UNIT - 1 (also according to specification

points)

● Specification points stated here are the

same as the learning objectives in each
unit.
(design and some of the contents is Crd to Thet Zun Oo)

Chapter 1: states of matter

1.1: Arrangement, movement and energy of the particles of three

states of matter_solid, liquid and gas.

Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement Particles are arranged Particles are Particles are
regularly and packed arranged randomly further apart
closely together.
movement Can only Vibrate in a Can move around Can move randomly
fixed position at high speed in all
directions.
energy The particles don't The particles have The particles have the
have much Kinetic more Kinetic most kinetic energy as
energy because of energy compared to there are no forces of
strong forces of Solids as the forces attraction between
attraction between are less effective. them.
them.

1.2:The interconversions between the three states

of matter
• the names of the interconversions
Solid to liquid - melting
Liquid to solid - freezing

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 Liquid to gas - boiling
Gas to liquid - condensing

EXTRA: Bolling is not evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Produce bubbles Doesn’t produce bubbles.
Happens at a specific fixed temperature. Happens at any temperature.
Happens throughout the liquid Happens only at the surface of liquid.

Solid to gas - sublimation (eg. dry ice and “pa yote lone” )
Gas to solid - deposition

• how they are achieved

• the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of
the particles.

(solid to liquid)
● When the solid is heated, its particles will gain energy and vibrate
faster
● This would cause the particles to loosen the strong force of
attraction between them

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● The particles are able to move around and the solid melts into a
liquid.
(liquid to solid)
● When the liquid is cooled, the particles will move around more
slowly
● Their force of attraction will hold them in a fixed position and
particles will pace more closely
● The liquid freezes to form a solid

*The higher force of attraction between the particles, the higher

their melting and boiling points.

(liquid to gas) similar to (solid to liquid)

● When the liquid is heated so strongly, boiling occurs and particles
will gain energy and move faster
● This would cause the particles to overcome all the strong force of
attraction between them

(gas to liquid) similar to (liquid to solid)

● When the gas is cooled, the particles will move around more
slowly
● Their force of attraction will start to form and hold them as a
liquid.

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(gas to solid) and (solid to gas)

EXTRA but important:

Below its melting point → solid
Between its melting point and boiling point → liquid
Above boiling point → gas

Practice: chapter1 question no.3.

1.3: understand how the results of experiments involving the

dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases can be
explained

Diffusion
● The spreading out of particles in a gas or liquid
● Particles will diffuse from high concentration to where there is
low concentration.

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Practical: showing that particles travel at different speed
Ammonia + hydrogen chloride → ammonium chloride
NH3(g) + HCl(g)→ NH4Cl (s)

● Ammonia particles and hydrogen chloride gas particles diffuse

along the tube
● A white ring of solid ammonium chloride forms where they meet
● It appears closer to the hydrochloric acid end because ammonia
particles are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles and therefore
move faster.

Diffusion in liquids
● Diffusion through a liquid is very slow if the liquid is completely
still.
● This is because the particles in a liquid move more slowly than the
particles in a gas.
● The particles in a liquid are also much closer together than those
in a gas and so there is less space for particles to move into without
colliding with another one.

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1.4: know what is meant by the terms:
● solvent: the liquid that the solute dissolves
● Solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent
● Solution: the liquid formed when solute dissolves in solvent
● saturated solution [2]: The solution that contains as much solute
as possible [1] at a particular temperature [1]

1.5C(will not be included in paper-1): know what is meant by

the term solubility in the units g per 100 g of solvent

● Solubility of a solid in a solvent at particular temperature is

usually defined as: The mass of solute which must dissolve in 100g
of solvent at that temperature to form a saturated solution

Solubility formula:

1.6C(will not be included in paper-1): understand how to plot

and interpret solubility curves

*Solubility increases with temperature.

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1.7C(will not be included in paper-1): practical: investigate
the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature

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 How to make the experiment accurate?
● Repeat step 7, again and again, until it gains a constant mass.

Chapter 2: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

(Textbook Page 14-23)

1.8: understand how to classify a substance as an

element, compound, or mixture

elements compounds mixture

Contains only one type Contains two or more Contains different types of
of atom. types of elements that elements and compounds
are chemically bonded. that are not chemically
bonded.

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E.g Oxygen gas (O2) E.g Water (H2O) Eg. air, coffee

1.9: understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting

and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or boil over
a range of temperatures

1.10: describe these experimental techniques for the

separation of mixtures:
• simple distillation
• fractional distillation
• filtration
• crystallisation
• paper chromatography.

