Introduction to Research and

Research Methods

Effective
Learning
Service

Introduction to
Research and
Research
Methods
University of Bradford, School of Introduction to

YOUR RESEARCH

Research can be one of the most interesting features of any degree

course as it offers you a measure of control and autonomy over what you
learn.
It gives you an opportunity to confirm, clarify, pursue – or even discover –
new aspects of a subject or topic you are interested in.

RESEARCH IS…

… a process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic, methodical

and ethical; research can help solve practical problems and increase
knowledge.

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THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IS TO…

 Review or synthesize existing knowledge

 Investigate existing situations or problems
 Provide solutions to problems
 Explore and analyse more general issues
 Construct or create new procedures or systems
 Explain new phenomenon
 Generate new knowledge
 …or a combination of any of the above!

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH:

Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive

- Undertaken: when - Be used to: - Often extends - Aim:to speculate

few or no previous identify and classify the Descriptive intelligently on
studies exist. the elements or approach to future possibilities,
- Aim: to look for characteristics of suggest or explain based on close
patterns, hypotheses the subject, e.g. why or how analysis of
or ideas that can be number of days lost something is available evidence
tested and will form because of happening, e.g. of cause and
the basis for further industrial action. underlying causes effect, e.g.
research. of industrial predicting when
- Include: case studies, - Most often used to action. and where future
observation and collect, analyse and - An important industrial action
reviews of previous summarise data. feature: locating might take place
related studies and and identifying the
data. different factors
(or variables)
involved.

RESEARCH APPROACHES:

 Quantitative/Qualitative
 Applied/Basic
 Deductive/Inductive

=> Many research projects combine a number of approaches, e.g. may use both quantitative
and qualitative approaches.

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QUANTITATIVE/QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Qualitative

-The emphasis: collecting and -Is more subjective in nature than

analysing numerical Quantitative research.
data;measuring the scale, -Involves examining and reflecting
range, frequency etc. of on the less tangible aspects of a
phenomena. research subject, e.g. values,
attitudes, perceptions.
-Although harder to design
initially, it is usually highly -Althoug be easier to start, it can
detailed and structured and be often difficult to interpret and
results can be easily collated and present the findings; the findings
presented statistically. can also be challenged more easily.

BASIC/APPLIED RESEARCH

- Basic Research is to improve knowledge generally, without any

particular applied purpose in mind at the outset.
- Applied Research is designed from the start to apply its findings to a
particular situation. Students at the school of Management are
expected to engage with an applied research or problem solving
research project.

DEDUCTIVE/INDUCTIVE RESEARCH

Deductive Inductive
Particular
General ideas Situation

General ideas
Particular Situation

Moves from general ideas/theories to Moves from particular situations to

specific particular & situations: the make or infer broad general
particular is deduced from the general, ideas/theories.
e.g. broad theories.

Examples of Deductive/Inductive Research in Action

Imagine you wanted to learn what the word ‘professional’ meant to a

range of people.

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Deductive Approach

It is clear that you would want to have a clear theoretical position prior to
collection of data. You might therefore research the subject and discover
a number of definitions of ‘professional’ from, for example, a number of
professional associations. You could then test this definition on a range of
people, using a questionnaire, structured interviews or group discussion.
You could carefully select a sample of people on the basis of age, gender,
occupation etc.

The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and
presented.

This approach offers researchers a relatively easy and systematic way of

testing established ideas on a range of people.

Inductive Approach

If you adopted this approach you might start by talking to a range of

people asking for their ideas and definitions of ‘professional’. From these
discussions you could start to assemble the common elements and then
start to compare these with definitions gained from professional
associations.

The data gathered could then be collated and the results analysed and
presented.

This approach might lead you to arrive at a new definition of the word –
or it might not! This approach can be very time-consuming, but the
reward might be in terms of arriving at a fresh way of looking at the
subject.

RESEARCH PHILIOSOPHIES

Research is not ‘neutral’, but reflects a

range of the researcher’s personal interests, values,
abilities, assumptions, aims and ambitions.

In the case of your own proposed research, your own

mixtures of these elements will not only determine the subject of the
research, but will influence your approach to it. It is important to
consider in advance what approach you to take with your research – and
why.

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There are essential two main research philosophies (or positions)

although there can be overlap between the two – and both positions may
be identifiable in any research project.

POSITIVISTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL

(can also be referred to (can also be referred to as

‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, ‘Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’,
‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ ‘Humanistic’ or
or ‘Traditionalist’ (see next ‘Interpretative’ (see next
page) page)

The research philosophy can impact on the methodology adopted for the research project.

The term methodology refers to the overall approaches & perspectives to the research process as a who

Why you collected certain data

What data you collected
Where you collected it
How you collected it
How you analysed it (Collis & Hussey, 2003, p.55).

(A research method refers only to the various specific tools or ways data can be collected and analysed, e.g.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF POSITIVISTIC & PHENOMENOLOGICAL

APPROACHES & PERSPECTIVES TO RESEARCH

Positivistic

Positivistic approaches to research are based on research methodologies

commonly used in science. They are characterised by a detached
approach to research that seeks out the facts or causes of any social
phenomena in a systematic way. Positivistic approaches are founded
on a belief that the study of human behaviour should be
conducted in the same way as studies conducted in the natural
sciences (Collis & Hussey, 2003, p.52).

Positivistic approaches seek to identify, measure

and evaluate any phenomena and to provide
rational explanation for it. This explanation will
attempt to establish causal links and relationships
between the different elements (or variables) of
the subject and relate them to a particular theory
or
practice. There is a belief that people do respond to stimulus or forces,
rules (norms) external to themselves and that these can be discovered,
identified and described using rational, systematic and deductive
processes.

Phenomenological

Phenomenological approaches however, approach research from the

perspective that human behaviour is not as easily measured as
phenomena in the natural sciences. Human motivation is shaped by
factors that are not always observable, e.g. inner thought processes, so
that it can become hard to generalise on, for example, motivation from
observation of behaviour alone. Furthermore, people place their own
meanings on events; meanings that do not always coincide with the way
others have interpreted them.

