PREFACE

The application of mechanics to problems involving common engineering elements is

known as engineering mechanics. The goal of this Engineering Mechanics course is to expose
students to mechanics problems as they apply to potentially real-world scenarios. Specific types
of problems are examined in depth in the hope that students will gain an inductive understanding
of the underlying principles at work; students should then be able to recognize and respond to
problems of this type in real-world situations.

Engineering Mechanics: Static of Rigid Bodies is a textbook reference, guidebook and

workbook for engineering mechanics concepts and problem solving designed for teachers,
students, parents, and all interested in learning techniques. This book highlights various
concepts, methods and techniques to solve higher order thinking and challenging questions often
encountered in some aspects of our daily lives.

The purpose of this book is to improve and help a student’s ability to solve challenging
problems and questions. It provides an opportunity to discover and gain more learning while
answering and understanding the sample problems. The worked examples serve as a step-by-step
guide while the carefully designed questions provide the practice.

It consists of concise and easy to understand explanations and discussions provided with
sample problems having a step-by-step explanation or process of solution. In line with this, it
will be easier for the readers to fully understand and apply the techniques and the provided
process for each problem. We hope the valuable information given in this book will be useful to
students while studying engineering mechanics.

[i]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of this final project could not have been possible without the
participation and assistance of people whose names may not all be enumerated. The contribution
is sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. However, the group would like to express
their deep appreciation and indebtedness particularly to the following:

First and foremost, we would like to thank our Almighty God for giving us strength,
patience, and enough knowledge to accomplish the given task at hand. He also showered us with
blessings that helped us in this final project.

We would like to extend our utmost gratitude to our professor, Engineer Ernesto
Magundayao for guiding us throughout the process of the final project. His dynamism, vision,
and motivation inspired us to give our greatest shot in every parts.

To our family: Arazo, Atajar. Dela Cruz, De Leon, Ferry, Jolongbayan Rosita, and
Sandro, who in one way or another shared their support either morally, financially, or physically.
Their encouragement when times get rough are much appreciated and noted.

We would also like to express our appreciation to De Leon's residence and CUA Building
for giving us shelter just to complete this project. The sleepless nights we worked together and
for all the fun we have had throughout the process became possible because of their kindness for
letting us in on their humble abode.

Lastly, we would like to extend our deepest acknowledgement to Engr. Moises Rocafort
for his time and effort in inspecting and checking our final project as one of the requirements to
complete this course, Statics of Rigid Bodies.

We thank you.

[ii]
 Table of Contents

Preface ………………………………………………………..………………………………………....[i]
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………..………...……….[ii]

Chapter 1: Basic Mechanics

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………2
Real Life Application ……………………………………………………………………………………2
Solved Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………..….4
Sample Problems ………………………………………………………………………………………..5

Chapter 2: Equilibrium Mechanics

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Free-Body Diagram …………………………………………………………………………………… 8
Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems ………………………………………………………… 9
Equilibrium of Parallel Force Systems ……………………………………………………………. 10
Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force Systems …………………………………………………. 10
Solved Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Sample Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………...12

Chapter 3: Friction
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………16
Solved Problems ………………………………………………………………………………………16
Sample Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………...17

Chapter 4: Wedges, Square Threaded Screw, and Belt Friction

Wedges …………………………………………………………………………………………………21
Square Threaded Screw ……………………………………………………………………………..22
Belt Friction ………………………………………………………………………………………….24
Solved Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………..25
Sample Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………26

Chapter 5: Centroid
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………..30
Real Life Application ………………………………………………………………………………..31
Solved Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………..31
Sample Problems ……………………………………………………………………………………32
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Chapter 6: Theorem of Pappus

Introduction
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems
Chapter 7: Moment of Inertia
Introduction
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

Chapter 8: Moment of Inertia of Built-Up Sections

Introduction
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

Chapter 9: Method of Joints

Introduction
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

Chapter 10: Method of Sections

Introduction
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

Chapter 11: Graphical Method

Introduction
Triangle and Polygon Law of Forces
Representation of Force, Space Diagram, Vector Diagram, and Bow’s Notation
Resultant of Forces
Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

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 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Chapter 12: Parabolic Cable

Introduction
Real Life Application
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

Chapter 13: Catenary Cable

Introduction
Solved Problems
Sample Problems

APPENDICES
Profile of Authors
Profile of Proofreaders

REFERENCES

3
1
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1.1 Introduction
Mechanics is one of the branches of physics which deals with the forces’ action on any
object that occupies space (matter). It also includes transmission of forces caused by the
movements from simple machines.
Force, in physics, is an external agent capable of changing an object’s motion. It can
influence one’s velocity that puts something at rest or in acceleration. In simple terms, force can
be identified as the push or pull that has the presence of magnitude and direction categorizing it
as vector quantity.
1.2 Real Life Applications
The daily encounters of entities on earth have force acting on it. A man standing on the
ground has two forces acting as it maintains its balance. Those are the pull of the gravity and the
push from the ground.

(Image from VectorStock)

A force can be resolved into two components: the x and the y. When plotting, x-components act
horizontally (left and right) while y-components act vertically (up and down).

The horizontal and vertical components represent the resultant force when they are combined.

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 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

The blue arrow in the given figure represents the resultant force, which is the result when
two components of a force are combined. In merging components, one must take account the
formula.

Fx = F cos θx = F sin θy
Fy = F sin θx = F cos θy
F = √ (ΣFx2 + ΣFy2)
Θ = F x / Fy

The tendency of a force to rotate about a specific point or axis is called moment.
Moment is the capacity or ability of a force to turn or to twist. This can be measured by
multiplying the magnitude of the force to its perpendicular distance from the point.

On the other hand, a couple consists of two parallel forces equal in magnitude, has
opposite sense, and do not share line of action. Couple has resultant force equal to zero.

3
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

However, the outcome of a couple is not zero. Steering wheel of a car can be a perfect example
of a couple.

(Image by Engineering by Alberta Courses)

1.3 Solved Problem

At Point A of the bell crank, a force P of 300 N is applied.
shown. (a) Determine the force P's moment around O using
separating its components into its vertical and horizontal parts.
( b) By Using the outcome of section
(c), calculate the distance perpendicular to
O to the direction of force P's motion.

Solution:
Let us first draw the FBD of th e given problem.

Now, let us compute for the vertical and horizontal components of the vector drawn from
O to A.
𝑥 = (0.2 𝑚) cos 40° = 0.1532 𝑚
𝑦 = (0.2 𝑚) sin 40° = 0.1286 𝑚
∴ rA/O = (0.1532 𝑚)𝑖̂+ (0.1286 𝑚)𝑗̂

(a) Now that we have computed the rA/O, let us now compute the x- and y-component of
force P. We have,
𝐹𝑥 = (300 𝑁) sin 30° = 150 𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = (300 𝑁) cos 30° = 259.8076 𝑁

𝑭 = (150 𝑁)𝑖̂+ (259.8076 𝑁)𝑗̂

Since the first required was to compute for the moment of the force P about O by
resolving it into vertical and horizontal components, we will use the formula for moment
which is the cross-product of rA/O and F. We have,

4
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

𝑀𝑂 = 𝑟𝐴/𝑂 × 𝐹
= (0.1532𝑖̂+ 0.1286𝑗̂) × (150𝑖̂+ 259.8076𝑗̂)
= (39.82 𝑘 − 19.29𝑘 ) 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
= (20.53 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚)𝑘

𝑀0 = 20.53 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 ↺

(b) Now for the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of force P, we will use
the general formula for moment which is M = Fd. We have,
20.53 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
M = Fd 300 𝑁
= 𝑑
20.53 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 = (300 N)(d) 𝑑 = 0.0684 𝑚

1.4 Sample Problems

1. Find the resultant of the forces R1 and R2

2. Determine the x and y component for each force as shown in figure 1.

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 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

3. Find the resultant moment about point Z of the system of forces shown in the figure below.
(Note: Each square is 1 ft. on a side)

4. Compute the resultant of the force system shown in figure below. Locate its intersection with
the x and y axes.

5. Joey uses a rod in his picnic activity to catch some fish. Three forces are said to be acting on
his rod (as shown in the figure below). If the distance AB is equal to distance BC, find the
moment at point D. Forces on A, B, and C are 8 N, 17 N, and 9 N respectively. AB is 10 cm and
CD=0.05 m.

