1

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

1.6
Inverse Functions
and Logarithms
In this section, we will learn about:
Inverse functions and logarithms.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The table gives data from an experiment

in which a bacteria culture started with
100 bacteria in a limited nutrient medium.

 The size of the bacteria

population was recorded
at hourly intervals.
 The number of bacteria
N is a function of the
time t: N = f(t).
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

However, suppose that the biologist changes

her point of view and becomes interested in
the time required for the population to reach
various levels.

 In other words, she is thinking of t

as a function of N.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

This function is called the inverse

function of f.
 It is denoted by f -1 and read “f inverse.”
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Thus, t = f -1(N) is the time required for

the population level to reach N.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The values of f -1can be found by reading

the first table from right to left or by consulting
the second table.
 For instance, f -1(550) = 6, because f(6) = 550.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Not all functions possess

inverses.
 Let’s compare the functions f and g whose
arrow diagrams are shown.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Note that f never takes on the same

value twice.
 Any two inputs in A have different outputs.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

However, g does take on the same

value twice.
 Both 2 and 3 have the same output, 4.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

In symbols, g(2) = g(3)

but f(x1) ≠ f(x2) whenever x1 ≠ x2

INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Functions that share this property

with f are called one-to-one functions.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Definition 1

A function f is called a one-to-one

function if it never takes on the same
value twice.

That is,
f(x1) ≠ f(x2) whenever x1 ≠ x2
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

If a horizontal line intersects the graph of f

in more than one point, then we see from
the figure that there are numbers x1and x2
such that f(x1) = f(x2).

 This means f is
not one-to-one.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

So, we have the following

geometric method for determining
whether a function is one-to-one.
HORIZONTAL LINE TEST

A function is one-to-one if and only if

no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Example 1

Is the function
f(x) = x 3

one-to-one?
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS E. g. 1—Solution 1

If x1 ≠ x2, then x13 ≠ 3

x2 .
 Two different numbers can’t have the same cube.

 So, by Definition 1, f(x) = x3 is one-to-one.

ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS E. g. 1—Solution 2

From the figure, we see that no horizontal

line intersects the graph of f(x) = x3 more
than once.
 So, by the Horizontal Line Test, f is one-to-one.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Example 2

Is the function
g(x) = x 2

one-to-one?
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS E. g. 2—Solution 1

The function is not one-to-one.

 This is because, for instance,

g(1) = 1 = g(-1)

and so 1 and -1 have the same output.

ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS E. g. 2—Solution 2

From the figure, we see that there are

horizontal lines that intersect the graph
of g more than once.
 So, by the Horizontal Line Test, g is not one-to-one.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

One-to-one functions are important because

they are precisely the functions that possess
inverse functions according to the following
definition.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Definition 2

Let f be a one-to-one function with

domain A and range B.

Then, its inverse function f -1 has domain B

and range A and is defined by
1
f ( y)  x  f ( x)  y

for any y in B.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

The definition states that, if f maps x

into y, then f -1 maps y back into x.

 If f were not one-to-one, then f -1 would not

be uniquely defined.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

The arrow diagram in the figure

indicates that f -1 reverses the effect of f.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

Note that:

domain of f -1 = range of f

range of f -1 = domain of f
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

For example, the inverse function of

f(x) = x3 is f -1(x) = x1/3.

 This is because, if y = x3, then

f -1(y) = f -1(x3) = (x3)1/3 = x

ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Caution

Do not mistake the -1 in f -1

for an exponent.
1
 Thus, f -1(x) does not mean .
f ( x)

1
 However, the reciprocal could be written
f ( x)
as [f(x)]-1.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Example 3

If f(1) = 5, f(3) = 7, and f(8) = -10,

find f -1(7), f -1(5), and f -1(-10).

 From the definition of f -1, we have:

f -1(7) = 3 because f(3) = 7

f -1(5) = 1 because f(1) = 5
f -1(-10) = 8 because f(8) = -10
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Example 3

This diagram makes it clear how f -1

reverses the effect of f in this case.
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS Definition 3

The letter x is traditionally used as the

independent variable.