Filtration
*To separate insoluble solid from liquid

*It can also be used to separate two solids from each other if
one of them is soluble in water.
Residue: the substance left in filter paper
Filtrate: the liquid that comes through the filter paper

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Crystallisation

*To separate solute from solution

method to collect dry crystals / crystallisation process[4 marks]

- The solution is heated in evaporating basin until it forms a
saturated solution
- Then cool down the solution until crystals formed
- Collect the crystals by filtration
- Dry them in a warm place

EXTRA:

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Simple distillation

*Use to separate both solute and solvent from the solution

*Use simple distillation to collect the water back from the

vapour produced from crystallisation (egg. Getting salt from
solution)

Process:
- Add the solution into the flask and connected with condenser
- Heat the solution
- The vapour will rise up and pass through the condenser
- The water was collected in the beaker
- The solute is left in the flask

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Fractional distillation

*Use to separate a mixture of liquids such as ethanol and water

*Take advantage of both liquid being different boiling points

Process:
- Heat the mixture in the flask; ethanol will boil first
- Some water will evaporate too
- But at 78°C, ethanol will no longer condense back in fractionating
column and travel to the condenser
- The water will condense back into the flask
- Almost pure ethanol is produced

YOUTUBE VIDEOS (THEY ARE HELPFUL)

GCSE Chemistry - Filtration, Evaporation & Crystallisation #6
GCSE Chemistry - Fractional Distillation and Simple Distillatio…
GCSE Chemistry - Paper Chromatography #63

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Paper chromatography

*Use to separate various of mixtures

1.11: understand how a chromatogram provides

information about the composition of a mixture

- If the ink has the same distance travelled, it means the ink is the
same type.

-
- Spot that moved the farthest has the most soluble colouring.
(the greater the RF value → the more soluble the dye is)

1.12: understand how to use the calculation of Rf values

to identify the components of a mixture

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- Rf value is used to measure how much the ink has travelled from
the pencil line based on the total distance between the pencil line
and the solvent front
- It is a ratio and must be between 0 and 1

1.13: practical: investigate paper chromatography using

inks/food colourings

(steps)
- Draw a pencil line about 1cm of the bottom of the chromatography
paper
- Put the ink to test on the pencil line (let it dry)
- Suspend the chromatography paper in a beaker that contains a
small amount of solvent so that the bottom of the paper goes into
the solvent.
- Put a lid
- When the solvent has moved up to the top of the paper, draw the
pencil line in the same place again.
- Leave the paper to dry so that all the solvent evaporates.

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To careful:
- Base line has to be above the water level because if it is underwater
ink is most likely to dissolve.
-Base line should be drawn in pencil, not in pen because the ink
from pencil line might mix up with the experimenting ink and
contaminate the results.

Chapter 3: Atomic Structure

(Textbook Page 24-29)

1.14: know what is meant by the terms atom and molecule

Atom: the smallest piece of an element that can still recognised as
an element
Molecule: consists of two or more atoms chemically bonded (by
covalent bonds) eg. water is a molecule

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1.15: know the structure of an atom in terms of the
positions, relative masses and relative charges of
subatomic particles

Subatomic particles: proton, neutron and electron.

(tip: in the exam, you would be expected to be asked to fill the table
as [1/3] mark Qs.)

VERY IMPORTANT : The atom has no charge if it has the same

number of protons and electrons.

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1.16: know what is meant by the terms atomic number,
mass number, isotopes, and relative atomic mass (Ar)

Atomic number or proton number : number of protons in an

atom’s nucleus.
Mass number (nucleon number): total number of protons and
neutrons.

Isotopes: atoms that have the same number of protons but

different numbers of neutrons.

Relative atomic mass number (Ar): the average mass of an

atom based on the amount of each isotope.

1.17: be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an

element (Ar) from isotopic abundances
Ar = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 * 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/
100 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)

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Summary:

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Chapter 4: The Periodic Table
(Textbook Page 30-37)

1.17: understand how elements are arranged in the

Periodic Table:
● in order of atomic number
● in groups and periods

*periods: rows
*Groups: columns

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In exam:

1.19: understand how to deduce the electronic

configurations of the first 20 elements from their
positions in the Periodic Table

● Electronic configuration: the arrangement of electrons in an

atoms (e.g electronic configuration of Oxygen = 2.6)
● elements in the same group have same number of electrons in
their outer shell
● Group 1 has one electron in its outer shell while group 0 has 8
electrons in its outer shell

*group number = number of electrons in their outermost shell (so

they have similar chemical properties)

*period number = number of shells.

