s rich biodiversity is vital for the very survival of mankind.
The reasons for conserving biodiversity are narrowly utilitarian, broadly
utilitarian and ethical. Besides the direct benefits (food, fibre, firewood,
pharmaceuticals, etc.), there are many indirect benefits we receive
through ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, climate
moderation and flood control. We also have a moral responsibility to
take good care of earth’s biodiversity and pass it on in good order to our
next generation.
Biodiversity conservation may be in situ as well as ex situ. In in situ
conservation, the endangered species are protected in their natural
habitat so that the entire ecosystem is protected. Recently, 34
‘biodiversity hotspots’ in the world have been proposed for intensive
conservation ef forts. Of these, three (Wester n Ghats-Sri Lanka,
Himalaya and Indo-Burma) cover India’s rich biodiversity regions. Our
country’s in situ conservation efforts are reflected in its 14 biosphere
reserves, 90 national parks, > 450 wildlife sanctuaries and many sacred
groves. Ex situ conservation methods include protective maintenance
of threatened species in zoological parks and botanical gardens, in vitro
fertilisation, tissue culture propagation and cryopreservation of
gametes.

226
EXERCISES
1. Name the three important components of biodiversity.
2. How do ecologists estimate the total number of species present in the
world?

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3. Give three hypotheses for explaining why tropics show greatest levels
of species richness.
4. What is the significance of the slope of regression in a species – area
relationship?
5. What are the major causes of species losses in a geographical region?
6. How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning?
7. What are sacred groves? What is their role in conservation?
8. Among the ecosystem services are control of floods and soil erosion.
How is this achieved by the biotic components of the ecosystem?
9. The species diversity of plants (22 per cent) is much less than that of
animals (72 per cent). What could be the explanations to how animals
achieved greater diversification?
10. Can you think of a situation where we deliberately want to make a
species extinct? How would you justify it?

227

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CHAPTER 12

ECOSYSTEM

12.1 Ecosystem–Structure
and Function
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
12.2. Productivity nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
12.3 Decomposition Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
12.4 Energy Flow biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
12.5 Ecological Pyramids
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.
We will first look at the structure of the ecosystem, in
order to appreciate the input (productivity), transfer of
energy (food chain/web, nutrient cycling) and the output
(degradation and energy loss). We will also look at the
relationships – cycles, chains, webs – that are created as
a result of these energy flows within the system and their
inter- relationship.

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12.1 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

In earlier classes, you have looked at the various components of the
environment- abiotic and biotic. You studied how the individual biotic
and abiotic factors affected each other and their surrounding. Let us look
at these components in a more integrated manner and see how the flow of
energy takes place within these components of the ecosystem.
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical
structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. Identification
and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its
species composition. Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels is called stratification. For example, trees occupy top
vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses
occupy the bottom layers.
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit when
you consider the following aspects:
(i) Productivity;
(ii) Decomposition;
(iii) Energy flow; and
(iv) Nutrient cycling.
To understand the ethos of an aquatic ecosystem let us take a small
pond as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather simple
example that explain even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic
ecosystem. A pond is a shallow water body in which all the above
mentioned four basic components of an ecosystem are well exhibited.
The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and
organic substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond.
The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic
conditions regulate the rate of function of the entire pond. The autotrophic
components include the phytoplankton, some algae and the floating,
submerged and marginal plants found at the edges. The consumers are
represented by the zooplankton, the free swimming and bottom dwelling
forms. The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially
abundant in the bottom of the pond. This system performs all the functions
of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of
inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of the
sun by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs;
decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back
for reuse by the autotrophs, these event are repeated over and over again.
206 There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic
levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.

12.2 PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem
to function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of

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biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g m–2) or
energy (kcal m–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
It is expressed in terms of gm–2 yr –1 or (kcal m –2) yr –1 to compare the
productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary
productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter
during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants
in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R),
is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposers). Secondary productivity
is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a
particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors,
availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore,
it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary
productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons
(dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per
cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
Rest of course, is on land. Discuss the main reason for the low
productivity of ocean with your teacher.

12.3 DECOMPOSITION
You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s
‘friend’. This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic
matter as well as in loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break
down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of
animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralisation.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles.
This process is called fragmentation. By the process of leaching, water-
soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated 207
as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into
simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate
simultaneously on the detritus (Figure 12.1). Humification and
mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads

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Figure 12.1 Diagrammatic representation of decomposition cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem

to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus

that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition
at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir
of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release
of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of
decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and
climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate
is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is
208 rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature
and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low
temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build
up of organic materials.

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12.4 ENERGY FLOW

Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source
of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less
than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We
know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix Sun’s
radiant energy to make food from simple inorganic materials. Plants
capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy
sustains the entire living world. So, it is very important to know how the
solar energy captured by plants flows through different organisms of an
ecosystem. All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either
directly or indirectly. So you find unidirectional flow of energy from the
sun to producers and then to consumers. Is this in keeping with the first
law of thermodynamics?
Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of
thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesise
the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.
The green plant in the ecosystem are called producers. In a terrestrial
ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Likewise,
producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton,
algae and higher plants.
You have read about the food chains and webs that exist in nature.
Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are
formed such that an animal feeds on a plant or on another animal and in
turn is food for another. The chain or web is formed because of this
interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in
it for ever. The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on
to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism is the beginning
of the detritus food chain/web.
All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs.
They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs. If they feed on
the producers, the plants, they are called primary consumers, and if the
animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce)
they are called secondary consumers. Likewise, you could have tertiary
consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will be herbivores.
Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial
ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more
correctly primary carnivores (though secondary consumers). Those 209
animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled
secondary carnivores. A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted
below:

Grass Goat Man

(Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary consumer)

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The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as
saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic
materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus
food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels:
some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural
ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.
These natural interconnection of food chains make it a food web. How
would you classify human beings!
Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a
community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific
place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level. Producers
belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the
second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third (Figure 12.2).