6
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

6. Combine the two forces P and T which act on the fixed structure at B into a single equivalent
R and the angle it creates along the horizontal.

7. Replace the three forces which act on the bent bar by a force–couple system at the support
point A. Then determine the x-intercept of the line of action of the stand-alone resultant force R.

7
 CHAPTER I
BASIC MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2.1 Introduction
The concept of equilibrium is introduced to describe a body which is stationary or which
is moving with a constant velocity. Only balanced forces and couples may influence a body in
such a situation. There isn't an imbalanced force or pair acting on it. The term "equilibrium" is
used in statics to describe a body that is immobile or that is said to be in a condition of static
equilibrium. A system is said to be in static equilibrium when all of its parts are at rest and there
is no net force acting on it and when all the forces pulling on an object are in balance and it is not
moving with respect to the relative plane.

The most fundamental and significant idea in engineering analysis is that of equilibrium.
Every learner must truly comprehend the concept. Mastering the idea of equilibrium is necessary
for understanding mechanics and many other technical disciplines.

2.1.2 Free-Body Diagram

Every mechanics problem involves how bodies interact with one another. Any single part
of a structure must be separated from the rest of the body in order to observe what actually
occurs to that part. Isolating the component that will be the subject of the investigation is a key
idea in mechanical analysis. The part which has been isolated forms a free body. A diagram
which portrays the free body, complete with the system of external forces acting on it due to
its interaction with the parts which have been removed, is called the free-body diagram
(FBD).

For example, in Figure 3.1, the parked car. It stays where it is because the forces on it are
balanced. The downward force of gravity is balanced by the ground pushing back up on the car.
On the left side, Figure 3.2, is it’s free body diagram wherein the magnetic gravity is always
shown as a downward vertical force and a normal force arrows upward.

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 – Free-body diagram of parked car

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Steps involved in drawing a free-body diagram:

1. Show the body which has been isolated from its surroundings by drawing its outline.
2. Show, on the drawing, all loads acting on the body. The loads consist of the active
forces couples and the reactive forces and couples
3. Indicate the magnitude and sense of each load. Use letters to indicate unknown
magnitudes. For unknown sense, choose the sense arbitrarily but every pair of interacting
loads must obey Newton’s third law.
4. Show all dimensions which are necessary to calculate moments.

OTHER EXAMPLES OF FREE-BODY DIAGRAM

2.1.3 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems

A concurrent coplanar force system is a system of two or more

forces whose lines of action all intersect at a common point. However, all of
the individual vectors might not actually be in contact with the common
point. These are the most simple force systems to resolve with any one of
many graphical or algebraic options.

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Finding the equation that has a resultant of zero allows one to determine the conditions of
equilibrium for a concurrent force system. The magnitude of the resultant of a concurrent force
system is found by means of the equation:
2 2
𝑅 = (∑𝑋) + (∑𝑌)
Only then, the resultant will be zero and equilibrium will exist when the following
conditions are met:

1. In the y-direction or vertical, the total of all forces is zero. ΣFy=0 or ΣFV=0
2. In the x-direction or horizontal, the total of all forces is zero. ΣFx=0 or ΣFH=0

2.1.4 Equilibrium of Parallel Force Systems

A parallel coplanar force system consists of two or more forces

whose lines of action are all parallel. This is commonly the situation when
simple beams are analyzed under gravity loads. These can be solved
graphically, but are combined most easily using algebraic methods.

The conditions for equilibrium of coplanar parallel forces are

determined from the conditions necessary to create a zero resultant. The
resultant of parallel force systems is determined by the equations:
𝑅 = Σ𝐹
𝑅·𝑑 = Σ𝑀

Due to this, we can conclude that the independent equations of equilibrium are:
Σ𝐹 = 0
Σ𝑀 = 0

The equation below shows that a force summation may be replaced by a moment
summation. Therefore, the equation of equilibrium for parallel forces may also be expressed by:
Σ𝑀𝐴 = 0
Σ𝑀𝐵 = 0

2.1.5 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

A non-concurrent and non-parallel system is consists of a number

of vectors that do not meet at a single point and none of them are parallel.
These systems are essentially a jumble of forces and take considerable care
to resolve.

For Equilibrium of non-concurrent forces there are three conditions:

1. Sum of all the horizontal forces is equal to zero. ΣFy=0 or ΣFV=0
2. Sum of all the vertical forces is equal to zero. ΣFx=0 or ΣFH=0
3. Sum of the moment of all the forces about any point is equal to zero. ∑M = 0

If any one of these conditions is not satisfied, then the body will not be in equilibrium.

2.2 Solved Problem

Determine the magnitudes of the forces C and T, which, along with the other three forces shown,
act on
the bridge-truss joint

Solution

The given sketch constitutes the free body diagram of the isolated section of the joint in
questions and shows the five forces which are in equilibrium

To avoid a simultaneous solution, we may use axes x’-y’ with the first summation in the
y’-direction to
eliminate reference to T. (scalar algebra). Thus,

[∑Fy =0]
-C cos 20º-3 cos 40º + 16 sin 40º= 0
C= 3.03 kN

[∑Fx =0]
T+ 8 cos 40º- 3 sin 40º-3.03 sin 20º=0
T=9.09 kN

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2.3 Sample Problems

1. A 1 m long uniform beam of 2 kg mass is being lifted vertically up by a force F at the 100 cm
mark. What is the minimum force required to do so?

2. Determine the reactions at A and B on the beam .

3. In the figure, the frame is supported in pivots at A and B. Each member weighs 50-lb per
ft. Determine (a) the horizontal reaction at A, and (b) the horizontal and vertical
components of the reaction at B.

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

4. A clamp is used to hold two pieces of wood together as shown. The clamp has a double
square thread of mean diameter equal to 10 mm with a pitch of 2 mm. The coefficient of
friction between threads is s = 0.30. If a maximum couple of 40 Nm is applied in
tightening the clamp, determine (a) the force exerted on the pieces of wood, (b) the
couple required to loosen the clamp.

5. A picture frame weighing 40 grams is hanging between two ropes. Find the T 1 and T2
from the given figure below.

6. Bar AB of negligible weight is subjected to a vertical force of 350 lb. and a horizontal
force of 75 lb. applied as shown in the figure. Find the angle ϴ at which equilibrium
exist. Assume smooth inclined surfaces (no friction).

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 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

7. The 600-kg uniform beam is subjected to the three external loads shown. Compute the
reactions at the support point O. The x-y plane is vertical.

14
 CHAPTER II
EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER III
FRICTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

3.1. Introduction

Friction is defined as the contact resistance exerted by one body upon a second body
when the latter body moves or tends to move past the first body. From this statement, friction
does exist when two forces are in contact primarily because of the roughness of the surface.
Hence, when the surface is smooth, friction can be then neglected.