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Energy levels or shells
- The electrons move around the nucleus in a series of levels called
energy levels or shells
- Lower energy levels are always filled up before higher ones
- The first level (shell) holds two electrons the most, while the
second and third level hold 8 electrons. (2.8.8.2)

Noble gases (group-0 elements)

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1.20: understand how to use electrical conductivity and
the acid-base character of oxides to classify elements as
metals or non-metals

1.21: identify an element as a metal or a non-metal

according to its position in the Periodic Table

Comparison:
Metals Non-metals
can conduct electricity low conductivity of electricity
(because of delocalised (because they have no electrons
electrons) that are free to move) (except
graphite and silicon)
Form basic oxides Form acidic oxides

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More Comparison of their properties:
Metals Non-metals
High melting point and boiling Low melting point and boiling
point. point.
Shiny Not very shiny
Malleable and ductile brittle
Good conductor of heat and Poor conductor of heat and
electricity. electricity. (for heat, diamond is
exception)
Form ionic compounds Form ionic and covalent
compounds.
Form positive ions in their Form negative ions in their
compounds compounds

Malleable: hammered into any shape.

Ductile: Can be drawn into wires.

1.22: understand how the electronic configuration of a

main group element is related to its position in the
Periodic Table
- Elements in the same group in the periodic table have similar
chemical properties (e.g group 1 metals react with water to form
hydrogen and hydroxides)

Group Name Charge

1 Alkali metals +1
2 Alkali earth metals +2
7 halogen -1
0 noble gases (or) inert gases 0

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Chapter 5 and 6

To work out number of moles:

● Mole = Mass/ Mr (relative molecular mass)
(to find out Mr, Use Ar(relative atomic mass))

● Mole = Volume/ molar volume (this can only be done with gases)
(if volume is cm³, molar volume is 24000cm³)
(if volume is dm³, molar volume is 24dm³)

● Mole = Volume x concentration( mol/dm³)

(if volume is cm³, divide it by 1000 to get dm³)
(if volume is dm³, keep it the same)

Do past papers

Preview (important)

Ionic Bonding the electrostatic force of attraction between

the positive and negative ions
Covalent bonding the electrostatic force of attraction between
the nuclei of the atoms and shared pairs of
electrons
Metallic bonding the electrostatic force of attraction between
the positive ion and delocalised electrons

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Chapter 7: Ionic bonding
(Textbook Page 75-84)

1.37: understand how ions are formed by electron loss or

gain.

Ionic bonding: the electrostatic force of attraction between the

positive and negative ions

Ionic compound : non-metal + metal

Ions: the charged particles

● Cation: a positive ion (When the atom loses electrons)
(e.g Na+)
● Anion: a negative ion (When the atom gains electrons)
(e.g Cl-)

1.38: know the charges of these ions:

• metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3

• non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7
• Ag+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, Zn2+
• hydrogen (H+), hydroxide (OH–), ammonium (NH4+), carbonate
(CO32–), nitrate (NO3- ), sulfate (SO42–).

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Group Charge
1 1+
2 2+
3 3+
5 3-
6 2-
7 1-

Positive charges
Name Charge
Sliver (Ag) 1+
Copper (Cu) 2+
Iron (Fe) 2+ or 3+
Lead (Pb) 2+
Zinc (Zn) 2+

More charges
Hydrogen (H + ) 1+
Hydroxide (OH - ) 1-
Ammonium (NH4 + ) 1+
Carbonate (CO3 2- ) 2-
Nitrate (NO3 - ) 1-
Sulfate (SO4 2- ) 2-

1.40: draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show the formation

of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to

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combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7
only outer electrons need be shown

Example: Ionic bonding in magnesium oxide_an ionic compound.

Magnesium atom gives away two electrons forming a magnesium

ion which has 2+ charge.
Oxygen atom receives two electrons forming an oxygen ion which
has 2- charge.
Example: Ionic bonding in lithium fluoride_an ionic compound.

Another example:

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1.41: understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic
attractions

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1.41: understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices
have high melting and boiling points

Lattice: a regular array of particles

*ionic compounds form giant structure that consist of lattices of
positive ions and negative ions

Why do giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points? [3]
- Because of strong electrostatic force of attraction[1] between
oppositely charged ions[1] holding lattice together
- A lot of energy is needed to overcome those strong bonds [1]

Check textbook: page-82

Extra but important:

Electrostatic forces of attraction in magnesium oxide > Electrostatic
forces of attraction in sodium chloride, why?
Because in magnesium oxide, 2+ ions are attracting 2- ions.

Physical properties of ionic substances

• It has a high melting point and boiling point.
• tend to be crystalline.
• Tend to be brittle

•Soluble in water
•InSoluble in organic solvents.