210

Figure 12.2 Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem

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The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at

successive trophic levels. When any organism dies it is converted to
detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for decomposers.
Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level
for their energy demands.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular
time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the
mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. The
biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why?
The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as
the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the
energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. In
nature, it is possible to have so many levels – producer, herbivore, primary
carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain (Figure 12.3) .
Do you think there is any such limitation in a detritus food chain?

Figure 12.3 Energy flow through different trophic levels

211
12.5 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
You must be familiar with the shape of a pyramid. The base of a pyramid
is broad and it narrows towards the apex. One gets a similar shape,
whether you express the food or energy relationship between organisms

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 BIOLOGY

at different trophic levels. This, relationship is expressed in terms of

number, biomass or energy. The base of each pyramid represents the
producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or
top level consumer. The three types of ecological pyramids that are usually
studied are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid
of energy. For detail (see Figure 12.4 a, b, c and d).

Figure 12.4 (a) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores are
supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants

Figure 12.4 (b) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels

212

Figure 12.4 (c) Inverted pyramid of biomass-small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large
standing crop of zooplankton

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ECOSYSTEM

Figure 12.4 (d) An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of
the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP

Any calculations of energy content, biomass or numbers, has to include

all organisms at that trophic level. No generalisations we make will be
true if we take only a few individuals at any trophic level into account.
Also a given organism may occupy more than one trophic level
simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a
functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more
than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example,
a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a
secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms. Can you work out
how many trophic levels human beings function at in a food chain?
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and
biomass are upright, i.e., producers are more in number and biomass
than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass
than the carnivores. Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more
than at a higher level.
There are exceptions to this generalisation: If you were to count the
number of insects feeding on a big tree what kind of pyramid would you
get? Now add an estimate of the number of small birds depending on the
insects, as also the number of larger birds eating the smaller. Draw the
shape you would get.
The pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because the
biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton. Isn’t that a paradox?
How would you explain this?
213
Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because
when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level,
some energy is always lost as heat at each step. Each bar in the energy
pyramid indicates the amount of energy present at each trophic level in a
given time or annually per unit area.

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However, there are certain limitations of ecological pyramids such as

it does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost
never exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though
they play a vital role in the ecosystem.

SUMMARY
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of nature and it
comprises abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components are
inorganic materials- air, water and soil, whereas biotic components
are producers, consumers and decomposers. Each ecosystem has
characteristic physical structure resulting from interaction amongst
abiotic and biotic components. Species composition and stratification
are the two main structural features of an ecosystem. Based on source
of nutrition every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem.
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are
the four important components of an ecosystem. Primary productivity
is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production of the
producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or
total production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining
biomass or the energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary
productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.
In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted
to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers.
Decomposition involves three processes, namely fragmentation of
detritus, leaching and catabolism.
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy
and then, food is transferred from the producers to decomposers.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are connected to each
other for food or energy relationship forming a food chain. The storage
and movement of nutrient elements through the various components
of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly
used through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types—gaseous
and sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the
gaseous type of cycle (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir
for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem processes
are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and water by
forests.

214 EXERCISES
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as_________because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers)
is_________type.

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(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity

is_________.
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are_________.
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is_________.
2. Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers
(d) Decomposers
3. The second trophic level in a lake is
(a) Phytoplankton
(b) Zooplankton
(c) Benthos
(d) Fishes
4. Secondary producers are
(a) Herbivores
(b) Producers
(c) Carnivores
(d) None of the above
5. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in
the incident solar radiation?
(a) 100%
(b) 50 %
(c) 1-5%
(d) 2-10%
6. Distinguish between
(a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b) Production and decomposition
(c) Upright and inverted pyramid
(d) Food chain and Food web
(e) Litter and detritus
(f) Primary and secondary productivity
7. Describe the components of an ecosystem.
8. Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of
number and biomass.
9. What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect
primary productivity.
10. Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of 215
decomposition.
11. Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.

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Chapter 7 Biology is the youngest of the formalised disciplines of natural
Human Health and Disease science. Progress in physics and chemistry proceeded much
faster than in Biology. Applications of physics and chemistry in
Chapter 8 our daily life also have a higher visibility than those of biology.
Microbes in Human Welfare However, twentieth century and certainly twenty-first century
has demonstrated the utility of biological knowledge in
furthering human welfare, be it in health sector or agriculture.
The discovery of antibiotics, and synthetic plant-derived drugs,
anaesthetics have changed medical practice on one hand
and human health on the other hand. Life expectancy of
human beings have dramatically changed over the years.
Agricultural practices, food processing and diagnostics have
brought socio-cultural changes in human communities. These
are briefly described in the following three chapters of this unit.