So, when we concentrate on f -1 rather than

on f, we usually reverse the roles of x and y
in Definition 2 and write:
1
f ( x)  y  f ( y)  x
CANCELLATION EQUATIONS Definition 4

By substituting for y in Definition 2 and

substituting for x in Definition 3, we get
the following cancellation equations:

f -1(f(x)) = x for every x in A

f(f -1(x)) = x for every x in B

CANCELLATION EQUATION 1

The first cancellation equation states that,

if we start with x, apply f, and then apply
f -1, we arrive back at x, where we started.

Thus, f -1 undoes what f does.

CANCELLATION EQUATION 2

The second equation states that

f undoes what f -1 does.
CANCELLATION EQUATIONS

For example, if f(x) = x3, then f -1(x) = x1/3.

So, the cancellation equations become:

f -1(f(x)) = (x3)1/3 = x
f(f -1(x)) = (x1/3)3 = x

 These equations simply states that the cube function

and the cube root function cancel each other when
applied in succession.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Now, let’s see how to compute inverse

functions.
 If we have a function y = f(x) and are able to solve
this equation for x in terms of y, then, according to
Definition 2, we must have x = f -1(y).

 If we want to call the independent variable x,

we then interchange x and y and arrive at
the equation y = f -1(x).
INVERSE FUNCTIONS Definition 5

Now, let’s see how to find the inverse

function of a one-to-one function f.

1. Write y = f(x).
2. Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible).
3. To express f -1 as a function of x, interchange x and y.

The resulting equation is y = f -1(x).

INVERSE FUNCTIONS Example 4

Find the inverse function of

f(x) = x3 + 2.
 By Definition 5, we first write: y = x3 + 2.
 Then, we solve this equation for x : x 3
 y2
x  3 y2

 Finally, we interchange x and y : y  3

x2

 So, the inverse function is: f 1 ( x )  3

x2
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The principle of interchanging x and y

to find the inverse function also gives us
the method for obtaining the graph of f -1
from the graph of f.

 As f(a) = b if and only if f -1(b) = a, the point (a, b)

is on the graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is
on the graph of f -1.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

However, we get the point (b, a) from

(a, b) by reflecting about the line y = x.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Thus, the graph of f -1 is obtained by

reflecting the graph of f about the line
y = x.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS Example 5

Sketch the graphs of f ( x)  1  x

and its inverse function using the same
coordinate axes.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS Example 5

First, we sketch the curve y  1  x

(the top half of the parabola y2 = -1 -x,
or x = -y2 - 1).

Then, we reflect
about the line y = x
to get the graph of f -1.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS Example 5

As a check on our graph, notice that the

expression for f -1 is f -1(x) = - x2 - 1, x ≥ 0.

 So, the graph of f -1

is the right half of the
parabola y = - x2 - 1.

 This seems reasonable

from the figure.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

If a > 0 and a ≠ 1, the exponential function

f(x) = ax is either increasing or decreasing,
so it is one-to-one by the Horizontal Line Test.

Thus, it has an inverse function f -1, which

is called the logarithmic function with base a
and is denoted by loga.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Definition 6

If we use the formulation of an inverse

function given by Definition 3,

1
f ( x)  y  f ( y )  x

then we have:

loga x  y  a  x y
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Thus, if x > 0, then logax is the exponent

to which the base a must be raised
to give x.

 For example, log100.001 = - 3 because

10-3 = 0.001
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Definition 7

The cancellation equations, when applied to

the functions f(x) = ax and f -1(x) = logax,
become:

log a ( a )  x
x
for every x °
a log a x
x for every x  0
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The logarithmic function loga has

domain and (0, ) .
 Its graph is the reflection of the graph
of y = ax about the line y = x.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The figure shows the case where

a > 1.
 The most important
logarithmic functions
have base a > 1.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The fact that y = ax is a very rapidly

increasing function for x > 0 is reflected in the
fact that y = logax is a very slowly increasing
function for x > 1.
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The figure shows the graphs of y = logax

with various values of the base a > 1.

Since loga1 = 0,
the graphs of all
logarithmic functions
pass through the point
(1, 0).
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The following properties of logarithmic

functions follow from the corresponding
properties of exponential functions given
in Section 1.5.
LAWS OF LOGARITHMS

If x and y are positive numbers, then

1. log a ( xy )  log a ( x)  log a ( y )

x
2. log a    log a ( x)  log a ( y )
 y
3. loga ( x )  r log a x where r is any real number
r
LAWS OF LOGARITHMS Example 6

Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate

log280 - log25.