𝐹
tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑁
= μ
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
−1
( ) = tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐹
𝑁
− 1(μ)
Where:
θ = angle of friction
µ = coefficient of kinetic friction
F = frictional force
N = normal force

In practice, we frequently see the statement tan0-u, in which the coefficient of friction
might refer to either the static or kinetic case, relying on the problem. The angle s is known as
the static friction angle, whereas the angle k is known as the kinetic friction angle. The limiting
direction of the total reaction R among two contacting surfaces is clearly defined by the friction
angle in each situation. If motion is imminent, R must be a
right-circular cone with a vertex angle of 2s, as indicated in
the picture. R is within the cone if motion is not imminent.
The cone of static friction with a vertex angle of 2s, depicts
the locus of potential orientations for the response R, at
imminent motion. If motion happens, the kinetic friction
angle is applied, and the reaction must take place on the
surface of a slightly different cone with a vertex angle of 2k.
This is termed to be the cone of kinetic friction

3.2 Solved Problems

A 100-N force acts as shown on a 300-N block placed on an inclined plane. The coefficients of
friction between the block and plane are µs = 0.25 and µk = 0.20. Determine whether the block
is
in equilibrium and find the value of the friction force.

Solution:

16
 CHAPTER III
FRICTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

• Determine values of friction force and normal reaction force from plane required to
maintain equilibrium.
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
100N − 3/5 (300) − 𝐹 =0
𝐹 = −80𝑁

Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
N – 4/5 (300𝑁) = 0
𝑁 = 240𝑁
• Calculate maximum friction force and compare with friction force required for
equilibrium. If it is greater, block will not slide.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠𝑁
𝐹𝑚 = 0.25(240𝑁)
𝐹𝑚 = 60 𝑁
The block will slide down the plane.
• If maximum friction force is less than friction force required for equilibrium, block will
slide. Calculate kinetic-friction force.
F actual = Fk = 𝜇kN
F actual = 0.20 (240N) F actual =48

3.3 Sample Problems

1. An 84 kg container box is resting on a wooden support as shown in the figure. TheThe

coefficient of friction between the box and the support top is 0.55. What is the maximum
mass(m) of the hanging box for which the system will remain at rest? Assuming
frictionless pulley.

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 CHAPTER III
FRICTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2. A 100 N force acts as shown on a 300 N block placed on an inclined plane. The
coefficients of friction between the block and plane are μs=0.25 and μk=0.20. Determine
whether the block is in equilibrium and find the value of the friction force.

3. Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. (a) Determine the tension in
cable AC in kN and (b) determine the tension in cable BC in kN.

4. A 20-kg box is being pulled by a boy in a road with an elevation angle of 40°. Find the
coefficient of kinetic friction.

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 CHAPTER III
FRICTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

5. Block A in the figure weighs 100 N. The coefficient of static friction between the block
and the surface area on which it rests is 0.30. The weight is 20 N and the system is in
equilibrium. Find the maximum weight W for which the system will remain in
equilibrium.

6. A clockwise couple M is applied to the circular cylinder as shown. Determine the value
of M required to initiate motion for the conditions
𝑚𝐵= 6kg, 𝑚𝐶= 12kg, ( µ𝑠)𝐵= 0.7, ( µ𝑠)𝐵 = 0.6, and r = 0.4 m. Friction between the cylinder C
and the block B is negligible.

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 CHAPTER III
FRICTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Wedges

Wedges are a useful engineering tool, and the approach used for wedges also finds its
way into other engineering applications. A wedge is, in general, a triangular object which is
placed between two objects to either hold them in place or is used to move one relative to the
other. The efficiency of wedges can be lowered by the friction forces in wedge systems, which
also have a tendency to be quite strong.

A force P is applied over the wedge to lift the body whose weight is W. Let us assume
that angle of the wedge is α.

Figure 4.1

Drawing free body diagrams of each body in the system is necessary in order to study a
wedge system. Make sure to account for the wedge's pushing force as well as any normal forces
and friction forces along the surfaces that are in touch. After we draw the free body diagram, we
can work to simplify the problem. The diagram below indicates the various forces such as
reaction forces, frictional forces and force applied externally i.e. P here.

Figure 4.2

The block will rise if the force P is strong enough to push the wedge forward, and the
accompanying free-body diagram is valid. Keep in mind that all three surfaces must be slippery
for the wedge to move. Slipping will be prevented by the direction of the friction force on each
surface.

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 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Since before the wedge can move each surface must overcome the resistance to slipping,
one can assume that:
𝐹1 = μ𝑁1; 𝐹2 = μ𝑁2; 𝐹3 = μ𝑁3
These equations and the equations of equilibrium are combined to solve the problem.

Based on the free-body diagram, there are seven unknowns:

● P = external force applied over the wedge
● 𝑁1 = normal Reaction force acting on the body by the wedge
● 𝑁2 = normal Reaction force acting by the ground over the wedge
● 𝑁3 = normal Reaction force acting on the body due to the vertical support
provided
● 𝐹1 = frictional force acting between the contact surfaces of wedge and body
● 𝐹2 = frictional force acting between the contact surfaces of wedge and ground
● 𝐹3 = frictional force acting between the contact surfaces of vertical support
provided and body

Then, there four equilibrium equation (for wedge and the block):
● ΣFx = 0
● ΣFy = 0

And three frictional forces equation:

● 𝐹1 = μ𝑁1;
● 𝐹2 = μ𝑁2;
● 𝐹3 = μ𝑁3

If P = 0 and 𝐹1, 𝐹2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹3 hold the block, then the wedge is self-locked.

4.1.2 Square-Threaded Screw

Square threaded screws are typically employed in applications where high load capacity
and power transmission efficiency are required. Due to the reason of their thread sides are
parallel to the thread axis, they are the most effective thread shape. Radial forces on the mating
nuts are removed as a result, and system wear is decreased. Because
the perpendicular thread sides prevent wedging, square threads are

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 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

advantageous in situations where side loading is likely to happen. To preserve axial alignment in
such circumstances, it is important to reduce diametrical clearances between opposing threads or
to independently support the screw and nut.

Free-Body Diagram of the Screw:

R exerted by the thread of the jack frame on a small portion of
the screw thread is shown

L = Lead – advancement per revolution

L = Pitch – for single threaded screw
L = 2xPitch - for double threaded screw
Pitch – axial distance between adjacent threads oh helix or screw
r = mean radius
α = helix angle
∅ = angle of friction

Square-threaded screws are frequently used in jacks, presses, etc. Analysis similar to the
block on inclined plane. Remember that the friction force does not depend on area of contact.

The base length of the equivalent inclined plane is take as the

circumference of the mean radius of the thread and is expressed as
𝑏 = 2π𝑟
The mean radius is equal to one-half of the sum of the outer radius and
the root radius of the thread. The pitch angle θ of the equivalent inclined
plane is determined from the relation
𝐿
θ= 2π𝑟
Moment of force Q is equal to the moment of force P:
𝑃𝑎
𝑄= 𝑟

With motion impending up the incline, the value of Q is

obtained from the force triangle to be

𝑄 = 𝑊 tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (∅ + θ)

With motion impending down the incline, the free-body diagram is

shown in the figure, from which we obtain

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 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

𝑄 = 𝑊 tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (∅ − θ)

4.1.3 Belt Friction

In any system where a belt or a cable is wrapped around a pulley or some other
cylindrical surface, we have the potential for friction between the belt or cable and the surface it
is in contact with.

For analysis, we will start a flat, massless belt passing over a cylindrical surface. If we
have an equal tension in each belt, the belt will experience a non-uniform normal force from
the cylinder that is supporting it.