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 Born in August 1925 in Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu, Monkambu Sambasivan
Swaminathan did his graduation and post-graduation in Botany from
Madras University. He worked in different capacities in large number of
institutions in India and abroad and developed his expertise in genetics
and plant breeding.
The School of Cytogenetics and Radiation Research established at the
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) enabled Swaminathan and his
team to develop short-duration high-yielding varieties of rice including scented
Basmati. He is also known for the development of the concept of crop
cafeteria, crop scheduling and genetically improving the yield and quality.
Swaminathan initiated collaboration with Norman Borlaug, which
culminated in the ‘Green Revolution’ through introduction of Mexican
M.S. SWAMINATHAN varieties of wheat in India. This was highly recognised and appreciated. He
(1925)
is also the initiator of ‘Lab-to-Land’, food security and several other
environmental programmes. He has been honoured with Padma Bhushan
and several other prestigious awards, medals and fellowships by institutions
of excellence.

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CHAPTER 7

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

7.1 Common Diseases in

Humans
7.2 Immunity
Health, for a long time, was considered as a state of body
and mind where there was a balance of certain ‘humors’.
7.3 AIDS This is what early Greeks like Hippocrates as well as
7.4 Cancer Indian Ayurveda system of medicine asserted. It was
thought that persons with ‘blackbile’ belonged to hot
7.5 Drugs and Alcohol Abuse
personality and would have fevers. This idea was arrived
at by pure reflective thought. The discovery of blood
circulation by William Harvey using experimental method
and the demonstration of normal body temperature in
persons with blackbile using thermometer disproved the
‘good humor’ hypothesis of health. In later years, biology
stated that mind influences, through neural system and
endocrine system, our immune system and that our
immune system maintains our health. Hence, mind and
mental state can affect our health. Of course, health is
affected by –
(i) genetic disorders – deficiencies with which a child is
born and deficiencies/defects which the child inherits
from parents from birth;
(ii) infections and
(iii) life style including food and water we take, rest and
exercise we give to our bodies, habits that we have or
lack etc.

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The term health is very frequently used by everybody. How do we

define it? Health does not simply mean ‘absence of disease’ or ‘physical
fitness’. It could be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being. When people are healthy, they are more efficient at
work. This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity. Health
also increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal
mortality.
Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important
to maintain good health. Yoga has been practised since time immemorial
to achieve physical and mental health. Awareness about diseases and
their effect on different bodily functions, vaccination (immunisation)
against infectious diseases, proper disposal of wastes, control of vectors
and maintenance of hygiene in food and water resources are necessary
for achieving good health.
When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is
adversely affected, characterised by appearance of various signs and
symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, i.e., we have a disease. Diseases
can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious. Diseases
which are easily transmitted from one person to another, are called
infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are very common and every
one of us suffers from these at sometime or other. Some of the infectious
diseases like AIDS are fatal. Among non-infectious diseases, cancer is the
major cause of death. Drug and alcohol abuse also affect our health adversely.

7.1 COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS

A wide range of organisms belonging to bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoans, helminths, etc., could cause diseases in man. Such disease-
causing organisms are called pathogens. Most parasites are therefore
pathogens as they cause harm to the host by living in (or on) them. The
pathogens can enter our body by various means, multiply and interfere
with normal vital activities, resulting in morphological and functional
damage. Pathogens have to adapt to life within the environment of the
host. For example, the pathogens that enter the gut must know a way of
surviving in the stomach at low pH and resisting the various digestive
enzymes. A few representative members from different groups of
pathogenic organisms are discussed here alongwith the diseases caused
by them. Preventive and control measures against these diseases in general,
are also briefly described.
130 Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium which causes typhoid
fever in human beings. These pathogens generally enter the small intestine
through food and water contaminated with them and migrate to other
organs through blood. Sustained high fever (39° to 40°C), weakness,
stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite are some of
the common symptoms of this disease. Intestinal perforation and death
may occur in severe cases. Typhoid fever could be confirmed by

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Widal test : A classic case in medicine, that of Mary Mallon nicknamed

Typhoid Mary, is worth mentioning here. She was a cook by profession
and was a typhoid carrier who continued to spread typhoid for several
years through the food she prepared.
Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae
are responsible for the disease pneumonia in humans which infects the
alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs. As a result of the infection, the alveoli
get filled with fluid leading to severe problems in respiration. The symptoms
of pneumonia include fever, chills, cough and headache. In severe cases,
the lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour. A healthy
person acquires the infection by inhaling the droplets/aerosols released
by an infected person or even by sharing glasses and utensils with an
infected person. Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, etc., are some of the other
bacterial diseases in man.
Many viruses also cause diseases in human beings. Rhino viruses
represent one such group of viruses which cause one of the most infectious
human ailments – the common cold. They infect the nose and respiratory
passage but not the lungs. The common cold is characterised by nasal
congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache,
tiredness, etc., which usually last for 3-7 days. Droplets resulting from
cough or sneezes of an infected person are either inhaled directly or
transmitted through contaminated objects such as pens, books, cups,
doorknobs, computer keyboard or mouse, etc., and cause infection in a
healthy person.
Some of the human diseases are caused by protozoans too. You might
have heard about malaria, a disease man has been fighting since many
years. Plasmodium, a tiny protozoan is responsible for this disease. Different
species of Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum) are
responsible for different types of malaria. Of these, malignant malaria caused
by Plasmodium falciparum is the most serious one and can even be fatal.
Let us take a glance at the life cycle of Plasmodium (Figure 7.1).
Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form)
through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito. The parasites
initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the red blood cells
(RBCs) resulting in their rupture. The rupture of RBCs is associated with
release of a toxic substance, haemozoin, which is responsible for the chill
and high fever recurring every three to four days. When a female Anopheles
mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the mosquito’s
body and undergo further development. The parasites multiply within
them to form sporozoites that are stored in their salivary glands. When
131
these mosquitoes bite a human, the sporozoites are introduced into his/
her body, thereby initiating the events mentioned above. It is interesting
to note that the malarial parasite requires two hosts – human and
mosquitoes – to complete its life cycle (Figure 7.1); the female Anopheles
mosquito is the vector (transmitting agent) too.