This perspective assumes that people will often

influence events and act in unpredictable ways
that upset any constructed rules or identifiable
norms – they are often ‘actors’ on a human
stage and shape their ‘performance’ according
to a wide range of variables.

Phenomenological approaches are particularly concerned with

understanding behaviour from the participants’ own
subjective frames of reference. Research methods are chosen
therefore, to try and describe, translate and explain and interpret
events from the perspectives of the people who are the subject of the
research.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

The main research methodologies are summarised below and can be

linked to positivistic and phenomenological research positions or
approaches. However, as mentioned earlier, research often contains
both positivistic and phenomenological approaches, e.g. a survey that
also contains qualitative work from participant observation.

Positivistic Phenomenological

 Surveys  Case Studies

 Experimental Studies  Action Research
 Longitudinal Studies  Ethnography (participant
 Cross-sectional Studies observation)
 Participative Enquiry
 Feminist Perspectives
 Grounded Theory

POSITIVISTIC METHODOLOGIES

SURVEYS

Surveys involve selecting a representative and unbiased sample of

subjects drawn from the group you wish to study.

The main methods of asking questions are by face-to-face or

telephone interviews, by using questionnaires or a mixture of the two.

There are two main types of survey: a descriptive survey: concerned

with identifying & counting the frequency of a particular response
among the survey group, or an analytical survey: to analyse the
relationship between different elements (variables) in a sample group.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Experimental studies are done in carefully controlled and structured

environments and enable the causal relationships of phenomena to be
identified and analysed.

The variables can be manipulated or controlled to observe the effects on

the subjects studied. For example, sound, light, heat, volume of work
levels etc can be managed to observe the effects.

Studies done in laboratories tend to offer the best opportunities for

controlling the variables in a rigorous way, although field studies can be
done in a more ‘real world’ environment. However, with the former, the

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artificiality of the situation can affect the responses of the people

studied, and with the latter, the researcher has less control over the
variables affecting the situation under observation.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

These are studies over an extended period to observe the effect that time
has on the situation under observation and to collect primary data (data
collected at first hand) of these changes.

Longitudinal studies are often conducted over several years, which

make them unsuitable for most relatively short taught post-graduate
courses.

However, it is possible to base short time scale research on primary

data collected in longitudinal studies by, for example, government
agencies, and focusing research on a close analysis of one or more
aspect or elements of this data.

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

This is a study involving different organisations or groups of people to

look at similarities or differences between them at any one particular
time, e.g. a survey of the IT skills of managers in one or a number of
organisations at any particular time.

Cross-sectional studies are done when time or resources for more

extended research, e.g. longitudinal studies, are limited.

It involves a close analysis of a situation at one particular point in time

to give a ‘snap-shot’ result.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL

CASE STUDIES

A case study offers an opportunity to study a particular subject, e.g.

one organisation, in depth, or a group of people, and usually involves
gathering and analysing information; information that may be both
qualitative and quantitative. Case studies can be used to formulate
theories, or be:

Descriptive (e.g. where current practice is described in detail)

Illustrative (e.g. where the case studies illustrate new practices adopted
by an organisation

Experimental (e.g. where difficulties in adopting new practices or

procedures are examined)

Explanatory (e.g. where theories are used as a basis for understanding

and explaining practices or procedures). (Scapens, 1990)

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Researchers are increasingly using autobiography as a means of

collecting information from small groups of respondents to seek patterns,
underlying issues and life concerns. This method could be used, for
example, to trace the influences of variables, such as social class, gender
and educational experiences on career development and career
progression, or lack of it, within an organisation. It can be, however a
time consuming process as it requires trust to be built between
researcher and the people concerned.

ACTION RESEARCH

Action research involves an intervention by a researcher to influence

change in any given situation and to monitor and evaluate the results.

The researcher, working with a client, identifies a particular objective,

e.g. ways of improving telephone responses to ‘difficult’ clients, and
explores ways this might be done.

The researcher enters into the situation, e.g. by introducing

new techniques, and monitors the results.

This research requires active co-operation between researcher and

client and a continual process of adjustment to the intervention in the
light of new information and responses to it from respondents.

ETHNOGRAPHY (PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION)

This form of research evolved from anthropology and the close study of
societies.

Ethnography is more usually described as participant observation,

and this is where the researcher becomes a working member of the
group or situation to be observed. The aim is to understand the situation
from the inside: from the viewpoints of the people in the situation. The
researcher shares the same experiences as the subjects, and this form
of research can be particularly effective in the study of small
groups/small firms.

Participant observation can be overt (everyone knows it is happening)

or covert (when the subject(s) being observed for research purposes
are unaware it is happening).

PARTICIPATIVE ENQUIRY

This is about research within one’s own group or organisation and

involves the active involvement and co-operation of people who you
would normally work and associate with on a daily basis. The whole group
may be involved in the research and the emphasis is on sharing,
agreeing, co- operating and making the research process as open and
equal as possible.

Clearly this type of research can work when the student is already an
active and known member of any organisation and may therefore be a
particularly suitable approach for part-time employed students in their
own workplaces.

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FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

Research, from a feminist perspective, focuses on knowledge grounded in

female experiences and is of benefit to everyone, but particularly women.
In a business context, for example, research might centre on the role of
women in an organisation and on their views, roles, influence and
concerns.

Feminist research perspectives have a number of common starting

points. First, that women and their contributions to social and cultural life
have been marginalized and that this is reflected in past research
practice.
Second, that men and male perspectives or norms have dominated
previous research. And third, that gender, as a significant factor in
understanding the world, has been absent from understandings and
interpretations of social phenomena, in favour of other categories, e.g.
social class.

Feminist perspectives draw attention therefore, to how women or

women’s concerns may in previous research have been excluded,
ignored or relegated to the periphery.