In a frictionless scenario, if we were to increase the tension on one side of the rope it
would begin to slide across the cylinder. If friction exists between the rope and the surface
though, the friction force will oppose with sliding motion, and prevent it up to a point.

Relate 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 when belt is about to slide to the right

Draw free-body diagram for element of belt

Combine to eliminate∆𝑁, divide through by ∆θ

In the limit as ∆θ goes to zero

24
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Separate variables and integrate from θ = 0 𝑡𝑜 θ = β

4.2 Solved Problems

As seen, a clamp is used to secure two pieces of wood together. The clamp features twoa square
thread with a pitch of 2 mm and a mean diameter of 12 mm. The frictional coefficient The thread
distance is s = 0.30. Determine (a) the force applied to the wood pieces and (b) the torque
needed to release the clamp if a maximum torque of 50 Nm is used to tighten it clamp.

Step 1: Calculate lead angle and pitch angle.

tan θ = L/ 2πr = 2(2mm)/ 12πmm = 0.1061
θ = 6.06°
tan φs = µs = 0.30
φs = 16.7
Step 2: Use the block and plane analogy with impending motion up the plane to calculate the
clamping force with a force triangle

Qr = 50Nm
Q = 50Nm /6mm
tan (θ + φs) = Q/W
W = 8.3kN / tan 22.76°
W = 19.78kN

4.4 Sample Problems

1. Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in the figure. The angle of friction for
all surfaces in contract is 15°.

25
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2. The square-threaded screw has a mean diameter of 24 mm and a lead of 6 mm. if the weight of
the plate A is 10-lb, determine the smallest coefficient of static of friction between the screw and
the plate so that the plate does not travel down the crew when the plate is suspended as shown.

3. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction is 0.30 between the rope and the horizontal pipe
and that the smallest value of P for which equilibrium is maintained is 20 lb, (a) determine the
largest value of P for which equilibrium is maintained, (b) the coefficient of static friction
between the rope and the vertical pipe.

26
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

4. Determine the value of P acting to the left that is required to pull the wedge out from under the
66-kN block.

5. In the figure below, block A supporting a load of 500 lb is to be raised by pushing the wedge
under it. Angle of friction for all surfaces in contact is 10°. Find P.

6. The seaman pulls a rope coiled around the post with 100 N force and wants to stop the motor
boat from moving away from the dock. How many wraps he must make around the post if the

27
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

motor boat develops a thrust of 3500 N. (µs= 0.2 between rope and the post)

28
 CHAPTER IV
WEDGES, SQUARE-THREADED SCREW, & BELT FRICTION

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

29
 CHAPTER V
CENTROID

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

5.1 Introduction

A centroid is a weighted average like the center of gravity but weighted with a
geometric property like area or volume, and not a physical property like weight or mass. This
means that centroids are properties of pure shapes, not physical objects. They represent the
coordinates of the “middle” of the shape.
The defining equations for centroids are like the equations for center of gravity but with
volume used as the weighting factor for three-dimensional shapes

and area for two-dimensional shapes

We will see how to use these equations on complex shapes later in this chapter, but
centroids of some simple shapes can be easily found using symmetry.

If the shape has an axis of symmetry, every point on one side of the axis is mirrored by
another point equidistant on the other side. One has a positive distance from the axis, and the
other is the same distance away in the negative direction. These two points will add to zero the
numerator, as will every other point making up the shape, and the first moment will be zero. This
means that the centroid must lie along the line of symmetry if there is one. If a shape has
multiple symmetry lines, then the centroid must exist at their intersection.

Centroids lie upon axes of symmetry

Since rectangles, circles, cubes, spheres, etc. have multiple lines of symmetry, their centroids
must be exactly in the center as we would expect.

30
 CHAPTER V
CENTROID

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

5.2 Real Life Applications

A uniform solid's center of mass can be determined by placing a pivot point at its
centroid, and the object will be perfectly balanced. There are numerous engineering and
construction applications for designing things so that a component is stabilized with minimal
stress and energy. The centroid's location is crucial for beam stress and deflection analysis.

5.3 Solved Problems

Determine the x and y-coordinates of the centroid of the trapezoidal area.

Solution:

The given area is consisting of two other area.

31
 CHAPTER V
CENTROID

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

x-coordinate of the centroid = ΣAx/ΣA

= □([(a^2 h)/2+(b-a)(2a+b)h/6]/[(a+b)h/2] )

= (a^2+ab+b^2)/(3(a+b))

similarly,

y-coordinate of the centroid = (Σ Ay)/(Σ A)

= □((((2ah^2+bh^2)/6))/(((ah+bh)/2)))

= (2ah+bh)/(3(a+b))

Therefore, the x-coordinate is (a^2+ab+b^2)/(3(a+b)) and y-coordinate is (2ah+bh)/(3(a+b)) f the

centroid of the trapezoidal area

5.4 Sample Problems

1. Locate the centroid of the plane shaded area shown below.

2. Find the centroid of the T-section as shown in the figure.

32
 CHAPTER V
CENTROID

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

3. Locate the centroid of the shaded are in the figure shown below created by cutting a semicircle
of diameter r from a quarter circle of radius r.

4. A plane lamina of 220 mm radius is shown in figure given below. Find the center of gravity of
the lamina from the point O.

5. The centroid of the shaded area in the figure lies in the y-axis. Determine a.

6. Determine the centroid of the line 𝑦 = 𝑥³ stretching from the origin to the point (2, 8) m.

7. Centroid of a triangular area. Determine the distance ℎ from the base of a triangle of altitude
h to the centroid of its area.

33
 CHAPTER V
CENTROID

STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER VI
THEOREM OF PAPPUS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

6.1 Introduction

The Theorem of Pappus tells us that the volume of a three-dimensional solid object that’s
created by rotating a two-dimensional shape around an axis is given by
V=Ad
where V is the volume of the three-dimensional object, A is the area of the two-dimensional
figure being revolved, and d is the distance traveled by the centroid of the two-dimensional
figure.

In effect, the first theorem of Pappus states that, under suitable conditions, the volume of a solid
of revolution is equal to the product of the area of the region rotated to produce the solid, and the
distance traversed by the centroid of this region.

Similarly, the second theorem of Pappus states that, under suitable conditions, the surface area of
a surface of revolution is equal to the product of the length of the curve rotated to produce the
surface, and the distance traversed by the centroid of the curve.

6.2 Real Life Applications

The two Pappus-associated theorems: There are numerous real-world applications for the
surface area of a surface of revolution and the volume of a solid of revolution. Let's say a plane
curve is rotated to form a surface. This plane rotates about an axis that does not traverse. Then, at
that point, as indicated by the outer layer of unrest hypothesis, the surface region of the surface
will be equivalent to the result of the length of the bend and the distance of the centroid all
through the age of the surface by unrest. If a body of revolution is created by rotating a plane
area around a non-crossing axis, its volume will be equal to the product of its area and the
distance traveled from its centroid throughout its formation.