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132 Figure 7.1 Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of

human which causes amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery). Symptoms of
this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools
with excess mucous and blood clots. Houseflies act as mechanical carriers
and serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected person to food

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

and food products, thereby contaminating them.

Drinking water and food contaminated by the faecal
matter are the main source of infection.
Ascaris, the common round worm and Wuchereria,
the filarial worm, are some of the helminths which are
known to be pathogenic to man. Ascaris, an intestinal
parasite causes ascariasis. Symptoms of these disease
include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia
and blockage of the intestinal passage. The eggs of the
parasite are excreted along with the faeces of infected
persons which contaminate soil, water, plants, etc. A
healthy person acquires this infection through
contaminated water, vegetables, fruits, etc.
Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi), the filarial
worms cause a slowly developing chronic inflammation
of the organs in which they live for many years, usually
the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs and the disease
is called elephantiasis or filariasis (Figure 7.2). The
genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross
deformities. The pathogens are transmitted to a healthy Figure 7.2 Diagram showing
person through the bite by the female mosquito vectors. inflammation in one
Many fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, of the lower limbs due
to elephantiasis
T richophyton and Epidermophyton are
responsible for ringworms which is one of
the most common infectious diseases in man.
Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various
parts of the body such as skin, nails and
scalp (Figure 7.3) are the main symptoms of
the disease. These lesions are accompanied
by intense itching. Heat and moisture help
these fungi to grow, which makes them thrive
in skin folds such as those in the groin or
between the toes. Ringworms are generally Figure 7.3 Diagram showing ringworm
acquired from soil or by using towels, clothes affected area of the skin
or even the comb of infected individuals.
Maintenance of personal and public hygiene is very important for
prevention and control of many infectious diseases. Measures for personal
hygiene include keeping the body clean; consumption of clean drinking
water, food, vegetables, fruits, etc. Public hygiene includes proper disposal 133
of waste and excreta; periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs,
pools, cesspools and tanks and observing standard practices of hygiene
in public catering. These measures are particularly essential where the
infectious agents are transmitted through food and water such as typhoid,
amoebiasis and ascariasis. In cases of air-borne diseases such as
pneumonia and common cold, in addition to the above measures, close

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 BIOLOGY

contact with the infected persons or their belongings should be avoided.

For diseases such as malaria and filariasis that are transmitted through
insect vectors, the most important measure is to control or eliminate the
vectors and their breeding places. This can be achieved by avoiding
stagnation of water in and around residential areas, regular cleaning of
household coolers, use of mosquito nets, introducing fishes like Gambusia
in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of insecticides in ditches,
drainage areas and swamps, etc. In addition, doors and windows should
be provided with wire mesh to prevent the entry of mosquitoes. Such
precautions have become more important especially in the light of recent
widespread incidences of the vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases
like dengue and chikungunya in many parts of India.
The advancements made in biological science have armed us to
effectively deal with many infectious diseases. The use of vaccines and
immunisation programmes have enabled us to completely eradicate a
deadly disease like smallpox. A large number of other infectious diseases
like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus have been controlled to a
large extent by the use of vaccines. Biotechnology (about which you will
read more in Chapter 10) is at the verge of making available newer and
safer vaccines. Discovery of antibiotics and various other drugs has also
enabled us to effectively treat infectious diseases.

7.2 IMMUNITY
Everyday we are exposed to large number of infectious agents. However,
only a few of these exposures result in disease. Why? This is due to the
fact that the body is able to defend itself from most of these foreign agents.
This overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms,
conferred by the immune system is called immunity.
Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate immunity and (ii) Acquired
immunity.

7.2.1 Innate Immunity

Innate immunity is non-specific type of defence, that is present at the
time of birth. This is accomplished by providing different types of barriers
to the entry of the foreign agents into our body. Innate immunity consist
of four types of barriers. These are —
(i) Physical barriers : Skin on our body is the main barrier which
prevents entry of the micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the
134 epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital
tracts also help in trapping microbes entering our body.
(ii) Physiological barriers : Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth,
tears from eyes–all prevent microbial growth.
(iii) Cellular barriers : Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body
like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) and

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

monocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as

well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy
microbes.
(iv) Cytokine barriers : Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called
interferons which protect non-infected cells from further viral
infection.