It also raises questions therefore about why some forms of knowledge

become or are perceived as more valid than others.

GROUNDED THEORY

Grounded theory reverses approaches in research that collected data in

order to test the validity of theoretical propositions, in favour of an
approach that emphasises the generation of theory from data.

Theory is generated from observations made, rather than being

decided before the study. This approach seeks to challenge research
approaches that unwittingly or wittingly look for evidence in the data to
confirm or deny established theories or practices; the feeling behind this
is that you will often find out in research what you are looking for! But if
an open mind is kept, new ways of perceiving a subject or new ways of
categorising or applying data gathered may be discovered or advanced.

The aim of grounded theory is then, to approach research with no pre-

conceived ideas about what might be discovered or learned.

Silverman (1993) summarises the main features and stages of grounded

theory:
1. An attempt to develop categories which derive from the data;
2. Attempting then to give as many examples as possible in the
categories developed in order to demonstrate their
importance
3. Then developing these categories into more general and broader
analytical frameworks (or theories) with relevance to other
situations outside the research subject.

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Examples of Past Research Projects

Title Approach Methodology

How do financial Positivistic approach Cross-sectional study

advice services market
to the ‘youth market’?

Impact of Positivistic approach Cross –sectional study

developments in IT on & in-depth survey of
financial services one company

Disability awareness Phenomenological Participant observation

training within approach
leisure organisations

Age discrimination in Positivistic and Survey & case study

the workplace phenomenological
approaches/feminist
perspectives

Personality Testing: is Both positivistic Survey &

this a valid tool in the and Participant
recruitment and phenomenological observation
selection process? approaches

Impact of in-store Both positivistic Participant observation

marketing campaign and and survey
phenomenological
approaches

Competitor strategies Positivistic approach Cross-sectional study

in the mortgage mainly, but some & Focus group
market phenomenological survey/discussion
elements included among consumers

The use and Phenomenological Participative enquiry

application of approach
purchasing within an
organisation

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What do you think are the main advantages

& disadvantages of positivistic & phenomenological approaches in research? (Write in

POSITIVISTIC

Advantages (e.g. positive Disadvantages (e.g. points of

features) criticism)

PHENOMENOLOGICAL

Advantages/Positives Disadvantages/Points of
Criticism

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STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The main stages of research can be summarised, as below. However, in
reality the transition between one stage and another is not always so
clear-cut. For example, during the research it may be necessary to
return back and forth between stages to correct additional data, do
additional reading or adjust a timetable. Nevertheless, students need
to carefully work out a timetable for deadline of completion of
each stage. A vital step for successful research is in working out a
workable timetable that connects with the main stages of research.

1. Establish a general field of interest; discuss with supervisor/tutor

Your target date for this stage =

2. Undertake preliminary & background reading on the subject to be

researched to discover with what is known already and to suggest
the choice of an appropriate research methodology.

Your target date for this stage =

3. Narrow your ideas to a workable topic or research proposal and give

it a title. Decide on the most appropriate methods for gathering data,
e.g. questionnaire; observation; review of available information etc.

Your target date for this stage =

4. Preparation of information gathering ‘tools’, e.g. questionnaires,

interview sheets etc (if relevant) & then information gathering
stage. This can take a significant amount of time, so allow plenty of
time for this.

Your target date for this stage =

5. Collation, analyse and interpretation of research data. There will

undoubtedly be a need to continue reading on the topic to make
connections with other current and related research. This can take
a significant amount of time, so allow plenty of time for this.

Your target date for this stage =

6. Write first draft of research project report.

Your target date for this stage =

7. Revision and re-write dissertation; submit dissertation

Your target date for this stage =

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YOUR RESEARCH - GETTING STARTED

1. Establish a general field of interest:

It is very important that the research subject will be of real

interest to you. You will spend a lot of time on the research so a strong
interest in the chosen topic is vital. A strong interest will carry you over
the difficulties, delays and irritations that most researchers will
experience. You will need to discuss your choice or research topic with
your supervisor/tutor.

Before you decide however, on a choice of project you should be aware of

the School of Management requirements for projects, e.g. for MBA
Projects these state:

The project can be undertaken as a company-based or as a School of Management-based

exercise.

 The project has to be a piece of applied research and problem solving. The literature
element of the research is generally only supportive and not a project objective in itself.
 The project is concerned with problem solving, should have a strong policy-based
thrust and must have a sound conceptual basis.
 The problem area must be of a sufficient depth so as to allow a detailed analysis.
Micro- scale studies more easily lend themselves to in-depth analysis than do macro-
scale projects.
 Preparing and writing the project necessitates ten weeks full-time work equivalent, that
is a minimum of 400 hours. This includes discussing and defining the problem area,
reading, data-collection, analysis and report writing, proof reading, copying and
binding.

What research interests have you? Write your thoughts in the space below. At this stage, just keep you

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Why are you interested in the above subject or topic? Write your thoughts in the space below:

Try now and think about your research title and possible research approach. Use the grid below to try and th

Title Approach Methodology The ‘tools’ or

(Think of a title that (i.e. positivistic/ e.g. case, study, methods to
describes succinctly the phenomenological) survey, cross- collect primary
nature of your sectional studies etc data, e.g.
proposed research) questionnaire,
autobiography,
interviews etc

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2. Background & Preparatory Reading

This is an essential stage of the research process, for the following

reasons:

 It is essential to know what work has been done previously in the

topic area. There is no point in you spending hours, weeks and
months to produce a research outcome that someone else has
already achieved!

 It will help you therefore identify research possibilities and to tailor

or slant your particular research project to gain new insights or
perspectives on the chosen topic

 This in turn will help you develop a research methodology

appropriate to the chosen project

 It will help you to justify your choice of research topic at the

project proposal stage to your supervisor/tutor.

One time-saving approach to background and preparatory reading is to select a just a few key books

A checklist for analysing the literature and for helping to determine your
own research approach has been suggested by Collis & Hussey (2003), as
follows:

 What was the purpose of the previous study and how does it
differ from other studies I have encountered and my own
research ideas?