6.3 Solved Problem

Use the theorem of Pappus to find the volume of the solid of revolution. The torus
formed by revolving the circular region bounded by (𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦^2 = 16 about the y-axis.
Using the Pappus theorem, the volume of solid of revolution is given as
𝑦2
2 2
(
V= 𝜋 ∫ 𝑅 − 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 )
𝑦1
𝑦1 = −4, 𝑦2 = 4
Finding R, r from given equation,
(𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦2 = 16
(𝑥 − 5)2 = 16 − 𝑦2
2
(𝑥 − 5) ± 16 − 𝑦

35
 CHAPTER VI
THEOREM OF PAPPUS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2
(𝑥 − 5) + 16 − 𝑦 = R
2
(𝑥 − 5) - 16 − 𝑦 = r
Substituting values in Pappus equation,
𝑦2
2 2
(
V= 𝜋 ∫ 𝑅 − 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 )
𝑦1
2 2
4
V = 𝜋 ∫ {⎡⎢5 +
2⎤ 2
16 − 𝑦 ⎥ − [5 − 16 − 𝑦 }𝑑𝑦
−4 ⎣ ⎦
V=𝜋
4
2 2 2 2
[
∫ { 25 + 16 − 𝑦 ) ] [
+ [2 𝑥 5 𝑥 16 − 𝑦 ]} − { 25 + 16 − 𝑦 ( )] − [2 𝑥 5 𝑥 16 − 𝑦 )]}𝑑𝑦
−4
4
2 2 2
[
V = 𝜋 ∫ 25 + 16 − 𝑦 ) ] + 10 𝑥 16 − 𝑦 (
− 25 − 16 − 𝑦 ) + 10 (16 − 𝑦2)]𝑑𝑦
−4
4
V = 𝜋 ∫ 20 𝑥 (16 − 𝑦2)𝑑𝑦
−4
To find the limits,
𝑡1 = 4 sin(𝑡) 𝑡2 = 4 sin(𝑡)
−4 = 4 sin(𝑡) 4 = 4 sin(𝑡)
−1 = sin(𝑡) 1 = sin(𝑡)
𝑡 = sin^-1(−1) 𝑡 = sin^-1(−1)
π π
𝑡=− 2
𝑡=− 2
Substituting the above values,
π
2

𝑉 = 20 π ∫ 16 − 16𝑡 4 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

π
−2
π
2

𝑉 = 20 π ∫ 4( 1 − 𝑡 )4 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
π
−2
π
2

𝑉 = 20 π ∫ 16𝑡 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

π
−2
π
2

𝑉 = 20 π ∫ 16
π
( 1+cos𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡
2 )𝑑𝑡
−2
π
2
20 π (16)
𝑉= 2
∫ 1 + cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
π
−2

36
 CHAPTER VI
THEOREM OF PAPPUS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1 π
𝑉 = 160𝜋 (1+ 2
sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡) ^ 2
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝝅𝟐

Therefore, the volume of solid of revolution 𝑽 is 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝝅?

6.4 Sample Problems

1. Determine the amount of paint required to paint the inside and outside surfaces of the cone, if
one gallon of paint covers 300 ft² using Pappu’s Theorem.

2. Use the theorem of Pappus to find the volume of the solid of revolution. The torus formed by
revolving the circular region bounded by (𝑥 − 5) + 𝑦^2 = 16 about the y-axis.

3. A 60° pipe elbow has an internal diameter of 4 in. The radius of curvature of the pipe’s
centerline is 6 in. Find the volume of the pipe.

4. A 60° pipe elbow has an internal diameter of 4 in. The radius of curvature of the pipe’s
centerline is 6 in. Find the volume of the pipe.

5. Using the theorem of pappus, find the centroid of a uniform semicircle radius R

6. A curve shown in Figure below is rotated about the y−axis. Find the area of the surface of
revolution.

37
 CHAPTER VI
THEOREM OF PAPPUS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

7. Find the centroid of a right triangle with legs a, b

38
 CHAPTER VI
THEOREM OF PAPPUS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

7.1 Introduction

The moment of a force (P) about a point, is the product of the force and perpendicular
distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force (i.e. P.x). This moment is also
called the first moment of force. If this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance
2
(x) between the point and the line of action of the force i.e. P.x (x) =𝑃𝑥 , then this quantity is
called moment of the moment of a force or second moment of force or moment of inertia (briefly
written or second moment of mass. But all such second moments are broadly termed as moment
of inertia. In this chapter, we shall discuss the moment of inertia of plane areas only.as M.I.).
Sometimes, instead of force, area or mass of a figure or body is taken into consideration. Then
the second moment is known as the second moment of area.
Area moments of inertia are a measure of the distribution of a two-dimensional area
around a particular axis. Fundamentally, the portions of a shape which are located farther from
the axis are more important than the parts which are closer. The primary application is in
structural engineering and machine design where they are used to determine a structural
member’s stiffness. Another application is in Fluid Mechanics where they are used to determine
the effect of pressure on a submerged surface. We will use the symbol I for this property, along
with a subscript to indicate the specific axis, so for example, 𝐼𝑥 would indicate the “Area moment
of inertia with respect to the x axis.”

Moment of inertia I, left bracket, k, g, m, squared, right bracket,I(kgm2) in rotational

motion is equivalent to mass in linear motion. In the same way that the force needed to give an
object a certain acceleration depends on its mass, the torque needed to give a rotating object a
certain angular acceleration depends on its moment of inertia.

In linear situations with no external forces, momentum (mass times, × velocity) is

conserved. In the same way, in rotational mechanics with no external torques (or moments),
angular momentum (moment of inertia times,× angular velocity) is constant.

The moment of inertia depends not only on the object's mass, but also the distribution of
that mass in relation to the axis of rotation. When an ice skater in a spin pulls their arms in, their
mass stays the same, but their moment of inertia decreases. The moment of inertia of an object
usually depends on the direction of the axis, and always depends on the perpendicular distance
from the axis to the object's center of mass.

The moment of inertia of an object made up of n,n point particles about an axis is given
by:I, equals, sum, from, i, equals, 1, to, n, of, m, start subscript, i, end subscript, r, start subscript,
i, end subscript, squared. I=i=1∑n​mi​ri2​

39
 CHAPTER VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

where m, start subscript, i, end subscript, mi​is the mass of one of the point particles and r, start
subscript, i, end subscript,ri​ is the distance from that point particle to the axis (measured
perpendicular to the axis, which is the same as the minimum distance from the point particle to
the axis). This means that the moment of inertia is higher for objects where the mass is
distributed a long way away from the axis of rotation.

7.2 Real Life Applications

Machines like steam engines and automobile engines have greatly increased the body's
rotational inertia. The large disc known as the flywheel in these engines causes rotational motion.
The flywheel resists an abrupt increase or decrease in vehicle speed due to its large moment of
inertia. It stops jerky motions and allows for gradual speed changes; thereby guaranteeing a
smooth ride for the vehicle's passengers. The difficulty of rotating an object is indicated by its
moment of inertia. In linear problems, it is the same as the mass. Snapshot of inactivity is
corresponding to an article's mass and to its separation from the rotational hub squared. Because
of the square power, the object's mass is less important than its distance from the rotational axis.
As a result, an object's moment of inertia increases proportionally to the amount of mass at its
"edges." As a result, it is relatively simple to rotate a large, long pole if it is held at its center.

However, attempting to rotate the same pole held at the end is difficult! Last but not least,
moments of inertia can be added as long as the rotating parts are circling the same axis. For
instance, the sum of the individual moment of inertia of each object involved is the moment of
inertia of a pole with a mass at its end. The automotive flywheel, a hollow shaft, and
shipbuilding are all examples of moments of inertia in practice. An engine's flywheel is a
substantial mass that is attached to the crankshaft. The flywheel's extraordinarily high MOI
contributes to energy storage. Another type is the hollow shaft, which transmits more power than
a solid shaft (both same mass). When compared to a solid shaft, the MOI of a hollow shaft is
higher. Another is shipbuilding, in which the moment of inertia has a significant impact. Rolling
or pitching a ship will never cause it to sink.