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 1.43: Don't conduct electricity in solid state but can conduct when
they are molten or aqueous because the ions can move around.

Summary:
Bonding, definition, structure, m.p and b.p, electricity conductivity,
physical properties.

Chapter 8: Covalent bonding

(Textbook Page 85-97)

Covalent bonding: the electrostatic force of attraction between the

nuclei of the atoms and its shared pairs of electrons.

Covalent compound : non-metal + non-metal

1.44: know that a covalent bond is formed between atoms

by the sharing of a pair of electrons

1.45: understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic

attractions

Covalent bonding: the electrostatic force of attraction between

the nuclei of the atoms and its shared pairs of electrons.

1.46: understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to

represent covalent bonds in:

● diatomic molecules, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

halogens and hydrogen halides

Hydrogen(H2) Oxygen (O2) Halogen(eg. hydrogen halides(eg.

Chlorine gas CL2) Hydrogen Chloride
(HCl))

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● inorganic molecules including water, ammonia and carbon
dioxide

Water (H2O) Ammonia (NH3) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

● organic molecules containing up to two carbon atoms, including

methane, ethane, ethene and those containing halogen atoms.

Ethane (C2H6) Ethene (C2H4) CH3Br

1.47: explain why substances with a simple molecular

structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting
and boiling points the term intermolecular forces of

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attraction can be used to represent all forces between
molecules

Why do simple molecular covalent structures tend to be

gases or liquids or solids that have low melting and boiling
points?
- The intermolecular force of attraction between these simple
molecular structures is weak.
- It needs less energy to break these bonds
- Therefore, it has low melting and boiling points.
(*note that no covalent bonds are broken, and only intermolecular
force of attraction
*Covalent bonds are very strong)

1.48: explain why the melting and boiling points of

substances with simple molecular structures increase, in
general, with increasing relative molecular mass

- As relative molecular mass increases, intermolecular forces

become stronger.
- More energy is required to break them
- Therefore, melting and boiling points increase

1.49: explain why substances with giant covalent

structures are solids with high melting and boiling points

Why do giant covalent structures have high melting and

boiling points?
- They usually have no intermolecular force of attraction in their
structure and are only made with strong covalent bonds.
(example: graphite,diamond, silicon dioxide)
- So a lot of energy is required to break those covalent bonds

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 1.50: explain how the structures of diamond, graphite
and C60 fullerene influence their physical properties,
including electrical conductivity and hardness

Diamond

Structure - Giant covalent structure

- Tetrahedral arrangement
Intermolecular forces - Have no gaps between layers nor atoms
(n0) (have no intermolecular forces)

Physical property - Hard to break down because of strong

(is hard) covalent bonds.
Electricity conductivity - Don't conduct electricity
(no) - Because the electrons are not free to move
around.

Why don’t diamonds conduct

electricity?
- Each carbon has four electrons, which are
engaged in strong covalent bond formation
with the other four electrons
- So there are no free electrons that can
move around.
Melting and boiling point - Very high melting and boiling points
(very high) because of very strong carbon-carbon
covalent bonds
- So a lot of energy is required to break
those bonds

Name the type of structure in

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 diamond and explain, in terms of its
bonding, why diamond has a high
melting point.[4]
- It has giant covalent structure
- Made with covalent bonds only
- (idea that) covalent bonds are broken
- (Covalent bonds) are strong/require a lot
of energy to break them
EXTRA:

Solubility - It doesn’t dissolve in water or any other

(no) solvent because of strong covalent bonds.
Heat conductivity As one end is heated, the atoms vibrate
(very yes) more→because of the strong covalent
bonds, the vibrations are quickly
transmitted from one end to another.

Graphite

Structure - Giant covalent structure

- Has layer arrangement
Intermolecular forces - Have weak intermolecular forces of attraction
(yes) between layers

Physical property - Easy to break down

(is soft) - Because Intermolecular forces of attraction
between layers are weaker and not much energy
is needed to overcome them
- Layers can slide over each other.
Electricity conductivity - Conduct electricity

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(yes) - Because delocalized electrons of graphite are
free to move around

Why do graphites conduct electricity?