 How was the previous research conducted and how does it

differ from other studies and my own proposed research?

 What were the findings and how do they differ from other
studies, and what I expect to find?

 What were the limitations and weaknesses of these previous

studies?

By engaging actively with previous studies in this way, you will

strengthen your initial research proposal and enhance your final project
report by offering clear justification for both the choice of research topic
and methodology.

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SOME USEFUL INTERNET SITES FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS

Bank of England (UK economic

reports)
http://www.bankofengland.co.uk

BIZED (useful site for business studies

students) www.bized.ac.uk/

BIDS (academic publications)

http://www.bids.ac.uk

DTI Publications (UK government)

http://www.dti.gov.uk/publications

Economist (magazine)
www.economist.com

Emerald (academic publications)

http://fiordiliji.emeraldinsight.com

European Union
www.europa.eu.int

FAME (financial and other data from Companies

House) http://fame.bvdep.com

Financial Times (news and annual reports

service) www.ft.com

FreePint (range of useful Market Research resources, including

featured articles, archive and student ‘bar’ for help on tricky research
questions & issues
www.freepint.com

HMSO Publications (UK government)

http://www.hmso.gov.uk

HRM (links & guides for HRM in UK, USA, Canada & Australia)
www.HRMGuide.net

HSBC (Business Profiles: economic & business information for over 40

countries)
www.hsbc.com.hk/hk/bps

ICAEW (accounting publications)

http://www.icaew.co.uk/library

Ingenta (academic publications)

http://www.ingentaselect.co.uk

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Institute of Fiscal Studies (UK taxation and economics)

http://www.ifs.org.uk

ISI Web of Science (citation index)

http://wos.mimas.ac.uk

JISC (academic publications)

http://www.jisc.ac.uk

Listed Companies (annual reports for listed companies in Europe and

USA)
www.carolworld.com

National Statistics Online (UK

government) http://www.statistics.gov.uk

Mintel (market
analysis)
www.mintel.co.uk

NISS (news, publications & other information & good links to academic
libraries)
http://www.niss.ac.uk

Research Index (list of UK market research & telemarketing companies)

www.researchindex.co.uk

Small Business Portal

http://www.smallbusinessportal.co.uk/index.php

Small Business Service (UK government)

http://www.sbs.gov.uk

Social Sciences Information Gateway (including business, economics

& research methods)
www.SOSIG.ac.uk

UkOnline (UK government)

http://www.ukonline.gov.uk

United Nations (news &

publications) http://www.un.org

WWW Virtual Library (useful links to business related

sites) http://www.vlib.org

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3. Gather Information & Data

Your research project should include empirical research (i.e. primary

research) data. The ways that data can be gathered include:

 One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organisation

(these might be face to face or by telephone)

 Focus groups: discussion & interviews

 Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g.

supermarket

 A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an organisation,

or of consumers, customers etc. This can be done using printed or
electronic questionnaires

However, other approaches can be used too, e.g. autobiography, diary

methods, Internet etc.

It is also possible to engage in problem solving research by an analysis of

secondary data relevant to the chosen topic, but you will need to discuss
this acceptability of this approach with your tutor

INTERVIEWS

Interviews can be grouped into three main types:

1. Structured
2. Semi-structured
3. Unstructured

Structured Interviews

Structured interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a

predetermined and identical set of questions. The questions are usually
read out by a researcher in a neutral tone of voice to avoid influencing or
prompting a particular response from a participant. (see also the section
on questionnaires)

Semi-Structured Interviews

The interviewer will have a list of themes and areas to be covered and
there may be some standardised questions, but the interviewer may omit
or add to some of these questions or areas, depending on the situation
and the flow of the conversation.

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Unstructured Interviews

These are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in-
depth a particular topic with another person in a spontaneous way.
However, even in unstructured interviews it is likely that the researcher
would have a pre-decided range of topics to cover in the discussion.

What types of research project might favour a structured interview approach? Write in the space below

What types of research project might favour a semi-structured or unstructured interview approach?

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Interviews, whether they be structured or semi/unstructured, can sometimes be problematic. What fa

See comments on pages 37-

43
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FOCUS GROUPS

Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the

forms of opinions, from a selected group of people on a
particular and pre-determined topic, e.g. consumer
topic; political topic etc.

The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way

what is being said (e.g. by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc).

The purpose of the discussion is introduced and discussion ground-rules

agreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems.

Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues and
concerns of any group are. This can help in questionnaire design or to
develop a future interview strategy. They can be a useful way too, of
bringing to the surface issues that might not otherwise have been
discovered: the dynamics of a group can often make people bolder in
advancing their opinions.

What might happen in a focus group to cause the researcher to intervene? Write in the space below.

See comments on
pages 37-43

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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

As discussed earlier, participant

observation is when a researcher attempts
to observe in some way in the group
being researched and to share in the
experiences being recorded and analysed.
It can be used in association with other research approaches or as the
primary way of gathering data. It can be a good way of getting below the
surface of any situation and to help reveal or unravel complex causal
social processes.

The researcher can play an overt or covert role and the role the
researcher can adopt in this situation has been summarised by Gill &
Johnson (1977):

 Complete participant
 Complete observer
 Observer as participant
 Participant as observer

Complete Participant

 The identity and purpose of researcher is not revealed to other

group members
 The researcher attempts to become a full covert member of the
group

Example: study of leadership styles in action

Complete Observer

 The purpose of research activity not revealed to those being

observed
 The researcher does not take part in the activities being observed

Example: a detached study of consumer behaviour in a supermarket

Observer as Participant

 The researcher’s role is known to others in the group

 Researchers participate in activities, but their engagement with
group activities may be fairly superficial or spasmodic, as their role
is to observe the ‘real’ participants.

Example: Observing team-building exercises (taking part, but only in a

superficial way, without real emotional involvement).