7,3 Solved Problem

Moment of inertia of square about x-axis

1 4
I1 = 12
(𝑎)
1 4
I1 = 12
(2𝑅 + 2𝑅)
4
I1 = 21. 3𝑅

Moment of inertia of circle about x-axis

π 4
I2= 64
(𝐷)

40
 CHAPTER VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

π 4
I2= 64
(2𝑅)
4
I2= 0. 7𝑅
Moment of inertia of square without central circular hole
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝑹𝟒

Moment of inertia of square with central circular hole

𝐼 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = (21.3 − 0.7)𝑅4 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝑹𝟒

Therefore, the moment of inertia about the x-axis of the square area without the central circular
hole is 21.3𝑅4 while with the central circular hole is
20.6𝑅^4

7.4 Sample Problems

1. Find the moment of inertia about the geometric center of the given structure made up of one
thin rod connecting two similar solid spheres as shown in Figure.

2. Determine the moment of inertia for the shaded area about the x-axis.

41
 CHAPTER VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

3. Calculate the moment of inertia of shaded portion about x-axis.

4. Find the moment of inertia of a hollow rectangular section about its center o gravity if the
external dimensions are breadth 60 mm, depth 80 mm and interna dimensions are breadth 30 mm
and depth 40 mm respectively.

5. A 10-kg sphere-shaped bowling ball has a radius of 30 cm. Find the moment of inertia if the
axis of rotation is located at its center.

6. A 10-kg sphere-shaped bowling ball has a radius of 30 cm. Find the moment of inertia if the
axis of rotation is located at its center.

7. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area about the x-axis in two ways. The wall
thickness is 20 mm on all four sides of the rectangle.

42
 CHAPTER VII
MOMENT OF INERTIA
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER VIII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

8.1 Introduction

Frequently, standard structural sections are welded together to form a built-up section.
The moments of inertia of each section are easily found in a handbook or from the vendor.
However, as we saw in the section on moments of inertia for composite sections, we cannot
algebraically add moments of inertia. Since 'built-up' section is simply another term for
composite section, then finding moment of inertia for a built-up section is no different.

8.2 Real Life Applications

Sections of moment of inertia applied to construction materials like channel and bar
steels are built up. Built-up sections are utilized in the construction of composite steel beams
with bottom plates, as plate girders, and to reinforce existing materials. The application can
additionally be utilized to ascertain nonstandard area properties. Additionally, built-up section
members are frequently utilized by design engineers in the construction of steel buildings and
bridges for financial reasons.

Some old bridges had battened and bolted laced members, which are still used in heavy
industrial buildings to carry high axial loads. Utilizing smaller bolted built-up members is
preferred when the axial load is low. There are additional issues with the design of built-up
compression that must be taken into consideration in contrast to single members with a solid
web. In a built-up section, unpredictable events like the shearing effect can occur.

8.3 Solved Problem

Calculate the moment of inertia of the C section about the x-axis.

44
 CHAPTER VIII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

Moment of inertia of built-up section

centroidal
Ixx = 𝐼𝑥𝑥1 + 𝐼𝑥𝑥2 + 𝐼𝑥𝑥3
𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 𝐼𝐺1𝑥 + 𝐴1(𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑡)2
𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 10(2.5)3/12 + 25(1.25 − 10)2
𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 13.02083333 + 1914.0625
𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 1927.083 cm

8.4 Sample Problems

1. Determine the moment of inertia of the built-up section in the figure about an axis AB passing
through the section as shown.

45
 CHAPTER VIII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

2. Calculate the moment of inertia of the built-up section shown in figure about the centroidal
axis parallel to AB. All members are 10mm thick.

3. Compute the moment of inertia and radius of the T-section shown in the figur with respect to
its centroidal 𝑋 axis.

4. A compound section is built-up by welding two plates 200 mm × 15 mm on two steel beams
ISJB 200 placed symmetrically side by side as shown in the figure below. What is the moment of
inertia of the compound section about an axi passing through its centre of gravity and parallel to
X-X axis ? Take IXX for th ISJB section as 7.807 × 106 mm4.

46
 CHAPTER VIII
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTION
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

5. Two L8x4x angles attached to an 8x1 plate builds up a beam. Determine the (a) distance 1 2
from x-axis to the neutral axis and (b) the moment of inertia of combined shape about a neutral
axis.

6. Find the moment of inertia of the cross-section of an iron beam about its centroidal axes.

7. Calculate the Area Moment Of Inertia About The X-Axis

47
 CHAPTER IX
METHOD OF JOINTS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER IX
METHOD OF JOINTS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

9.1 Introduction

The method of joints is a process used to solve for the unknown forces acting on
members of a truss. The method centers on the joints or connection points between the members,
and it is usually the fastest and easiest way to solve for all the unknown forces in a truss
structure.
In this method, each and every joint is treated as a free body in equilibrium as shown in
Fig. 13.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d). The unknown forces are then determined by equilibrium equations
viz., Σ V = 0 and Σ H = 0. i.e., Sum of all the vertical forces and horizontal forces is equated to
zero.
Notes:
1. The members of the frame may be named either by Bow’s methods or by the joints at
their ends.
2. While selecting the joint, for calculation work, care should be taken that at any instant,
the joint should not contain more than two members, in which the forces are unknown.

9.2 Real Life Applications

The fundamentals of force analysis, which engineers use to determine a truss bridge's
strength, are taught to students at truss joints. The solution of linear equation systems whose size
is determined by the number of truss elements and nodes will require the use of this technique,
which is referred to as the "method of joints. "It is essential in civil and mechanical engineering
to determine a structure's strength. Engineers use sophisticated computer programs to resolve all
equations resulting from a problem's solution. There are a lot of problems that engineers have to
solve that involve solving one or more linear equation systems. Computers and software are used
to solve these systems, which may contain hundreds, if not thousands, of equations

9.3 Solved Problem

Compute the force in each member of the truss shown

Solution:

𝛴𝑀𝐹 = 0
15𝑅𝐴𝑦 = (600)(12) + (1000)(6)

49
 CHAPTER IX
METHOD OF JOINTS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 880𝑘𝑁

50
 CHAPTER IX
METHOD OF JOINTS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

9.4 Sample Problems

1. Solve the following figures

2. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. Indicate whether the members are in
tension or compression.

3. Determine the force in each member of the crane shown in the figure below.

51
 CHAPTER IX
METHOD OF JOINTS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

4. A frame of 6 m span is carrying a central load of 10 kN as shown in the figure below. Find the
magnitude and nature of forces in all members of the structure and tabulate the results.

5. Solve for FAB, FBD, and FBC in an uneven truss shown below.

6. Determine the force in each member of the structure shown below.

52
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

1
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

10.1 Introduction

The method of sections is an alternative to the method of joints for finding the internal
axial forces in truss members. It works by cutting through the whole truss at a single section and
using global equilibrium (3 equations in 2D) to solve for the unknown axial forces in the
members that cross the cut section. Since there are only three global equilibrium equations, we
can only solve for three unknown member axial forces at a time using the method of sections.
This process is like cutting a beam at a section to find the internal forces at that section.

In this method, we will cut the truss into two sections by passing a cutting plane through
the members whose internal forces we wish to determine. This method permits us to solve
directly any member by analyzing the left or the right section of the cutting plane.

To remain each section in equilibrium, the cut members will be replaced by forces
equivalent to the internal load transmitted to the members. Each section may constitute of
non-concurrent force system from which three equilibrium equations can be written.

ΣFH=0ΣFH=0, ΣFV=0ΣFV=0, and ΣMO=0ΣMO=0

Because we can only solve up to three unknowns, it is important not to cut more than
three members of the truss. Depending on the type of truss and which members to solve, one
may have to repeat the Method of Sections more than once to determine all the desired forces.

