World Biomes

By Dr. Roman Saini

 Biomes
● Biome is an abbreviation for biological home.
● Biome means an assemblage of plant and animal communities with
minimum common characteristics.
● All the areas of biomes are characterized by more or less uniform
environmental conditions such as climate, soil etc.
● A biome is generally named on the basis of its dominant vegetation that
constitutes most of the biomass.
● Biomes (bioclimatic zones) are appropriate divisions by which the natural
world can be organized.
● This is because the organisms that live in each of them possess common
constellations of adaptations to them, in particular to the climate of each of
the zones and to the characteristic vegetation types that develop in them.
● All the elements of a biome exist in some meaningful relationship with each
other, and change in one, say the habitat, leads to a change in the biome.
● There are different ways of classifying biomes but the common elements are
climate, habitat, animal and plant adaptation, biodiversity and human
activity.
Factors affecting biomes

(i) Day and night hours which is responsible for duration of photosynthesis.

(ii) Mean temperature as diurnal and annual variation which decides the extreme
conditions.

(iii) Length of growing season.

(iv) Precipitation, its total amount and spatio-temporal variation

(v) Wind speed, direction, duration and frequency.

(vi) Soil types

(vii) Slope

(viii) Drainage

(ix) Other plant and animal species

Types of biomes

Biomes are classified in various ways. There are five major biomes in the world
are

1. Forests

2. Grasslands
3. Deserts
4. Tundra
5. Aquatic
 Forests
● Forests account for one-third of the Earth’s land area, over two-thirds of the
leaf area of land plants, and contain about 70% of carbon present in living
things.
● Based on latitude, three major forests are
○ Tropical forests
○ Temperate forests
○ Taiga
● There are subdivisions within each of these type of forests.
 Tropical forests
● The tropical forest is a hot, moist biome found near the Earth's equator.
● They are typically found between 23.5 degrees north and south of the
equator.
● The world's largest tropical forests are in South America, Africa, and
Southeast Asia.
● In total, the tropical forests cover about 1700 million hectares, an area
roughly that of South America.
Climate:
● Average annual rainfall: exceeding 200 cm and evenly distributed throughout
the year.
● Temperature is on average 20-25° C and varies little throughout the year: the
average temperatures of the three warmest and three coldest months do not
differ by more than 5 degrees.
● Besides hot and humid conditions, there is plenty of sunlight which makes
the tropical forest a suitable environment for many plants and animals. This
also results in severe competition for survival.
● There are only two seasons- rainy and dry with no winters. Daylight is for 12
hours and varies little.
Biodiversity:

● Tropical forests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world.

● The hot and humid conditions make this biome a perfect environment not
just for a great variety of plants and animal species but also for bacteria and
other microorganisms.
Soil:
● Microorganisms remain active throughout the year and quickly decompose
matter on the forest floor.
● Also, the plants grow so fast that they rapidly consume the nutrients from the
decomposed leaf litter.
● As a result, most of the nutrients are contained in the trees and other plants
rather than in the soil.
● Most nutrients that are absorbed into the soil are leached out by the abundant
rainfall leaving the soil infertile and without organic matters. So, the soil is
acidic and very thin.
Flora:
● Tropical forests have a high diversity of flora. There may be as many as 100
different tree species in one square kilometre.
● The tropical forest is arranged in three levels:
1. The canopy or upper layer: 20- 50 metres high; hardwood trees like
ebony, Mahogany, rosewood, Ebony, cinchona, etc. are in abundance.
2. The second layer: 10- 20 meters high; mainly palm trees, epiphytic and
parasitic plants are also found in this layer
3. The third or lower layer lies from surface level to about 10 meters of
heights.
● The multilayered layering of the forests allows nil or negligible penetration
of sunlight.
● Plants such as orchids, bromeliads, vines (lianas), ferns, mosses, and palms
are present in tropical forests.
Adaptation of flora:
● The competition for sunlight makes the trees grow tall.
● Trees attain a height of 25-35 m, have buttressed trunks and shallow roots.
● They are mostly evergreen with large dark green leaves.
● Creepers like lianas (vines) grow around trees as they bid to reach sunlight.
● Waxy leaves and drip tips to avoid gathering of water on leaves that can
cause them to rot.
● Waxy leaves also allows water to reach the roots on the forest floor.
● Leaf stems are also flexible to allow leaves to move with the sun to maximise
photosynthesis.
Fauna:

● Tropical forests have great biodiversity mainly due to constant warmth and
supply of water.
● Small animals, including monkeys, birds, bats, snakes, rodents, frogs, and
lizards are common in the tropical rainforest.
● Because of the impenetrability and high vegetation growth in the lower part,
most of the insects, birds and animals use the tall trees and understory for
shelter, hiding places from their predators, and a source of food.
● Generally, they do not come down to the ground.
● The productivity of the tropical rainforest biome is the highest of all biome
types of the world.
Subdivisions
Based on the amount of rainfall received, there are
● Moist tropical forests
○ Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rainforests
○ Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
○ Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
● Dry tropical forests
○ Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
○ Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
 Temperate forests
● A temperate forest is characterised by deciduous trees which drop their
leaves in the dry season.
● They are also known as broadleaf forests because the trees have wide, flat
leaves.
Distribution:
● These forests are located in temperate regions between the Arctic poles and
the tropics in areas with warm moist summers and cool winters.
● These area include North America, East Asia, Central and Western Europe,
Denmark, southern Sweden and southern Norway.
Climate:

● Temperate forests have a moderate climate.

● They are distinguished by a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6
frost-free months.
● Temperatures range from -30°C to 30°C.
● The average annual rainfall is 75 to 150 cm and is distributed evenly
throughout the year.
● Some sunlight is able to penetrate to the forest floor due to which plant and
animal diversity in this biome is more than that found in tropical or
subtropical deciduous forests, both of which have dense canopies.
Soil

● Such forests have a fertile soil which is enriched by decaying matter.

● Forest floor is enriched from decayed leaves, twigs, moss and animal waste,
also called litter.
Flora:

● Temperate forests are characterized by 3-4 tree species per square kilometer.
● Trees have broad leaves which are shed annually.
● Important species are oak, birch, beech, aspen, elm and maple.
● These tall trees form the forest canopy.
● Earthworms, bacteria, fungi and insects and their physical and metabolic
processes keep the recycling of soil going and makes the soil productive.
● Shade from the canopy limits the penetration of sunlight and thereby the
growth of many kinds of plants.
● Therefore, many species time their growth and flowering to the short period
just before the canopy opens.
● This is why these plants are also known as spring ephemerals.
● The leaves of short plants have adaptations to cope with low light levels.
● Gradients of soil moisture, soil depth, elevation and aspect control the
distribution of many trees, shrubs and herbaceous species.
● Lichen, moss, ferns, wildflowers, and other small plants can be found on the
forest floor.
Fauna:

● Birds such as broad-winged hawks, cardinals, snowy owls, and pileated

woodpeckers are found in this biome.
● Mammals include white-tailed deer, raccoons, opossums, porcupines, and red
foxes.
● Animals are adapted to the changing seasons.
Subdivisions

According to the rainfall, temperate forests are subdivided as

● moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved forests

● dry conifer forests
● mediterranean forests
● temperate coniferous
● temperate broad-leaved rainforests
 Taiga
● Taiga is the Russian word for forest.
● It is also known as boreal forest or snow forest.
● It is the largest (terrestrial) biome in the world apart from the oceans.
● It occupies about 17 percent of Earth’s land surface area and 29% of world’s
forest cover in a circumpolar belt of the far Northern Hemisphere.
● Northward beyond this limit, the taiga merges into the circumpolar tundra.
● Boreal forests occur between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes.
● Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and
long, cold, and dry winters.
● The length of the growing season in boreal forests is 130 days.
Distribution:

● In North America the taiga occupies much of Canada and Alaska as well as
parts of the extreme northern continental United States.
● In Europe, it covers most of Sweden, Finland, much of Norway, some of the
Scottish Highlands, some lowland/coastal areas of Iceland.
● In Asia it extends to much of Russia and areas of northern Kazakhstan,
northern Mongolia, and northern Japan (on the island of Hokkaidō).
Climate:
● Coldness is the dominant climatic factor in taiga.
● The Sun is never directly overhead (90°) as it can be in the tropics.
● Solar energy is less intense in the taiga biome because it is spread out over a
greater area (greater angle of incidence) of Earth’s surface than it is in
equatorial regions.
● Long winter nights in Taiga regions allow radiation emitted by the surface of
Earth to escape into the atmosphere as there is lesser cloud cover.
● Snow cover reflects much of incoming solar radiation due to high albedo
and amplifies cooling.
● Earth would be significantly colder without the taiga as the albedo of taiga is
less compared to a smooth, snow-covered, energy-reflecting surface.
● In winters, strong storm systems develop in these regions due to steep
temperature contrast generated by the meeting of Siberian cold air with
unfrozen northern Pacific Ocean.
● The movement, position, and strength of these storms control much of the
weather in the Northern Hemisphere.
● Extended periods of clear, dry weather in the boreal region are caused by
persistent strong polar high pressure systems.
● Precipitation is in the form of snow.
Taiga soils:

● Taiga soil is young and poor in nutrients.

● It lacks the deep, organically enriched profile present in temperate deciduous
forests.
● Severe cold hinders the development of soil and the ease with which plants
can use its nutrients.
● Soil is mainly acidic because of cheluviation (Podzols).
Note- Spodosol and Podzols are same soil, leached acidic soil.

Podsol is FAO classification and Spodosol USDA classification

● Soils are highly leached spodosols, which are characterized by the leaching
of iron, aluminum, and organic matter.
● Since the soil is acidic due to the falling pine needles, the forest floor has
only lichens and some mosses growing on it.
Flora:

● The productivity and community stability of a boreal forest are lower than
those of any other forest ecosystem.
● Not many plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga winter.
● There are some lichens and mosses, but most plants are evergreen coniferous
trees like pine, white spruce, hemlock and douglas fir.
● Taigas also have some small-leaved deciduous trees like birch, alder, willow,
and poplar; mostly in areas escaping the most extreme winter cold.
● Grasses grow wherever they can find a patch of sun.
● Mosses and lichens thrive on the damp ground and on the sides of tree
trunks.
● Southern regions of taiga may have trees such as oak, maple, elm and lime
scattered among the conifers.
● Adaptations:
○ Shallow roots to take advantage of the thin soils,
○ Seasonal alteration of biochemistry to resist freezing, a process called
"hardening".
○ The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their
downward-drooping limbs, also help them shed snow.
○ Photosynthesis is difficult here as the sun is low in the horizon for most
of the year.
○ Therefore, Pine, spruce and fir do not lose their leaves seasonally and
photosynthesize with their older leaves in late winter and spring when
light is good but temperatures are still too low for new growth to
commence.
● The needle shape of small leaves limits the water lost due to transpiration and
their dark green color increases their absorption of sunlight.
● The taiga is susceptible to many wildfires that burn away the upper canopy of
the trees and let sunlight reach the ground.
● Trees have adapted to save themselves from fire by growing thick bark.
● A distinctive feature of the flora of taiga is the abundance and diversity of
mosses.
● About one-third of the ground cover under taiga is dominated by moss.
Fauna:

● Common herbivores: squirrels, snowshoe hare, moose, elk, deer and carbon.
● Moose and carbon migrate to the taiga for winters and to the tundra for
summers.
● Important predators are the timber wolf, grizzly bear, black bear, bobcat and
wolverine.
● Many insects are found during the warmer months.
Fauna adaptations:

● Layers of fur or feathers to insulate from the harsh cold

● Annual change in colour of fur, from brownish or grayish in the summer to
pure white in the winter, providing effective camouflage.
● Large feet in proportion to body size, a snowshoe-like adaptation, for weight
distribution allowing travel over the surface of snow rather than sink down
into it.
● Regulation of body temperature.
● Hibernation underground in winters.
Grasslands
 Grasslands
● Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large
shrubs or trees.
● There are two main divisions of grasslands:
(1) tropical grasslands or savannas
(2) temperate grasslands
 Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
● A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem.
● They are also known as tropical grasslands and found in a wide band on
either side of the equator on the edges of tropical rainforests.
● Savannah can also be said to be a transitional zone between forest and desert
or grassland.
● Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earth's land area (Not necessarily
as continuous belt)
● Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa and Australia.
Distribution

● African Savannah- West african Region surrounding Sudan.