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Participant as Observer
 The researcher’s role is known to all others in the group

 The researcher would engage fully in all the activities and

experience it totally themselves, plus observe and talk to other
participants about their experiences

Example: Attending and fully participating in an assessment centre

selection day and taking an active part in all the activities

Data Collection as a Participant Observer

This can be in the form of:

 Primary Observations: where the researcher notes what actually

happened or what was actually said at the time

 Secondary Observations: interpretative statements by

observers of what happened

 Experiential Data: a record of the researcher’s feelings/values

and how these changed, if applicable, over time

All three forms of data collection might be included in a research project

report.

One example of participant observation would be the observation of consumer behaviour in superm

Participant observation can present a researcher with a range of advantages & disadvantages to con

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Advantages/Positives Disadvantages/Negatives

See comments on pages 37-

43

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QUESTIONNAIRES
Main points to remember when designing and using questionnaires:
(adapted from Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2003), pp.315-6)

a) Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or

a sample of people, to respond to the same questions. They
can be in both printed and electronic forms.

b) There are five types of questionnaire approaches:

1. On-line (electronic)
2. Postal (printed)
3. Delivery & collection (printed)
4. Telephone (electronic/printed)
5. Interview face to face/group (electronic or printed)

c) You need to absolutely clear before you design a

questionnaire what it is you want to learn and what data
you need to obtain to enlighten you in this search. You also
need to think ahead about how you are going to collate the
information you gather. There is no point in designing a
questionnaire that produces a range of information you find
very difficult to collate in any meaningful quantitative or
qualitative way.

d) The validity (the extent to which the data accurately

measures what they were intended to measure) and
reliability (the extent to which the data collection method will
yield consistent findings if replicated by others) of the data
you collect depend on the design of the questionnaire and the
words that you use.

e) Questions can be open or closed:

Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left

for the respondent’s own answer (the questions posed to you in
this workbook have all been open questions)

e.g. Please tell me which brand you prefer, and why in the space
that follows

Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to the

set question are provided. These can be in list, category,
ranking, scale/rating, grid or other quantitative form. They can be
pre- coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis.

e.g. Please tick the box shown below with the brand you prefer

f) The order and flow of questions should be logical to

the respondent.

g) There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so they

need to be introduced carefully and courteously to potential
respondents. This introduction can include the use of a
covering

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letter; offering a prize or other inducement can also improve the

rate of return of questionnaires.

h) All questionnaires should be piloted, if possible, with a small

group before the main research to assess their value,
validity and reliability.

Whatdoyouthinkaretherespectiveresearchadvantagesand disadvantages of asking open questions and

Open Questions Closed Questions

Advantages: Advantages

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:

See comments on pages 37-43

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EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. Specific Information Request

In which year did you start the degree course?

2. Category

Have you ever been or are you a student representative? (Tick which)
Yes (currently) □ Yes (in the past) □ Never □

3. Multiple Choice

Do you view the money you have spent on your higher education as any of the following?
If so, tick which.
A luxury □ An investment A necessity □ A gamble □ A burden □
A right □ None of these □

4. Scale

How would you describe your parents attitude to higher education at the time you applied?
Please tick one of the options below.

Very Positive Positive Mixed/Neutral Negative Very Negative Not Sure

□ □ □ □ □ □
5. Ranking

What do you see as the main purpose(s) of your degree study?

Please rank all those relevant in order from 1 (most important)
downwards: Personal Development □ Career
Advancement □
Subject Interest □ Recreation □
Fulfil Ambition □ Intellectual Stimulation □
Other □ (give details)……………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Grid or Table

How would you rank the benefits of your degree study for each of the following? Please
rank each item:

for Very Positive Neutral Negative Very Not Sure

Positive Negative
You

Your
Family
Your
Employer
The
Country
Your
Community
Your
Friends

7. Open Questions

Please summarise the benefits of your degree study in the space below:

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SOME GENERAL RULES FOR DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRES

(source: Collis & Hussey, 2003)

1. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire to all participants

2. Keep your questions as simple as possible
3. Do not use jargon or specialist language (unless the
recipients really prefer and understand it)
4. Phrase each question so that only one meaning is possible
5. Avoid vague, descriptive words, such as ‘large’ and ‘small’
6. Avoid asking negative questions as these are easy
to misinterpret
7. Only ask one question at a time
8. Include relevant questions only
9. Include, if possible, questions which serve as cross-checks
on the answers to other questions
10. Avoid questions which require participants to
perform calculations
11. Avoid leading or value-laden questions which imply what
the required answer might be
12. Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions which
could cause embarrassment
13. Avoid asking ‘difficult’ questions, e.g. where the
respondent may struggle to answer (people hate to look
stupid by not knowing the ‘answer’).
14. Keep your questionnaire as short as possible, but include all the
questions you need to cover your purposes

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS IN THE RIGHT WAY

Exercise

Please comment on the wording of the following open questions taken

from a range of questionnaires.

Comment
1. How satisfactory was
your stay at the
Carlton Hotel?

2. What is your place of

residence?

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3. Some people say that

the city is spending
too much on building
new schools. Do you
agree or disagree?

4. How much time did

you spend reading the
newspaper yesterday?

5. What is your religion?

6. How old are you?

7. Does your employer

make adequate
provision for
maternity/paternity
leave?

See comments on page 37-43

SIZE & SAMPLING

In a positivistic study, when seeking the views of a group of fifty or less,

Henry (1990) argues against any form of sampling. He argues that you
should distribute questionnaires and collect data to the entire population,
if possible.

To elicit the views of larger groups, some form of sampling is usually

necessary to attempt to gather opinions that are likely to be
representative of the whole group.