10.2 Solved Problem

54
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

55
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

56
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

10.3 Sample Problems

1, Find CD.

2. The truss in the figure is pinned to the wall at point F and supported by a roller at point C.
Calculate the force (tension or compression) in members BC, BE and DE.

3. Using method of sections, find the force in members of MO, NP, and NO.

57
 CHAPTER X
METHOD OF SECTIONS
STATIC OF RIGID BODIES

4. An inclined truss in Fig below is loaded as shown. Determine the nature and magnitude of the
forces in the members BC, GC and GF of the truss.

5. Calculate the tension and compression force of members BC, BE, and DE in the truss pinned
to a wall, with the other point supported by roller.

6. In the figure shown, assume that counter diagonals act from B to E and from E to F in
addition to the counter diagonals CD and DG shown in the figure. Assuming that these counter
diagonals can support tension only, determine which diagonals are acting and the force in each.

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7. Compute the force in member GM of the loaded truss

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11.1 Introduction

The graphical method is a method of solving equations involving more than one variable
using the Cartesian coordinate system. In civil engineering, the use of the graphical method is
limited to the problems involving two variables. The graphical method has a great impact in
solving the questions regarding engineering mechanics.

In engineering mechanics, graphical methods can be used in the following topics:

● Triangle and Polygon Laws of Forces

● Representation of Space diagram, Vector diagram, and Bow's notation
● Resultant of Forces
● Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces

11.1.1 Triangle and Polygon Law of Forces

The triangle law of forces states that if two forces act simultaneously on a particle, and if
the forces are represented as the two sides of a triangle in terms of both magnitude and direction,
then the resultant of the two forces may be represented by the third side in terms of both
magnitude and direction, but in the opposite order. To represent this graphically, two arrows
representing the magnitude and direction of two forces can be drawn in the plane created by X-Y
coordinates, and another arrow representing the resultant force can be drawn in the reverse
direction as that of the two forces. The equation for the same can be derived from the graph.

The polygon law of forces states that if there are several forces acting on a particle, then
all the forces can be represented as sides of a polygon in order, then the resultant of all the forces
should be represented by the closing side of the polygon in the opposite direction. To represent
this graphically, all the forces can be drawn with the help of arrows in the plane created by X-Y
coordinates in a well-defined order and the resultant can be denoted by another arrow in the
opposite direction as that of other forces. The equation for the same can hence be derived from
the graph.

11.1.3 Representation of Force, Space Diagram, Vector Diagram, and Bow’s Notation

The force can be represented using the graphical method. To represent the force in
graphs, a straight line is used, and an arrowhead is used to represent the direction of the force.
The diagram that shows the forces in space is known as the space diagram. In the space diagram,
all the forces acting in space are represented with the help of straight lines, and arrowheads are
used to represent their directions. A vector diagram is a diagram drawn in the X-Y plane of a
Cartesian coordinate system using a suitable scale to represent the forces in terms of both
magnitude and directions. The resultant of forces is drawn as a closure line of the polygon
formed by the system of forces, but in the opposite direction as that of other forces. Bow's

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notation is the method of noting the forces in space and vector diagram. The forces in the space
diagram are represented using two capital letters AB, BC, CD, DE, and so on, whereas the forces
in the vector diagram are represented using two small notations, ab, bc, cd, de, and so on.

11.1.4 Resultant of Forces

The resolution of any of the two forces in a Cartesian coordinate system can be obtained
using the graphical method. To resolve the forces, the parallelogram of force method is used.
Initially, the resultant of the two forces is found by using the parallelogram force method. Two
force vectors are first extended to converge at a point and then the resultant vector is drawn using
the triangle theorem of forces. A parallelogram is formed by drawing lines parallel to the initial
force vectors. The magnitude of the resultant is obtained by measuring the length of the vector
using scale and then converting it.

11.1.5. Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces

The equilibrium of coplanar forces can be used to solve problems related to the
equilibrium conditions of a system of forces. To study this method graphically, two theorems are
used- Converse of the law of triangle of forces and Converse of the law of polygon of the forces.
The converse of the law of triangle of forces states that if two forces acting on a point,
represented by its magnitude and direction are considered as two sides of the triangle, and if the
results of the same represented by its magnitude and direction are considered as the third side of
the triangle in the opposite direction, then the forces should be in equilibrium. The converse of
the law of polygon of forces states that if the number of forces represented by their magnitude
and direction is considered as the sides of a polygon and if the results of the same represented by
its magnitude are considered as the closing side of the polygon in opposite direction, then the
forces should be in equilibrium.

To understand this, an example is shown below in the form of figure 1. The figure on the left
shows the system of forces and the figure on right shows the system of vector forces. To obtain
the values of forces P1 and P2, the following steps need to be followed:

● Select a suitable scale. For example, for 10 N = 1 cm.

● Select any point u on the Cartesian coordinate and draw a line uv parallel to the
horizontal force of 90N to any suitable scale.
● Through v, draw a line of 100 N to a suitable scale, and parallel to the ray of 100 N from
the system of forces.
● To draw lines of P1 and P2, draw lines parallel from the force diagram to the vector
diagram.
● Follow the procedure for all the forces and form the final diagram as shown on the right
side of figure 1.

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● Measure the distance of lines P1 and P2 using scale and convert the same to get the value
of forces

11.2 Solved Problem

Graphically, determine all member forces in the truss.

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11.3 Sample Problems

1. Use graphical method:

2. 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒. 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.

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3. Use graphical method:

4. A beam AB of 6 m span is loaded as shown in Fig. below. Determine the reactions at A and
B.

5. Calaca City is building a bridge to connect a disparate barangay to the other community.
Solve for the forces in the trust using graphical method.

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6. Determine the force in each member of the structure shown below.

7. Determine the force in each member of the Warren Bridge truss shown. State whether each
member is in tension or compression. Use Graphical Method.

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12.1 Introduction

It may be easier to understand these curves if we determine what it is that makes them
different. What makes them curve in the first place? In the case of the chain, it is curving because
of its own weight. But here is where the bridge cable is different. It too curves under its own
weight, but a much greater influence is the weight of the bridge deck. The source and magnitude
of the weight is not important, but its distribution makes a big difference.

Look at this sketch and consider the distribution of the mass on a suspension bridge. The
road deck hangs on vertical cables suspended from the main cables. The cables themselves may
be large, but their mass is insignificant when compared with that of the deck, so disregard the
mass of the cable. Suppose that the deck is horizontal and suppose that its cross section is
uniform throughout the length of the bridge. Also, the vertical cables are so close together that
we can assume that the weight of any part of the deck is transferred to the part of the main cable
directly above it. These conditions are reasonably close to the real thing.

Rather than compute the height of the cable at a given point, let us try to determine the
slope of the cable at that point. Naturally, the cable will align itself with the direction of the
forces pulling on it. There is one point on this cable where that direction is easy to see. At the
lowest point, the vertex, the cable is horizontal. Label that points O and let that be the origin of a
set of coordinate axes. Now pick an arbitrary point, P, on the cable, somewhere to the right of O.
What is the direction of the tension at point P? How do we determine that?

Consider only that part of the cable in the interval between O and P. It is motionless.
More importantly, it is not accelerating. That means that the net force on it is zero. In the study of
physics, forces may be modeled with a free body diagram. Each force is identified with a vector
arrow. The direction of the arrow is parallel to the direction of the force, and the length of the
arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the force.