7.2.2 Acquired Immunity

Acquired immunity, on the other hand is pathogen specific. It is
characterised by memory. This means when our body encounters a
pathogen for the first time it produces a response called primary
response which is of low intensity. Subsequent encounter with the same
pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
This is ascribed to the fact that our body appears to have memory of the
first encounter.
The primary and secondary
immune responses are
carried out with the help
of two special types of
lymphocytes present in our
blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and
T-lymphocytes.
The B-lymphocytes produce an
army of proteins in response to
pathogens into our blood to fight
with them. These proteins are
called antibodies. The
T-cells themselves do not secrete
antibodies but help B cells to
produce them. Each antibody
molecule has four peptide chains,
two small called light chains and
two longer called heavy chains. Figure 7.4 Structure of an antibody molecule
Hence, an antibody is represented
as H2L2. Different types of antibodies are produced in our body. IgA, IgM,
IgE, IgG are some of them. A cartoon of an antibody is given in Figure
7.4. Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also
called as humoral immune response. This is one of the two types of our
acquired immune response – antibody mediated. The second type is called 135
cell-mediated immune response or cell-mediated immunity (CMI). The
T-lymphocytes mediate CMI. Very often, when some human organs like
heart, eye, liver, kidney fail to function satisfactorily, transplantation is
the only remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life. Then a search
begins – to find a suitable donor. Why is it that the organs cannot be
taken from just anybody? What is it that the doctors check? Grafts from

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just any source – an animal, another primate, or any human beings cannot
be made since the grafts would be rejected sooner or later. Tissue
matching, blood group matching are essential before undertaking any
graft/transplant and even after this the patient has to take immuno–
suppresants all his/her life. The body is able to differentiate ‘self ’ and
‘nonself’ and the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the
graft rejection.

7.2.3 Active and Passive Immunity

When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living
or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host
body. This type of immunity is called active immunity. Active immunity
is slow and takes time to give its full effective response. Injecting the
microbes deliberately during immunisation or infectious organisms
gaining access into body during natural infection induce active
immunity. When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect
the body against foreign agents, it is called passive immunity. Do you
know why mother’s milk is considered very essential for the new-
born infant? The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during
the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the
infant. The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother,
through the placenta during pregnancy. These are some examples of
passive immunity.

7.2.4 Vaccination and Immunisation

The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of
‘memory’ of the immune system. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic
proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are
introduced into the body. The antibodies produced in the body against
these antigens would neutralise the pathogenic agents during actual
infection. The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells that recognise
the pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the
invaders with a massive production of antibodies. If a person is infected
with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required
as in tetanus, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies, or
antitoxin (a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases
of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
136 antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunisation is called
passive immunisation.
Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic
polypeptides of pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using
this approach allow large scale production and hence greater availability
for immunisation, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.

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7.2.5 Allergies
When you have gone to a new place and suddenly you started sneezing,
wheezing for no explained reason, and when you went away, your
symptoms dissappeared. Did this happen to you? Some of us are sensitive
to some particles in the environment. The above-mentioned reaction could
be because of allergy to pollen, mites, etc., which are different in different
places.
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens
present in the environment is called allergy. The substances to which
such an immune response is produced are called allergens. The antibodies
produced to these are of IgE type. Common examples of allergens are
mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc. Symptoms of allergic reactions
include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing.
Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin
from the mast cells. For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is
exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible allergens, and the
reactions studied. The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and
steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy. Somehow, modern-day
life style has resulted in lowering of immunity and more sensitivity to
allergens – more and more children in metro cities of India suffer from
allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the environment. This could be
because of the protected environment provided early in life.

7.2.6 Auto Immunity

Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based
on the ability to differentiate foreign organisms (e.g., pathogens) from self-
cells. While we still do not understand the basis of this, two corollaries of
this ability have to be understood. One, higher vertebrates can distinguish
foreign molecules as well as foreign organisms. Most of the experimental
immunology deals with this aspect. Two, sometimes, due to genetic and
other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This results in damage
to the body and is called auto-immune disease. Rheumatoid arthritis
which affects many people in our society is an auto-immune disease.

7.2.7 Immune System in the Body

The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells
and soluble molecules like antibodies. As you have read, immune system
is unique in the sense that it recognises foreign antigens, responds to
137
these and remembers them. The immune system also plays an important
role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases and organ
transplantation.
Lymphoid organs: These are the organs where origin and/or maturation
and proliferation of lymphocytes occur. The primary lymphoid organs
are bone marrow and thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate

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into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. After maturation the

lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen,
lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and
appendix. The secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for
interaction of lymphocytes with the antigen, which then proliferate
to become effector cells. The location of various lymphoid organs
in the human body is shown in Figure 7.5.
The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all
blood cells including lymphocytes are produced. The thymus
is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the
breastbone. The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but
keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is
attained it reduces to a very small size. Both bone-marrow
and thymus provide micro-environments for the development
and maturation of T-lymphocytes. The spleen is a large bean-
shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.
Figure 7.5 Diagrammatic It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne micro-
representation
organisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
of L ymph nodes
The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different
points along the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes serve to trap the
micro-organisms or other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph
and tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for
the activation of lymphocytes present there and cause the immune
response.
There is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major
tracts (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts) called mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes about 50 per cent of
the lymphoid tissue in human body.

7.3 AIDS
The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
This means deficiency of immune system, acquired during the lifetime of
an individual indicating that it is not a congenital disease. ‘Syndrome’
means a group of symptoms. AIDS was first reported in 1981 and in the
last twenty-five years or so, it has spread all over the world killing more
than 25 million persons.
AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a
member of a group of viruses called retrovirus, which have an envelope
138 enclosing the RNA genome (Figure 7.6). Transmission of HIV-infection
generally occurs by (a) sexual contact with infected person, (b) by
transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products, (c) by sharing
infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers and (d) from
infected mother to her child through placenta. So, people who are at high
risk of getting this infection includes - individuals who have multiple

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Figure 7.6 Replication of retrovirus

sexual partners, drug addicts who take drugs intravenously, individuals

who require repeated blood transfusions and children born to an HIV
infected mother. Do you know –when do people need repeated blood
transfusion? Find out and make a list of such conditions. It is important 139
to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it
spreads only through body fluids. It is, hence, imperative, for the physical
and psychological well-being, that the HIV/AIDS infected persons are
not isolated from family and society. There is always a time-lag between
the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period may vary
from a few months to many years (usually 5-10 years).