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Sampling strategies are divided into two main groups: probability and
non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling:

Where the researcher has a significant measure

Where theof researcher
control overhaswho
little is selected
initial controland onthe
over thechoice
select
Main Methods: Convenience Sampling:
Sampling methods allow for representative cross-sections,
(sampling or particular
those most convenient;groups
thoseto immediately
be identifiedavailab
or targ
Main Methods: Simple Random Sampling:
(selection at random by the researchers from a choiceSampling:
Voluntary of subjects)
(the sample is self- selecting; they come forward voluntarily i
Systematic Sampling: (selecting by the researchers at numbered intervals, e.g. every one person in fi
Purposive Sampling:
Stratified Sampling: (sampling within particular
(enablessections of the
you to use target
your groups,to choose people that ar
judgement
e.g. you target a specific number of people based on the percentage of the total group that share the sa
‘Snowball’ Sampling: (building up a sample through inform
So, for example, in a study of an organisation that had 50 supervisors & 800 labourers, a 10% represen
Event Sampling
(using the opportunity presented by a particular event, e.g. a

Time Sampling
(recognising that different times or days of the week or year

Cluster Sampling:
(surveEyxinagma ppalertsicuolafrPcrluosbtear bofility the subject group)

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EXAMPLES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Random Systematic Cluster

OOOOO 0000X 00000

OOXO O0000X 00000
000000 0000X 00000
X00000 0000X XXXXX
00000X 0000X XXXXX
000000 0000X XXXXX
00XX00 0000X 00000
000000 0000X 00000
0000X0 0000X 00000

Stratified

00X00
0X000
000X0

00000
X0000
XX000
000X0

Source: Blaxter, L. Hughes, C. & Tight, M. (1998) How to Research. Buckingham: Open
University Press.

In 1991 there was a study of the personal characteristics of 48 highly successful women. The 48 were contac

(See comments on page 43)

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RESPONSE RATES

As a general rule, a response rate of 30 per cent or greater for a

postal/externally sent questionnaire is generally regarded as reasonable.
However, a goal of 50 per cent or more responses should be attempted in
any questionnaire that involved face-to-face interviews.

There are techniques that can help improve response rates to postal or
electronic questionnaires:

 Follow-up calls (especially telephone reminders and special

delivery letters)

 Pre-contact with respondents (telling them about the

questionnaire)

 Type of postage (special delivery is superior to ordinary mail;

there is also some evidence that hand-written white envelopes are
more likely to be opened than brown/typed!)

 Rewards: prizes, or better still, cash incentives.

 Personalizing the questionnaire: writing to the person by

name, e.g. ‘Dear John’ etc.

 Emphasising Confidentiality: ensuring that all views to be

published remain anonymous, if appropriate

 Appeals to the respondent: based on the social, personal or

other benefits that might flow from the participation of a
respondent

 Postal questionnaires should always include a stamped return

envelope and have a covering letter explaining the purpose of the
questionnaire and the use intended for the findings in the future.

 The researcher should include full contact details and the offer to
discuss the questionnaire with any respondent who has doubts or
queries about it.

The researcher should always offer to share the research findings with
any participant, if requested, and this offer is best made in the covering
letter.

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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research.

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003, p. 131) summarise the main issues
to consider, although the ethical issues surrounding these items are not
always clear-cut:

 The rights of privacy of individuals

 Voluntary nature of participation – and the rights of individuals to
withdraw partially or completely from the process
 Consent and possible deception of participants
 Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals
or identifiable participants and their anonymity
 Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to
collect data
 Effects on participants of the way in which data is analysed and
reported
 Behaviour and objectivity of the researcher

RESEARCH TENSIONS

1. Misleading People

Sometimes, if the real reasons behind the research were disclosed to

those whose behaviour is being studied, they would refuse to co-operate,
or alter their behaviour. Example: Roy Wallis, a sociologist, wanted to
investigate a controversial religious organisation, but he knew the
leaders of the movement were unlikely to agree. He covertly joined the
movement and participated in an introductory course. As part of this
introductory course he had to sign a pledge that he would not disclose to
others details of it. He signed this – but went on to publish his view of
this course.

Was his behaviour ethical? He argued that it was in the interest of society
that he published details of what went on inside secretive organisations.
What do you think?

2. Publishing Results

The publication of research findings may prove damaging, embarrassing

or offensive to the people involved – either because they are portrayed in
an unattractive way, or because they would prefer to keep their attitudes
or modes of behaviour private. In any organisation there are likely to be
‘grey’ areas of conduct or attitudes that the organisation would be
reluctant to find in the public domain through research. A researcher
once said ‘a good study will make someone angry’. But the researcher
has to bear in mind the possible consequences of the publication of
findings. The findings may, for example, be used to disadvantage groups
of participants who had been cooperative and helpful in the research, and
this can cause researchers some personal distress. Wherever possible,
the researcher will want to discuss the issues emerging from the research
directly with those touched by it before it is made public. To what extent
should the

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researcher be influenced by possible future negative responses to the

research?

Another issue concerning publication regards researchers exaggerating

or even falsifying research findings to get their work published. The
career of an academic is advanced through publications, but
unfortunately there have been a few past cases of researchers willing to
falsify their findings to gain publicity. This is, of course, highly unethical
and immoral – as is agreeing to omit or downplay results to avoid
embarrassing a research sponsor. This last point is important, as it can
easily happen that research findings are unexpectedly disagreeable to a
sponsor of the project, and pressure can be bought to bear on the
researcher to ‘play down’, omit, hide etc., these awkward findings.

3. Confidentiality

This is an important – perhaps the most important – issue to consider in

research. Students need to be aware therefore, what the School of
Management has to say about this, for example in the MBA Management
Project Guidelines:

Frequently, the nature of a project necessitates the student having access to sensitive
information about a company's business. The company may require the student to
keep such information confidential, and occasionally may ask the student to sign a
formal confidentiality agreement.

If the project report contains confidential information the company may ask the
University to keep the report confidential. Any such request should be sent in writing
to the Projects Co-ordinator. After marking, confidential reports are kept under
restricted access for 2 years instead of being placed in the library. If access needs to
be restricted for a longer period application must be made again in writing at the end
of this time.