● South American Savannah- Called Cerrado (Brazil), Llanos (Colombia and
Venezuela) and Campos (Southern Brazil).
● Australian Savannah- Situated adjacently in southward to Northern monsoon
line of Australia.
● Indian Savannah- Parts of North Karnataka, Telangana and South
Maharashtra region
Climate:
● Savannas are warm all year round and experience two very different seasons:
a very long dry season (winter), and a very wet season (summer).
● The average total rainfall in such regions is 100 to 150 cm.
● In the dry season, only an average of about 10 cm of rain falls.
● Between December and February, no rain will fall at all.
● In the summer there is lots of rain and it gets very hot and humid.
● In the afternoons on the summer, the rains pour down for hours.
Flora:

● The biome is characterised by open canopy and widely spaced trees which
allows sufficient light to reach the ground.
● Due to an open canopy, there is plenty of sunlight available to the grasses.
Therefore, a herbaceous layer of grasses develops.
● Plants are highly specialized and adapted to withstand long periods of
drought.
● Long taproots help them access deep water table.
● Thick bark resists annual fires.
● Trunks can store water.
● Leaves drop during the winter to conserve water.
● The grass adaptations that discourage animals from grazing on them include
sharpness or bitterness in taste.
● Not all herbivorous animals eat these grasses. Therefore every species of
animals have something to eat.
● Different species will also eat different parts of the grass.
● Many grasses grow from the bottom up, so that the growth tissue doesn't get
damaged by grazers.
● Many plants of the savanna also have storage organs like bulbs which helps
them survive the dry season.
Fauna:

● Prominent animal species in the savannas are African elephants, zebras,

horses and giraffes native to African savannas, as well as lions, hyenas,
snakes and buffaloes.
● The herbivores provide a wide range of food for carnivores, like lions,
leopards, cheetahs, jackals and hyenas.
● Each species has its own preference minimising competition for food.
● Savannah is a perfect place for predatory birds.
● The wide, open plain provides predatory birds a clear view of their prey, hot
air updrafts keep them soaring, and there is the occasional tree to rest on or
nest in.
● During the dry season, most birds and large animals migrate to find more
plentiful water supplies.
● Fires are common during the dry season, but various species have adapted
themselves to survive.
Faunal adaptations:
● Long legs or wings to be able to go on long migrations.
● Many burrow underground to avoid the heat or raise their young.
● Animals don't sweat to lose body heat, so they lose it through panting or
through large areas of exposed skin, or ears, like those of the elephant.
● Various browsers (those who eat leaves of trees) and grazers coexist in one
area.
● They have their own food preferences, browsing/grazing at different heights,
time of day or year to use a given area, and different places to go during the
dry season.
 Temperate grasslands
Distribution:
● They are also called Granaries of the world.
● The temperate grasslands in different regions are called by different names.
They are
○ The US prairies.
○ Russian steppes,
○ Veldts of Africa,
○ Pampas of South America (mostly located in Argentina and Uruguay),
○ Steppes of Eurasia
○ Downs of Australia
○ Pustaz of Hungary
○ Canterbury of New Zealand
Climate:

● Temperate grasslands have hot summers, cold winters and distinct seasons.
● During summers, the temperature can be well over 37 degrees C.
● The fall/winter season can see temperatures as low as -40 degrees C
characterized by a dying out or hibernation of plants.
● It receives about 25 – 80 cm of precipitation a year in the late spring and
early summer and much of it falls as snow in the winter.
● The temperatures in this biome vary greatly between summer and winter
months.
● The overall temperature is conducive to healthy plant growth.
Flora:

● There are a large variety of plants that grow on the temperate grasslands.
● Plants such as:
○ Low and mid-range grass types
○ Small succulents and ground shrubs
○ Small trees
● The dominant plant species comprise short and tall grasses.
● In tall-grasses prairies in the United States, important grasses are tall
bluestem, Indian grass and slough grass.
● Short-grass prairies generally have blue grama grass, mesquite grass and
bluegrass.
● Many grasses have long, well-developed root systems which enable them to
survive limited rainfall and the effects of fire.
● Trees and large shrubs are rarely found as fires, droughts and grazing by
animals prevent trees from becoming established.
Fauna:

● Expansive grassland, adequate rainfall and rich plant growth make temperate
grasses ideal for herd based animals such as bison, wolves etc.
● The main animals of this biome are-the prong-horned antelopes, bison, wild
horse, jack rabbit, ground squirrel and prairie dogs.
● Important grassland predators include coyotes, foxes, hawks and snakes.
● There is abundant ground life here with hares and other burrowing animals
heavily represented.
Deserts
● Almost 33% of the earth’s surface area is desert, getting less than 25 cm
precipitation (Overall- It include both hot and cold desert, not necessarily as
a continuous belt like Taiga)
● Around 20% of these are sandy deserts are located between 25-30 degree
north and south latitude.
● The desert biome is characterised by very low rainfall (usually less than 25
cm per year) that comes as short, hard showers.
● This biome covers almost 20% of the earth.
● True Desert~ 14%, another ~ 15 % earth land surface possesses some desert
like characteristics.
● There are mainly four types of deserts –
○ hot and dry
○ semiarid
○ coastal
○ cold
● All of the four types of forests have one thing in common i.e. they don’t get a
lot of precipitation.
Hot vs cold deserts
● Deserts that receive rain as the main form of precipitation are called as hot
deserts while those which receive snow as their main form of precipitation
are called as cold deserts.
● The hot deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico,
Chile, Peru, Africa (Sahara desert), Asia (Rub’ Al Khali, Thar etc) and central
and Western Australia (Tanami Desert, Gibson Desert, Great Victoria Desert,
Simpson Desert etc).
● Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland, Iran, Northern and
Western China.
● Some famous cold deserts are: – Antarctica, Atacama, Gobi, Great Basin,
Namib, Iranian, Taklamakan, Patagonia etc.
Hot desert

Climate:

● Hot and dry summers, warm temperatures throughout the year.

● Average temperature: 20-25 degrees Celsius.
● The extreme maximum temperature for Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49°
C.
Flora:

● Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
● The plants must adapt themselves for harsh conditions and be able to obtain
and conserve water.
● The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias,
cacti, many other succulents and hardy grasses.
● Many of the small plants are annuals.
Plant adaptations include-
● Small or no leaves
● reduced leaf surface area to reduce evaporation from the plants,
● loss of leaves during long dry spell,
● small hairs on the leaf surfaces,
● Succulent leaves and stems
● Ability to store large amount of water.
● Well developed root system
● Annuals germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season
● Waxy/Thick skin to prevent water loss
Fauna:
● Animals of all types live throughout the region (insects, mammals, arachnids,
birds, reptiles).
● The common desert animals are the herbivorous kangaroo, rat, ground
squirrel, and jack rabbit.
● The important predators are—coyotes, badgers, kit fox, eagles, hawks,
falcons and owls.
● Carnivorous animals are common due to the lack of plant life in the hot and
dry desert.
● Ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, insect-eating birds etc are other
common desert species.
Faunal adaptations:

● Many desert animals are nocturnal in habit to avoid day heat, and are active
mainly at night.
● Many reptiles and small mammals burrow to get away from the intense heat
of midday.
● They are fast runners.
● They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.
● They have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground.
● They have the ability to store water or survive without it for many days.
Tundra
Extent:

● There are two types of tundra- arctic and alpine.

● Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the polar ice cap and above
the tree line in the northern hemisphere.
● It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia
and island group of Arctic Ocean.
● Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the treeline.
Climate:
1. Long winters with little daylight.
2. Short summers with long daylight hours.
3. Precipitation is less (25 cm or less per year), that too mostly in the form of
snow
Flora:
● There are no upright trees on the tundra.
● Short trees like dwarf willows and birches, which grow low to the ground
and can escape the drying effect of the wind are found here.
● Mainly mosses, grasses, sedges, lichens and some shrubs are found in this
biome.
● Productivity is very low, due to very low sunlight and nutrient availability,
poorly developed soil and permafrost conditions.
● Seasonal thawing of the frozen soil permits the growth of shallow rooted
plants.
● These plants often occur in a dense, ground hugging arrangements.
● Low height and growing close together are adaptations that plants use to
survive.
● The plants hastily complete their annual cycle in brief summers, when due to
thawing the ground is moist and waterlogged.
Plant adaptations also include:

1. the ability to grow under a layer of snow,

2. to carry out photosynthesis in extremely cold temperatures, and
3. for flowering plants to produce flowers quickly once summer begins.
4. A small leaf structure that helps plant retain the moisture it has stored.
Fauna:
● Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare, caribous, lemmings and
squirrel.
● Their adaptations include:
○ presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair to resist chillness.
○ Large body size, small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the
surface.
○ The body is covered with fur for insulation.
● Animals migrate south in winters and move from one region to another with
the change in seasons
● E.g.ducks and geese, nest on the tundra during the summer but migrate south
for the winter.
Aquatic
 Aquatic
● This biome covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface.
● It links all the other biomes.
● This is one of the most important biomes for the survival of species.
● Without water, Earth would have been a large desert.
● It can be classified as
● Freshwater
● Marine
Freshwater regions

● Such regions have salinity less than 1%.

● The species which are adapted to survive in freshwater cannot survive in
other water bodies which have more salinity.
● Freshwater regions can be again divided into
○ Ponds and lakes
○ Streams and rivers
○ Wetlands
Ponds and Lakes

● These regions range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of
square kilometers.
● Most of the ponds are seasonal unlike lakes.
● Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often
isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and
oceans.
● According to depth and distance from the shoreline, lakes and ponds are
divided into three different “zones”.
Zone Definition Flora Fauna

Littoral zone topmost zone near several species of grazing snails,

the shore algae (like clams, insects,
diatoms), rooted crustaceans,
and floating fishes, and
aquatic plants amphibians
Limnetic zone near-surface open phytoplankton zooplankton,
water surrounded freshwater fish
by the littoral zone

Profundal zone deep-water part vegetation-free heterotrophs

Streams and rivers

● They have waters which are flowing or in constant motion.

● They change their characteristics during their journey from the source to the
mouth.
● The water at the source is cooler and clearer at the source with high oxygen
levels. Therefore it has freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs.
● At the mouth, water is murky and has fish that require less oxygen, such as
catfish and carp.
Wetlands

● Areas of standing water that support aquatic plants are called wetlands.
● These include marshes, swamps, and bogs.
● Flora include hydrophytes which are plants adapted to moist and humid
conditions such as pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce.
● Marsh flora also include such species as cypress and gum.
● Fauna include many species of amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and
waders), and furbearers.
Marine regions

● Such regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface.

● Marine regions include the oceans, coral reefs and the estuaries.
● The algae present in the maine regions absorb a lot the atmospheric CO2 and
contribute to the oxygen supply on Earth,
● Almost all the rainfall on Earth is due to the evaporation of water from the
marine regions.
Oceans

● They are the largest of the water bodies.

● Oceans have four zones - intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic.
● All four zones have a great diversity of species.
Zone Definition Flora Fauna

Intertidal meeting of ocean algae small animals, such as herbivorous

and land snails, crabs, sea stars, and small fishes

Pelagic waters further surface many species of fish and some

from the land or seaweeds mammals, such as whales and dolphins
the open ocean

Benthic area below the seaweeds bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea anemones,
pelagic zone worms, sea stars, and fishes

Abyssal deep ocean Chemosynthetic bacteria in vents, many

species of invertebrates and fishes
Coral reefs

● They are found in warm shallow waters.

● There are many kinds of coral reefs - barrier, fringing, islands and tolls.
● Corals contain a symbiotic relationship between algae (zooxanthellae) and
tissues of animal polyp.
● Corals obtain nutrients through the algae via photosynthesis and also by
extending tentacles to obtain plankton from the water.
● Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms,
invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars.
Estuaries

● These are regions where freshwater regions or rivers merge with saline water
regions or oceans.
● The mixing of both waters gives rise to high diversity in species.
● Flora include algae, and macroflora, such as seaweeds, marsh grasses, and
mangrove trees (only in the tropics).
● Fauna include a variety of worms, oysters, crabs, and waterfowl.