 Using Law 2, we have log 2 80  log 2 5

 80 
 log 2  
 5 
 log 2 16  4

because 24 = 16.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

Of all possible bases a for logarithms,

we will see in Chapter 3 that the most
convenient choice of a base is the number e,
which was defined in Section 1.5
NATURAL LOGARITHM

The logarithm with base e is called

the natural logarithm and has a special
notation:
log e x  ln x
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Definitions 8 and 9

If we put a = e and replace loge with ‘ln’

in Definitions 6 and 7, then the defining
properties of the natural logarithm function
become:
ln x  y  e  x y

ln(e )  x x °
x

e ln x
x x0
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

In particular, if we set x = 1,
we get:
ln e  1
NATURAL LOGARITHMS E. g. 7—Solution 1

Find x if ln x = 5.

 From Definition 8, we see that ln x = 5

means e5 = x.

 Therefore, x = e5.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS E. g. 7—Solution 1

If you have trouble working with the ‘ln’

notation, just replace it by loge.

Then, the equation becomes loge x = 5.

So, by the definition of logarithm, e5 = x.

NATURAL LOGARITHMS E. g. 7—Solution 2

Start with the equation ln x = 5.

Then, apply the exponential function to both

sides of the equation: eln x = e5

 However, the second cancellation equation

in Definition 9 states that eln x = x.

 Therefore, x = e5.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 8

Solve the equation e5 - 3x = 10.

 We take natural logarithms of both sides of the
equation and use Definition 9: 53 x
ln(e )  ln10
5  3 x  ln10
3 x  5  ln10
1
x  (5  ln10)
3
 As the natural logarithm is found on scientific
calculators, we can approximate the solution—
to four decimal places: x ≈ 0.8991
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 9

Express ln a  12 ln b as a single
logarithm.

 Using Laws 3 and 1 of logarithms, we have:

ln a  12 ln b  ln a  ln b1/ 2
 ln a  ln b
 ln(a b )
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

The following formula shows that

logarithms with any base can be
expressed in terms of the natural
logarithm.
CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA Formula 10

For any positive number a (a ≠ 1),

we have:
ln x
log a x 
ln a
CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA Proof

Let y = logax.
 Then, from Definition 6, we have ay = x.

 Taking natural logarithms of both sides

of this equation, we get y ln a = ln x.

ln x
 Therefore, y 
ln a
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

Scientific calculators have a key for

natural logarithms.
 So, Formula 10 enables us to use a calculator
to compute a logarithm with any base—as shown
in the following example.

 Similarly, Formula 10 allows us to graph any

logarithmic function on a graphing calculator
or computer.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 10

Evaluate log8 5 correct to six

decimal places.

ln 5
 Formula 10 gives: log8 5   0.773976
ln 8
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

The graphs of the exponential function y = ex

and its inverse function, the natural logarithm
function, are shown.

 As the curve y = ex
crosses the y-axis with
a slope of 1, it follows
that the reflected curve
y = ln x crosses the
x-axis with a slope of 1.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

In common with all other logarithmic functions

with base greater than 1, the natural
logarithm is an increasing function defined on
(0, ) and the y-axis is a vertical asymptote.

 This means that the values of ln x become

very large negative as x approaches 0.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 11

Sketch the graph of the function

y = ln(x - 2) -1.

 We start with the graph of y = ln x.

NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 11

 Using the transformations of Section 1.3,

we shift it 2 units to the right—to get the
graph of y = ln(x - 2).
NATURAL LOGARITHMS Example 11

 Then, we shift it 1 unit downward—to

get the graph of y = ln(x - 2) -1.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

Although ln x is an increasing function,

it grows very slowly when x > 1.

 In fact, ln x grows more slowly than

any positive power of x.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

To illustrate this fact, we compare

approximate values of the functions
y = ln x and y = x½ = x in the table.
NATURAL LOGARITHMS

We graph the functions here.

 Initially, the graphs grow at comparable rates.
 Eventually, though, the root function far surpasses
the logarithm.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

When we try to find the inverse

trigonometric functions, we have
a slight difficulty.

 As the trigonometric functions are not

one-to-one, they don’t have inverse functions.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The difficulty is overcome by restricting

the domains of these functions so that
they become one-to-one.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Here, you can see that the sine function

y = sin x is not one-to-one.

 Use the Horizontal Line Test.