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After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages
where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of
the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This viral DNA gets incorporated into host
cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce virus particles (Figure 7.6).
The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV
factory. Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates
and produce progeny viruses. The progeny viruses released in the blood attack
other helper T-lymphocytes. This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease
in the number of helper T-lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight
loss. Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts
suffering from infections that could have been otherwise overcome such as
those due to bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even
parasites like Toxoplasma. The patient becomes so immuno-deficient that
he/she is unable to protect himself/herself against these infections. A widely
used diagnostic test for AIDS is enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay
(ELISA). Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective.
They can only prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is
inevitable.
Prevention of AIDS : As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option.
Moreover, HIV infection, more often, spreads due to conscious behaviour
patterns and is not something that happens inadvertently, like pneumonia
or typhoid. Of course, infection in blood transfusion patients, new-borns
(from mother) etc., may take place due to poor monitoring. The only excuse
may be ignorance and it has been rightly said – “don’t die of ignorance”.
In our country the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other
non-governmental organisation (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people
about AIDS. WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the
spreading of HIV infection. Making blood (from blood banks) safe from
HIV, ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public
and private hospitals and clinics, free distribution of condoms, controlling
drug abuse, advocating safe sex and promoting regular check-ups for
HIV in susceptible populations, are some such steps taken up.
Infection with HIV or having AIDS is something that should not be
hidden – since then, the infection may spread to many more people.
HIV/AIDS-infected people need help and sympathy instead of being
shunned by society. Unless society recognises it as a problem to be dealt
with in a collective manner – the chances of wider spread of the disease
140 increase manifold. It is a malady that can only be tackled, by the society
and medical fraternity acting together, to prevent the spread of the disease.

7.4 CANCER
Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of human beings and is a major
cause of death all over the globe. More than a million Indians suffer from

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cancer and a large number of them die from it annually. The mechanisms
that underlie development of cancer or oncogenic transformation of cells,
its treatment and control have been some of the most intense areas of
research in biology and medicine.
In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and
regulated. In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory
mechanisms. Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition by
virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth.
Cancer cells appears to have lost this property. As a result of this, cancerous
cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant. Benign tumors normally
remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts
of the body and cause little damage. The malignant tumors, on the
other hand are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor
cells. These cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the
surrounding normal tissues. As these cells actively divide and grow they
also starve the normal cells by competing for vital nutrients. Cells sloughed
from such tumors reach distant sites through blood, and wherever they
get lodged in the body, they start a new tumor there. This property called
metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumors.
Causes of cancer : Transformation of normal cells into cancerous
neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical or biological agents.
These agents are called carcinogens. Ionising radiations like X-rays and
gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation. The chemical carcinogens present
in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung cancer.
Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral
oncogenes. Furthermore, several genes called cellular oncogenes
(c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal cells which,
when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic
transformation of the cells.
Cancer detection and diagnosis : Early detection of cancers is essential
as it allows the disease to be treated successfully in many cases. Cancer
detection is based on biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue
and blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell counts in the case of
leukemias. In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections
is stained and examined under microscope (histopathological studies) by
a pathologist. Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed
tomography) and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to 141
detect cancers of the internal organs. Computed tomography uses X-rays
to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an object. MRI
uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to accurately detect
pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.
Antibodies against cancer -specific antigens are also used for
detection of certain cancers. Techniques of molecular biology can be

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applied to detect genes in individuals with inherited susceptibility to

certain cancers. Identification of such genes, which predispose an
individual to certain cancers, may be very helpful in prevention of
cancers. Such individuals may be advised to avoid exposure to
particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible (e.g., tobacco
smoke in case of lung cancer).
Treatment of cancer : The common approaches for treatment of cancer
are surgery, radiation therapy and immunotherapy. In radiotherapy,
tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper care of the normal tissues
surrounding the tumor mass. Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used
to kill cancerous cells. Some of these are specific for particular tumors.
Majority of drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc. Most cancers
are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Tumor cells have been shown to avoid detection and destruction by
immune system. Therefore, the patients are given substances called
biological response modifiers such as α-interferon which activates their
immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.

7.5 DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

Surveys and statistics show that use of drugs and alcohol has been on
the rise especially among the youth. This is really a cause of concern as it
could result in many harmful effects. Proper education and guidance
would enable youth to safeguard themselves against these dangerous
behaviour patterns and follow healthy lifestyles.
The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids
and coca alkaloids. Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants.
Some are obtained from fungi.
Opioids are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present
in our central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. Heroin
(Figure 7.7), commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which
is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound. This is obtained by
acetylation of morphine (Figure 7.7), which is extracted from the latex of

142

Figure 7.7 Chemical structure of Morphine Figure 7.8 Opium poppy

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poppy plant Papaver somniferum (Figure 7.8). Generally taken by snorting

and injection, heroin is a depressant and slows down body functions.
Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals (Figure 7.9), which interact
with cannabinoid receptors present principally in the brain. Natural
cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis
sativa (Figure 7.10). The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis
plant are used in various combinations to produce marijuana, hashish,
charas and ganja. Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, these
are known for their effects on cardiovascular system of the body.