Melting and boiling point - Very high melting and boiling points because
(very high) of very strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds
- So a lot of energy is required to break those
bonds

Why can graphite act as a lubricant? [2]

- There is a weak intermolecular force of
attraction between layers
- So layers can easily slide over each other

EXTRA:
- Insoluble in all solvents
Solubility - Because it takes a lot of energy to break all the
(no) strong covalent bonds
Density - Less dense than a diamond because the layers
(less dense than diamond) of molecules are far apart

C60 fullerene

Structure -Simple molecular structure

Intermolecular forces - Have weak intermolecular forces of attraction
(yes) between molecules

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Physical property - Easy to break down
(is soft) - Because Intermolecular forces of attraction between
layers are weaker and not much energy is needed to
overcome them
Electricity conductivity - don't conduct electricity
(no) - because electrons cannot jump from molecule to
molecule
Melting and boiling - Low high melting and boiling points because only
point (low) weak intermolecular forces of attraction between
molecules must be broken.
- No covalent bonds breaking
- So less energy is needed
EXTRA: - C60 fullerene has been suggested as being useful in
the treatment of cancer.
Unique points - They can act as hollow cages to trap other molecules

1.51: know that covalent compounds do not usually

conduct electricity
- Because they do not have any electrons that are free to move
around due to them being held strongly by the strong covalent
bonds.

Differences between simple molecular structure and giant

covalent structure

Simple molecular structure Giant covalent structure

Consist of weak intermolecular Consist of strong covalent
forces between molecules bonds between nuclei of atom
and shared pair of electrons
Low melting point and boiling High melting point and boiling
point point

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[paper 2 only]
Chapter 9: Metallic bonding
(Textbook Page 98-100)

1.52C: know how to represent a metallic lattice by a 2-D

diagram

1.53C: Understand metallic bonding in terms of

electrostatic attractions

Metallic bonding: the electrostatic force of attraction between the

positive ion and delocalised electrons

Metallic compound : metals

Example:

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1.54C: explains typical physical properties of metals,
including electrical conductivity and malleability

Structure
- All have giant structures and have no individual molecules
- Electron sea model

Melting and boiling points

- High melting and boiling points

Why do metals have high melting and boiling points?

- The electrostatic force of attraction between the positive ions and
the delocalized electrons are strong
- it requires a lot of energy to break them.

Electrical conductivity
- Conduct electricity

Why can metals conduct electricity?

- Metals have sea of electrons which are free to move around

Malleability and ductility

Why are metals malleable and ductile?
-When a force is applied to a piece of metal, the layers of positive
ions slide over each other.
- This doesn’t affect the bonding in the structure (unlike the ionic
structure) (The positive ions are still attracted to the delocalized
electrons)

*Malleable - can be hammered into any shape.

*Ductile- can be drawn into wires.

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Alloy
Why is metal alloy harder than pure metals? [3]
- The different metals have slightly different sizes of atoms
- This breaks up the regular lattice arrangement
- It is more difficult for the layers of ions to slide over each
other

[paper 2 only]
Chapter 10: Electrolysis
(Textbook Page 101-113)

1.55C: Understand why covalent compounds do not

conduct electricity

- Covalent bonds cannot conduct electricity because electrons are

bounded by strong covalent bonds and are not free to move around

1.56C: understand why ionic compounds conduct

electricity only when molten or in aqueous solution

When ionic compounds are molten or in aqueous solution, their

ions are free to move around
- Therefore they can conduct electricity
(* Remember to use the word “ion” instead of “electrons”)

1.57C: know that anion and cation are terms used to refer
to negative and positive ions respectively

Anion - negative ions

Cation - positive ions

1.58C.1.59C: know that anion and cation are terms used to

refer to negative and positive ions respectively

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Key terms:
Electrolysis: It is a chemical change caused by passing an electric
current through a compound which is either molten or in solution.
Electrolyte : It is a liquid or solution that undergoes electrolysis.
-Contain ions.
Electrodes properties: (electrodes used: platinum or carbon)
1. Must conduct electricity
2. Must be inert (unreactive)

Catre
Cathode → reduction
Anode→ oxidation

2 Different Types of Electrolysis

1. Electrolysis of molten compounds
2. Electrolysis for Aqueous solution

1. Electrolysis of molten compounds

(will explain verbally)

(step-by-step)
- In a liquid or an aqueous solution, there are ions with charges.
- In this case, there are Pb 2+ and Br - ions and they can move
around freely
- The electrodes to which electricity is connected will attract those
ions (opposite charges attract)
-This means Br - ions will lose electrons to the anode (because
opposite charges attract) and become bromine gas (Br2).
- The Pb 2+ ions will gain electrons from the cathode which would
discharge them and become molten pure lead.

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- The electrons lost from the Br - ions will go to the Pb 2+ ions
(from anode to cathode)
- Electricity is needed to charge the electrodes to attract the ions
and make them discharge.

1. Electrolysis of aqueous compounds

(will explain verbally)

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