There are three forces acting on the cable interval OP. One force is the tension from the
cable to the left. Call this force. It acts in a horizontal direction to the left. There is also a force
from the cable on the right, exerted at point P. This force will be called. Its direction is what we
need to determine, because that will tell us the slope of the cable at P. The third force is the
weight on the cable. Since this is a gravitational force, its direction can only be vertical and
downward.

The net force can be determined by adding the vectors. Graphically, this is accomplished
by aligning the vectors point to tail. We already know that the net force is zero, so the last vector
must end where the first one began. By doing this in the illustration on the right, we can see the
direction of, which gives us the slope at P.

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In this equation W and T are magnitudes only, not vectors. But what are W and T? Well, T
is clearly a constant. It is the tension at point O, which is the same no matter what point is chosen
for P. W is the weight on the cable between O and P. This is the weight of the roadway directly
below that length of cable. How can it be determined?

Remember that one of our conditions was that the deck has a uniform cross section
throughout. That means that one meter of road on one part of the bridge would have to weigh the
same as one meter of road on any other part of the bridge. Let μ represent the linear weight
density of the deck. That is, multiplying μ by the length of any interval on the deck will give the
weight of that interval.

So, what is the length of the road from O to P? It is not the distance between those two
points. The cable is curved, but the road below it runs horizontally. The length of that stretch of
road is simply the difference in the x-coordinates of those points. Point O is the origin, so all we
need is the x-coordinate of point P.

W = μx

This is where the calculus begins. Let y be the height of the cable. The slope of the cable
then must be the first derivative of y.

So, y is an antiderivative of the function μx/T., for some constant C

We know that the origin is on the curve. Substituting zero for x and y and solving for C,
we find that C = 0.

Since μ/(2T) is a constant, this is a quadratic equation, a parabola.

12.2 Real Life Application

During your everyday commute, you must have noticed the chains tied to the sidewalk on
the streets. If you observe these chains carefully, they also follow the mathematical concept of
parabola. The structure of the shape is formed by chains where that are equidistant from one
another through a fixed middle point. These chains also depict a parabolic figure. If any tangent
is drawn through the curve, it is to be perpendicular to the structure.

Parabolic figures have been used in science and technology for a long time now. Satellite is a
classic example of how this mathematical concept has its usage across the world. The shape of a
satellite is curved, and these curves are equidistant from one another from a fixed point. If a
tangent is drawn, it is bound to be perpendicular to the satellite. Hence, a satellite offers a
realistic example of parabola.

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12.3 Solved Problem

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12.4 Sample Problems

1. A cable which carries uniformly distributed load along the horizontal is 45.4 m long and is
supported between two posts at the same level, 40 m apart. Determine the sag of the cable.

2. The cable AE supports 3 vertical loads from the points indicated. If point C is 5ft below the
left support, determine (a) the elevation of points B and D, and (b) the maximum slope and
maximum tension in the cable.

3. The parabolic cable shown carries a uniform horizontal load of 20 kN/m. Determine the: (a)
value of a, (b) tension at A, and (c) tension at C.

4. A Cable is suspended and loaded as shown in Fig. below:

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5. Solve for the maximum tension of the cable present in the bridge.

6. A suspension bridge cable subjected to a uniform load of 240 N/m is suspended between two
supports at the same altitude 20 m apart. If the cable has a central sag of 4 m, determine the
horizontal reactions at the supports, the minimum and maximum tension in the cable, and the
total length of the cable.

7. Determine the maximum and minimum tension in the parabolic cable and the force in each of
the hangers. The girder is subjected to the uniform load and is pin connected at B. Draw the
shear and moment diagrams for the pin-connected girders AB and BC. The cable has a parabolic
shape.

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13.1 Introduction

Catenary Cable In the past decades, cable structures have been widely used in
engineering applications because of their various advantages such as high strength, large degrees
of flexibility, elastic behavior, light weight, the ability to preload and profitable buildings. The
increasing attention on cable structures is not only because of their intrinsic beauty, but also their
stubborn nature of not easily disclosing the secret behind their non-linear behavior. Cable
structures present a behavior with strong geometrical nonlinearity. These cable structures are
very flexible and undergo large displacements before reaching their equilibrium configuration.
Because of this inherent non-linear behavior, the conventional linear analysis which assumes the
small elastic deformations or displacements is often not applicable. The catenary cable element is
a highly nonlinear element, used to model the behavior of a catenary cable suspended between
two points under the effect of its own weight. This formulation reflects the nonlinearity due to
large displacements. A cable has no bending, shear, compression, or torsion rigidity. Therefore,
end fixities are ignored, and the cables are always treated as members acting in tension only.

To find the equation of the catenary the following assumptions are made:

● The chain (or cable) is suspended between two points and hangs under its own
weight.

● The chain (or cable) is flexible and has a uniform linear weight density (equal to w₀).

The treatment here follows closely the book by Simmons. To simplify the algebra, we will let
the y-axis pass through the minimum of the curve. The length of the segment from the minimum
to the point (x, y) is denoted by s. The three forces acting on the segment are the tensions T₀
and T, and its weight w₀s (see figure below). The first two forces are tangent to the chain.

For the segment to be in equilibrium horizontally and vertically, the following two conditions
must be obeyed:

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Equation 1: Equilibrium conditions for the segment with length s.

Equation 2: Differential equation we need to solve.

We now must re-write this equation in terms of y and x only. We first differentiate it to obtain:

Equation 3: The derivative of Eq. 2

The derivative ds/dx can be written in terms of dy/dx as follows:

Equation 4: The derivative ds/dx written in terms of dy/dx.

Figure 3: The infinitesimal triangle used in Eq. 4

Eq. 3 then becomes:

Equation 5: Differential equation of the catenary.

To quickly solve Eq. 5 we conveniently introduce the following variable:

Equation 6: Definition of u used to solve Eq. 5

Using Eq. 6, Eq. 5 becomes:

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Equation 7: Eq. 5 expressed in terms of the variable u.

This equation can be integrated by variable separation and a simple trigonometric

substitution u = tan θ:

Eq. 7 after integration.

Since the y-axis pass through the minimum of the curve we have:

Equation 9: The variable u is zero at the minimum of the curve.

Substituting Eq. 9 in Eq. 8 we obtain:

Equation 10: Using Eq. 9 to determine c in Eq. 8.

Substituting c=0 into Eq. 8 and solving for u we obtain:

Equation 11: The solution of Eq. 5 which gives the equation of the catenary

13.2 Solved Problem

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13.3 Sample Problems

1. Find the length of the cable

2. A 200-lb load is applied at point G of beam EFGH, which is attached to cable ABCD by
vertical hangers BF and CH. Determine (a) the tension in each hanger, (b) the maximum tension
in the cable, © the bending moment at F and G.

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3. Determine the following:

4. A heavy string ABCDE 10 m long hangs over two smooth pegs B and D as shown in Fig.
below. Locate the position of vertex C from the peg B along the string.

5. A rope is connected into two poles with a height of 8 m and 4 m, and the rope is in contact
with the ground. The length of rope between the point of surface contact and the top of the
shorter pole is 6 m. Find the rope’s total length.

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6. A cable weighing 25 N/m is suspended from point A and passes over the small pulley at B.
Calculate the mass of the attached cylinder in kilograms. Using (a) equations for catenary cable
and (b) approximation of a parabolic cable.

7. A cable is to be hung between two poles of equal height that are 20 feet apart. It can be shown
that such a hanging cable assumes the shape of a catenary, the general form of which is 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥/𝑎 = ( ). In this case, suppose that the cable takes the shape 𝑎 2 𝑒 𝑥/𝑎+ 𝑒 −𝑥/𝑎 of y = 5(𝑒 +
), for - How long is the cable?

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