Figure 7.9 Skeletal structure of Figure 7.10 Leaves of Cannabis sativa

cannabinoid molecule

Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca

plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It
interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter
dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack is
usually snorted. It has a potent stimulating action on
central nervous system, producing a sense of euphoria
and increased energy. Excessive dosage of cocaine
causes hallucinations. Other well-known plants with
hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona and
Datura (Figure 7.11). These days cannabinoids are also
being abused by some sportspersons.
Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines, and other similar drugs, that are
normally used as medicines to help patients cope with Figure 7.11 Flowering branch of Datura
mental illnesses like depression and insomnia, are often
abused. Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller, and is very useful 143
in patients who have undergone surgery. Several plants, fruits and seeds
having hallucinogenic properties have been used for hundreds of years in
folk-medicine, religious ceremonies and rituals all over the globe. When these
are taken for a purpose other than medicinal use or in amounts/frequency
that impairs one’s physical, physiological or psychological functions, it
constitutes drug abuse.

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Smoking also paves the way to hard drugs. Tobacco has been used
by human beings for more than 400 years. It is smoked, chewed or used
as a snuff. Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances
including nicotine, an alkaloid. Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to
release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation, both of
which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate. Smoking is associated
with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc. Tobacco
chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces
the concentration of haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency
in the body.
When one buys packets of cigarettes one cannot miss the statutory
warning that is present on the packing which warns against smoking
and says how it is injurious to health. Yet, smoking is very prevalent in
society, both among young and old. Knowing the dangers of smoking
and chewing tobacco, and its addictive nature, the youth and old need to
avoid these habits. Any addict requires counselling and medical help to
get rid of the habit.

7.5.1 Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse

Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child
becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective
participation in society. The period between 12-18 years of age may
be thought of as adolescence period. In other words, adolescence is a
bridge linking childhood and adulthood. Adolescence is accompanied
by several biological and behavioural changes. Adolescence, thus is a
very vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development of an
individual.
Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation,
constitute common causes, which motivate youngsters towards drug
and alcohol use. A child’s natural curiosity motivates him/her to
experiment. This is complicated further by effects that might be perceived
as benefits, of alcohol or drug use. Thus, the first use of drugs or alcohol
may be out of curiosity or experimentation, but later the child starts
using these to escape facing problems. Of late, stress, from pressures to
excel in academics or examinations, has played a significant role in
persuading the youngsters to try alcohol and drugs. The perception
144 among youth that it is ‘cool’ or progressive to smoke, use drugs or
alcohol, is also in a way a major cause for youth to start these habits.
Television, movies, newspapers, internet also help to promote this
perception. Other factors that have been seen to be associated with drug
and alcohol abuse among adolescents are unstable or unsupportive
family structures and peer pressure.

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7.5.2 Addiction and Dependence

Because of the perceived benefits, drugs are frequently used repeatedly.
The most important thing, which one fails to realise, is the inherent
addictive nature of alcohol and drugs. Addiction is a psychological
attachment to certain effects – such as euphoria and a temporary feeling
of well-being – associated with drugs and alcohol. These drive people to
take them even when these are not needed, or even when their use becomes
self-destructive. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the
receptors present in our body increases. Consequently the receptors
respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake
and addiction. However, it should be clearly borne in mind that use of
these drugs even once, can be a fore-runner to addiction. Thus, the
addictive potential of drugs and alcohol, pull the user into a vicious circle
leading to their regular use (abuse) from which he/she may not be able
to get out. In the absence of any guidance or counselling, the person gets
addicted and becomes dependent on their use.
Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic
and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol
is abruptly discontinued. This is characterised by anxiety, shakiness,
nausea and sweating, which may be relieved when use is resumed again.
In some cases, withdrawal symptoms can be severe and even life
threatening and the person may need medical supervision.
Dependence leads the patient to ignore all social norms in order to
get sufficient funds to satiate his/her needs. These result in many social
adjustment problems.

7.5.3 Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse

The immediate adverse effects of drugs and alcohol abuse are manifested
in the form of reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence. Excessive
doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure,
heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage. A combination of drugs or their
intake along with alcohol generally results in overdosing and even
deaths. The most common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse
among youth include drop in academic performance, unexplained
absence from school/college, lack of interest in personal hygiene,
withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious
behaviour, deteriorating relationships with family and friends, loss of
interest in hobbies, change in sleeping and eating habits, fluctuations
in weight, appetite, etc. 145
There may even be some far-reaching implications of drug/alcohol
abuse. If an abuser is unable to get money to buy drugs/alcohol he/she
may turn to stealing. The adverse effects are just not restricted to the
person who is using drugs or alcohol. At times, a drug/alcohol addict
becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to his/her entire family
and friends.

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Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein
using a needle and syringe), are much more likely to acquire serious
infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B. The viruses, which are responsible
for these diseases, are transferred from one person to another by sharing
of infected needles and syringes. Both AIDS and Hepatitis B infections
are chronic infections and ultimately fatal. Both can be transmitted
through sexual contact or infected blood.
The use of alcohol during adolescence may also have long-term effects.
It could lead to heavy drinking in adulthood. The chronic use of drugs and
alcohol damages nervous system and liver (cirrhosis). The use of drugs
and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus.
Another misuse of drugs is what certain sportspersons do to enhance
their performance. They (mis)use narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids,
diuretics and certain hormones in sports to increase muscle strength and
bulk and to promote aggressiveness and as a result increase athletic
performance. The side-effects of the use of anabolic steroids in females
include masculinisation (features like males), increased aggressiveness,
mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles, excessive hair
growth on the face and body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,
depression, reduction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm production,
potential for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature
baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland. These effects may be
permanent with prolonged use. In the adolescent male or female, severe
facial and body acne, and premature closure of the growth centres of the
long bones may result in stunted growth.