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

However, here, you can see that

the function f(x) = sin x,   2  x   2 ,
is one-to-one.
INVERSE SINE FUNCTION / ARCSINE FUNCTION

The inverse function of this restricted sine

function f exists and is denoted by sin-1 or
arcsin.
 It is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine
function.
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS

As the definition of an inverse function states

that 1
f ( x)  y  f ( y )  x

we have:
1  
sin x  y  sin y  x and   y
2 2

 Thus, if -1 ≤ x ≤ 1, sin-1x is the number between  2

and  2 whose sine is x.
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS Example 12

Evaluate:

1
1
a. sin  
2

1
b. tan(arcsin )
3
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS Example 12 a

We have 1 
1
sin   
2 6

 This is because sin  / 6   1/ 2 , and  / 6 lies

between  / 2 and  / 2 .
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS Example 12 b
1 1
Let   arcsin , so sin   .
3 3
 Then, we can draw a right triangle with angle θ.

 So, we deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem

that the third side has length 9  1  2 2 .
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS Example 12 b

 This enables us to read from

the triangle that:
1 1
tan(arcsin )  tan  
3 2 2
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS

In this case, the cancellation equations

for inverse functions become:

1  
sin (sin x)  x for  x
2 2
1
sin(sin x)  x for  1  x  1
INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS

The inverse sine function, sin-1, has

domain [-1, 1] and range   / 2,  / 2 .

Its graph is shown.

INVERSE SINE FUNCTIONS

The graph is obtained from that of

the restricted sine function by reflection
about the line y = x.
INVERSE COSINE FUNCTIONS

The inverse cosine function is handled

similarly.
 The restricted cosine function f(x) = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π,
is one-to-one.
 So, it has an inverse function denoted by cos-1 or arccos.
cos 1 x  y  cos y  x and 0  y  
INVERSE COSINE FUNCTIONS

The cancellation equations are:

cos (cos x)  x for 0  x  

1

1
cos(cos x)  x for  1  x  1
INVERSE COSINE FUNCTIONS

The inverse cosine function,cos-1, has

domain [-1, 1] and range [0,  ] .

Its graph is shown.

INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS

The tangent function can be made

one-to-one by restricting it to the interval
  / 2,  / 2  .
INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS

Thus, the inverse tangent

function is defined as
the inverse of the function
f(x) = tan x,
 / 2  x   / 2 .
 It is denoted by tan-1
or arctan.
1  
tan x  y  tan y  x and   y
2 2
INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS E. g. 13—Solution 1

Simplify the expression cos(tan-1x).

 Let y = tan-1x.

 Then, tan y = x and  / 2  y   / 2 .

 We want to find cos y.

 However, since tan y is known, it is easier

to find sec y first.
INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS E. g. 13—Solution 1
 Therefore,
sec2 y  1  tan 2 y  1  x 2
sec y  1  x 2 Since sec y  0 for   / 2  y   / 2

 Thus,
1 1 1
cos(tan x)  cos y  
sec y 1  x2
INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS E. g. 13—Solution 2

Instead of using trigonometric identities,

it is perhaps easier to use a diagram.

 If y = tan-1x, then tan y = x.

 We can read from the figure (which illustrates
1
the case y > 0) that: cos(tan 1 )  cos y 
1  x2
INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS

The inverse tangent function, tan-1 = arctan,

has domain and range (  / 2,  / 2).

Its graph is shown.

INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTIONS

We know that the lines x   / 2 are

vertical asymptotes of the graph of tan .

 The graph of tan-1 is obtained by reflecting the graph

of the restricted tangent function about the line y = x.

 It follows that the lines

y = π/2 and y = -π/2
are horizontal
asymptotes of the
graph of tan-1.
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS Definition 11

The remaining inverse trigonometric

functions are not used as frequently and
are summarized here.

 
y  csc x(| x | 1)  csc y  x and y  0,  / 2    ,3 / 2 
1


y  sec 1 x(| x | 1)  sec y  x and y  0,  / 2   ,3 / 2 
y  cot 1 x(x ° )  cot y  x and y (0,  )
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The choice of intervals for y in

the definitions of csc-1 and sec-1 is
not universally agreed upon.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

For instance, some authors use

y  0,  / 2    / 2,   in the definition
of sec-1.
 You can see from the
graph of the secant
function that both this
choice and the one in
Definition 11 will work.