Similarly, if a student is employed by a company to do research, he/she does so on

behalf of the company and this should be declared to other parties. It is not
acceptable practice to use 'MBA student' as a cover to obtain competitor information.

(Section 12.6 ‘Confidentiality’, from MBA Management Project Guidelines)

The last sentence of the above expresses a real fear that companies
have, that a student researcher will disclose sensitive company
information, divulge market plans, ‘steal’ information, etc. and students
need to be alert and sensitive to these anxieties.

Checklist for Ethical Research

1. Will the research process harm participants or those

whom information is gathered?
2. Are the findings likely to cause harm to others not involved in
the research?

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3. Are you violating accepted research practice in conducting

the research and data analysis, and drawing conclusions?
4. Are you violating community or professional standards
of conduct?
(Kervin, 1992, p. 38)

Is your proposed research likely to cause any ethical difficulties? If so, please make some notes in the space

Possible ethical issues:

DISCUSSION OF ISSUES RAISED IN THIS WORKBOOK

In this workbook a number of questions were raised and you were invited
to think about your answers or responses to these. Our responses to
these questions can be found on the following pages.

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What do you think are the main research advantages

& disadvantages of positivistic & phenomenological approaches?

Positivistic

Advantages Disadvantages

Suitable for research projects that Highly structured research

require a structured and design imposes pre-arranged
qualitative approach limits and boundaries to
research
Good for research projects, for
example, that are descriptive in Not a particular good approach
nature, i.e. identifies and to take if you are trying to
quantifies the element parts of any explain why things happen
phenomena: the ‘what’ aspects of
research Assumes that researchers can be
totally objective, but researchers
Standardisation makes collation may allow their own values,
and codifying of gathered data interests to influence the
easier approach, for example, in the
questions posed
Research methods easier to
reproduce and for other It is very difficult to capture the
researchers to test your complex interplay of phenomena
conclusions in a single measure

You need to use a large sample

to be able to make
generalisations from results

Phenomenological

Advantages Disadvantages

You can use a relatively The findings are subjective and it

small sample for your studies can be difficult to assert wider
more generalised points from the
Enables you to gather data that research – or your findings would
is ‘rich’ in personal comment and be more open to the charge that
personal insights wider ideas that you assert flow
from your studies cannot be
Enables you to explore below substantiated
the presenting surface of an
issue Your research would be very hard
to reproduce if another researcher
wanted to reproduce the survey
and test your findings.

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What types of research project might favour a structured interview approach?

Research projects that aim to be descriptive in nature, or where you are

aiming for high reliability (the research findings can be easily tested by
other research using same methodology). This approach to interview is
suitable for gathering data that can then be analysed in a precise way.

What types of research project might favour a semi-structured or unstructured interview

Research projects that are exploratory or explanatory in nature, that

is, to discover the ‘why’ (reasons/motives) for things. It is suitable for
research that tries to understand the relationships between variables,
and where you need to probe, explore or seek for new insights into a
subject.

Interviews, whether they be structured or semi/unstructured, can sometimes be problem

There are a number of potential problem areas associated with interviews:

 Bias
 Demeanour of interviewer
 Suspicion of the interviewer
 Conduct of interview
 Confidentiality

BIAS

Bias is one of the most significant issues in interviewing, as it can affect

the responses of the interviewee to the interviewer, and vice versa.
Interviews are human encounters and a range of issues can influence
and colour our perceptions of the people we encounter – including
interviewers. We like or dislike someone, often without quite knowing
why, and this can affect our responses to them. A range of factors can
come into play: gender, race, age, speech, appearance and attitude.

Sexual bias is a particular significant factor. Rosenthal (1966) has

suggested that there is the possibility of sexual bias in interviewers and
that both male and female researchers behave more warmly towards
female subjects than they do towards male subjects.

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The way to reduce bias is to be actively alert to the following key issues
in interviewing: demeanour, suspicion, confidentiality and the way you
conduct the interview

DEMEANOUR OF INTERVIEWER

Generally speaking, we often like people who appear to like us!

The interviewer should then, appear to be interested in the interviewee,
but in a neutral and detached way: ‘neutrally interested’ is perhaps the
best way of describing the best interviewer-interviewee relationship. The
tone of voice of the interviewer is important, as it should project an
impression of quiet confidence and quiet enthusiasm in the
topic under discussion. Torrington (1991) suggests
that an open posture is best, where the interviewer sits
slightly forward toward the interviewee, keeps regular
eye contact, and avoids folded arms. The interviewer
must avoid appearing shocked, disbelieving or
astonished by comments made by interviewees.

The interviewer wear clothes similar to those of the

interviewees: too scruffy, or too over-dressed can
affect the credibility of the interviewer.

SUSPICION OF THE INTERVIEWER

People are increasingly suspicious of interviewers and their motives. Most

people have experience of being stopped in the street by an interviewer
who appears to be asking questions in a neutral way but is really seeking
to make a marketing contact for a commercial organisation. The true
purpose of the interview should be carefully explained to the interviewee
and how the data collected will be used. Wherever possible, the student
researcher should have a letter from a University tutor explaining the
research initiative, e.g. it is part of a legitimate first or post-graduate
course. Wherever possible, the interviewer should send details of the
interview process and agenda to interviewees in advance, for example
explaining the estimated length of time it will take, the aim and purpose
of the questions to be asked and the range of questions likely to be
asked.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Part of the suspicion shown toward interviewers concerns the issue of

confidentiality, and interviewees may be worried about disclosing
sensitive information in case it has negative repercussions in some way
against them. Interviewees may also be concerned that their personal
details would be passed on to commercial organisations and that they
would be subsequently pestered to buy things.

Interviewees must be given a complete reassurance about

confidentiality and told who will see the data obtained – and don’t forget
this is likely to include at least two university tutors and possibly one
external examiner.

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The interviewer should be assured that his or her views will be

generalised in the final report or that any direct quotes used would
remain anonymous unless the interviewee wishes otherwise. The
interviewer needs subsequently to take pains to avoid revealing the
identity of respondents by using false names and not giving any clues to
the identity of any interviewee.