7.5.4 Prevention and Control

The age-old adage of ‘prevention is better than cure’ holds true here also.
It is also true that habits such as smoking, taking drug or alcohol are
more likely to be taken up at a young age, more during adolescence.
Hence, it is best to identify the situations that may push an adolescent
towards use of drugs or alcohol, and to take remedial measures well in
time. In this regard, the parents and the teachers have a special
responsibility. Parenting that combines with high levels of nurturance
and consistent discipline, has been associated with lowered risk of
substance (alcohol/drugs/tobacco) abuse. Some of the measures
mentioned here would be particularly useful for prevention and control
146 of alcohol and drugs abuse among adolescents
(i) Avoid undue peer pressure - Every child has his/her own choice
and personality, which should be respected and nurtured. A child
should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond his/her threshold
limits; be it studies, sports or other activities.

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(ii) Education and counselling - Educating and counselling him/

her to face problems and stresses, and to accept disappointments
and failures as a part of life. It would also be worthwhile to channelise
the child’s energy into healthy pursuits like sports, reading, music,
yoga and other extracurricular activities.
(iii) Seeking help from parents and peers - Help from parents and
peers should be sought immediately so that they can guide
appropriately. Help may even be sought from close and trusted
friends. Besides getting proper advise to sort out their problems,
this would help young to vent their feelings of anxiety and guilt.
(iv) Looking for danger signs - Alert parents and teachers need to
look for and identify the danger signs discussed above. Even friends,
if they find someone using drugs or alcohol, should not hesitate to
bring this to the notice of parents or teacher in the best interests of
the person concerned. Appropriate measures would then be required
to diagnose the malady and the underlying causes. This would help
in initiating proper remedial steps or treatment.
(v) Seeking professional and medical help - A lot of help is available
in the form of highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists, and de-
addiction and rehabilitation programmes to help individuals who
have unfortunately got in the quagmire of drug/alcohol abuse. With
such help, the affected individual with sufficient efforts and will power,
can get rid of the problem completely and lead a perfectly normal
and healthy life.

SUMMARY

Health is not just the absence of disease. It is a state of complete physical,

mental, social and psychological well-being. Diseases like typhoid,
cholera, pneumonia, fungal infections of skin, malaria and many others
are a major cause of distress to human beings. Vector-borne diseases
like malaria especially one caused by Plasmodium falciparum, if not
treated, may prove fatal. Besides personal cleanliness and hygiene,
public health measures like proper disposal of waste, decontamination
of drinking water, control of vectors like mosquitoes and immunisation
are very helpful in preventing these diseases. Our immune system plays
the major role in preventing these diseases when we are exposed to
disease-causing agents. The innate defences of our body like skin,
mucous membranes, antimicrobial substances present in our tears,
saliva and the phagocytic cells help to block the entry of pathogens
147
into our body. If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to our body,
specific antibodies (humoral immune response) and cells (cell mediated
immune response) serve to kill these pathogens. Immune system has
memory. On subsequent exposure to same pathogen, the immune
response is rapid and more intense. This forms the basis of protection

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afforded by vaccination and immunisation. Among other diseases, AIDS

and cancer kill a large number of individuals worldwide. AIDS caused
by the human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is fatal but can be
prevented if certain precautions are taken. Many cancers are curable if
detected early and appropriate therapeutic measures are taken. Of late,
drug and alcohol abuse among youth and adolescents is becoming
another cause of concern. Because of the addictive nature of alcohol
and drugs, and their perceived benefits like relief from stress, a person
may try taking these in the face of peer pressure, examinations-related
and competition-related stresses. In doing so, he/she may get addicted
to them. Education about their harmful effects, counselling and seeking
immediate professional and medical help would totally relieve the
individual from these evils.

EXERCISES
1. What are the various public health measures, which you would suggest
as safeguard against infectious diseases?
2. In which way has the study of biology helped us to control infectious
diseases?
3. How does the transmission of each of the following diseases take place?
(a) Amoebiasis (b) Malaria (c) Ascariasis (d) Pneumonia
4. What measure would you take to prevent water-borne diseases?
5. Discuss with your teacher what does ‘a suitable gene’ means, in the
context of DNA vaccines.
6. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
7. The following are some well-known abbreviations, which have been
used in this chapter. Expand each one to its full form:
(a) MALT (b) CMI (c) AIDS (d) NACO
(e) HIV
8. Differentiate the following and give examples of each:
(a) Innate and acquired immunity (b) Active and passive immunity
9. Draw a well-labelled diagram of an antibody molecule.
10. What are the various routes by which transmission of human immuno-
deficiency virus takes place?
11. What is the mechanism by which the AIDS virus causes deficiency of
immune system of the infected person?
12. How is a cancerous cell different from a normal cell?
13. Explain what is meant by metastasis.
148 14. List the harmful effects caused by alcohol/drug abuse.
15. Do you think that friends can influence one to take alcohol/drugs? If
yes, how may one protect himself/herself from such an influence?
16. Why is that once a person starts taking alcohol or drugs, it is difficult
to get rid of this habit? Discuss it with your teacher.
17. In your view what motivates youngsters to take to alcohol or drugs and
how can this be avoided?

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