CONDUCT OF THE INTERVIEW

The opening stages of an interview are particularly important.

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) make the following suggestions on
conducting a semi-structured interview:

 The interviewee is thanked for agreeing to the meeting

 The purpose of the research, its funding (if relevant) and
progress to date are briefly outlined
 The interviewee is given an assurance regarding confidentiality
(see next section)
 The interviewee’s right not to answer questions is emphasised
and the interview could be terminated at any time by the
interviewee
 The interviewee is told about the use intended to be made of
the data collected during and after the project
 The offer of any written documentation to the interviewee
promised in advance of the meeting should be emphasised
 The interviewer describes the process of the interview, e.g.
approximate number and range of questions to be asked and
the time is was likely to take.

What might happen in a focus group to cause the researcher to intervene?

The researcher would want to intervene in the following situations:

 If one group member was dominating the discussion

 If the group strayed from discussing the topic in question
 To encourage quieter members of the group to contribute to
the discussion
 To resolve any conflicts that arose between group members

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Participant observation can present a researcher with a range of advantages & disadva

Advantages/Positives Disadvantages/Negatives

It allows the researcher to Access to an organisation for

observe at first hand and get overt participation may be very
below the surface of a particular difficult
situation
There may be role-conflict.
It heightens the awareness of a Researchers may lose their
researcher to social processes objectivity if they become too
that can influence behaviour close emotionally to the people
they are observing.
It allows the researcher to
observe the relationship of The researcher may encounter
different variables suspicion and even hostility from
people, who suspect the motives
It can enable a researcher to for the research and may be
gain insights into a situation that worried about their livelihoods.
otherwise would not have been
recognised or observed The presence of a researcher
(overt participation) can have an
It can allow, in the case of overt impact on the behaviour of the
participation, the researcher to people being observed: the
gain the trust of the people being ‘observer effect’. They may change
observed the way they behave if they are
aware they are being observed.

It is very time-consuming and can

generate a large amount of
data/commentary that will need
to be collated (also see below)

Recording and collating data from

observations can be difficult and
the researcher may need to adopt
structured observation, where
tasks/responses etc are identified
and broken down into elements and
the frequency of actions or
responses noted and later collated.
Taking notes in any covert situation
presents real problems, as the
researcher may not be a position to
openly record observations. In this
situation, the researcher must
record his or her observations as
soon as possible afterwards.

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What do you think are the respective research advantages and disadvantages of aski

Open Questions Closed Questions

Advantages: Advantages:

Enable you to get below Often easier for respondents

the surface, explore and (particularly those who are
probe busy) to answer

Encourages respondents to Easier to collate than

think and offer considered open questions
answers
The questionnaire can be easily
Encourages respondents to reproduced by other
give honest opinions researchers who wanted to test
your findings

Open Questions Closed Questions

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:

The responses can be hard They limit the choices (of

to collate answers) to respondents and
gives them less control over
The research may be difficult for their responses
others to reproduce, so your
findings may be open to doubt It is harder to get below the
or question surface of an issue

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS IN THE RIGHT WAY

Comment
1. How satisfactory was A vague question, and it would be
your stay at the better to offer a range of questions
Carlton Hotel? relating to specific aspects of the
person’s stay in the hotel.

2. What is your place of This question is capable of

residence? misinterpretation, as ‘place of residence’
might be seen as the road, town, county,
country etc.

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3. Some people say that This question presents just one

the city is spending perspective on the topic. It would be
too much on building better to include both perspectives, e.g.
new schools. Do you “Some people say that the city is
agree or disagree? spending too much on building new
schools, whilst others argue not enough is
being spent?
What is your view?”
4. How much time did There is an assumption being made here
you spend reading the that the person did or should have read a
newspaper yesterday? newspaper. Respondents faced with such
a question may be tempted to make
something up to save face.

5. What is your religion? Again, this assumes the respondent has

an affiliation to a particular religion. In this
case it is better to offer respondents a
choice of religious groups, plus options for
atheists, agnostics and others.

6. How old are you? This is a stark and abrupt way of asking
this sensitive question and some
respondents might take offence at it. It is
better to either offer respondents a
choice of boxes to tick with age cohorts,
e.g. 30- 39, or ask for a year of birth.

7. Does your employer The word adequate is vague and

make adequate imprecise and may be based on a
provision for particular model of maternity/paternity
maternity/paternity leave arrangement known to the
leave? researcher, but not to the participant. It
would be better to simply ask what
provision the respondent’s employer
makes for maternity/paternity
leave.

SAMPLING STRATEGIES

In 1991 there was a study of the personal characteristics of 48 highly successful women. The 48 wer

Question: what sampling strategy do you think was used in this study?

This was an example of purposive sampling (non-probability).

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Bibliography & Suggested Reading

 Blaxter, L. Hughes, C. & Tight, M. (1998) How to Research.

Buckingham: Open University Press.
 Collis, J. & Hussey, R. (2003) Business Research: a practical guide
for undergraduate and postgraduate students, second edition.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Denscombe, M. (2002) Ground Rules for Good Research,
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
 Gill, J. & Johnson, P. (1997) Research Methods for Manager (2nd
edition), London: Paul Chapman.
 Henry, G.T. (1990) Practical Sampling, Newbury Park, CA, Sage.
 Kervin, J.B. (1992) Methods for Business Research. NY: Harper
Collins
 Rosenthal, R. (1966) Experimenter Effects in Behavioural Research.
N.Y. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
 Saunders, M, Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2003) Research Methods for
Business Students (3rd edition) Harlow: Prentice Hall.
 Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for
Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. London: Sage.
 Torrington, D. (1991) management Face to Face. London:
Prentice Hall

© This booklet was written by Colin Neville, Effective Learning Officer,

University of Bradford, School of Management and must not be
reproduced without permission. Last updated November 2005.
[email protected]

Effective Learning 4