Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications

LECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
2. Quantitative variables (Numeric) - takes on numerical
DEFINITION OF STATISTICS
values representing an amount or quantity.
 Statistics - the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, .
and analyzing information to draw conclusions or answer
questions. In addition, statistics is about providing a measure
DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS
of confidence in any conclusions. Quantitative variables may be further classified into:
Statistics is important because: 1. Discrete variable - a quantitative variable that either a finite
number of possible values or a countable number of possible
- It enables people to make decisions based on empirical
values. If you count to get the value of a quantitative variable,
evidence.
it is discrete. It is the data obtained by counting
- Provides us with tools needed to convert massive data into
2. Continuous variable - a quantitative variable that has an
pertinent information that can be used in decision making.
infinite number of possible values that are not countable. If
- Provide us information that we can use to make sensible you measure to get the value of a quantitative variable, it is
decisions. continuous. It is the data obtained by using a tool
 Data - “factual information used as a basis for reasoning,
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
discussion, or calculation”.
1. Nominal Level - a scale that classifies persons or objects into
 Data can be numerical, as in height, or nonnumerical, as in two or more categories.
gender. In either case, data describe characteristics of an
individual. - sometimes called categorical scales or categorical data
- a person can only be in one category
DEFINITION OF TERMS
- members of a given category have a common set of
• Universe - the set of all entities under study. characteristics.
• Population - the total or entire group of individuals or
2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may be arranged in
observations from which information is desired by a
some order or ranking. An ordinal scale not only classifies
researcher.
subjects but also ranks them in terms of the degree to which
• Individual - a person or object that is a member of the they possess a characteristic of interest.
population being studied.
- differences between data values either cannot be
• Sample - the subset of the population. determined or meaningless.
• Parameter - a numerical summary of a population 3. Interval Level - This is a measurement level not only classifies
• Descriptive statistics - consist of organizing and and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
summarizing data. Descriptive statistics describe data distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent
through numerical summaries, tables, and graphs. along the scale from low interval to high interval.
• Inferential statistics - uses methods that take a result from - A value of zero does not mean the absence of the quantity.
a sample, extend it to the population, and measure the
reliability of the result. - Arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction can
be performed on values of the variable
PROCESS OF STATISTICS - If the data start from 1 up to positive infinity, no zero.
1. Organization 4. Ratio Level - It has the properties of the interval level of
2. Collection measurement and the ratios of the values of the variable have
meaning.
3. Interpreting
- represents the highest, most precise, level of measurement
4. Analysis
- A value of zero means the absence of the quantity.
5. Presentation
- Arithmetic operations such as multiplication and division
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES can be performed on the values of the variable.

• Variables - are the characteristics of the individuals within - If the data range from 0 to positive negative infinity
the population .
.
• If variables did not vary, statistical inference would not be .
necessary. .
Variables can be classified into two groups: .
1. Qualitative variables (Categorical) - variable that yields .
categorical responses. It is a word or a code that represents a .
class or category. .
..

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Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications
LECTURE
DATA COLLECTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
DATA COLLECTION PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD
 Because data are powerful, they can be dangerous when 1. Direct personal interviews - The researcher has direct
misused. The misuse of data usually occurs when data are contact with the interviewee. The researcher gathers
incorrectly obtained or analyzed. information by asking questions to the interviewee.

 Data collection - the process of gathering and measuring 2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method - involve sourcing and
information on variables of interest, in an established accessing existing data that were originally collected for the
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research purpose of the study.
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes - Designing good “questioning tools” forms an important and
time consuming phase in the development of most research
Steps in Data Gathering:
proposals.
1. Set the objectives for collecting data Once the decision has been made to use these techniques, the
2. Determine the data needed based on the set objectives. following questions should be considered before designing our tools:
- What exactly do we want to know?
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering and define
the comprehensive data collection points. - Of whom will we ask questions and what techniques will
we use?
4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
- Are our informants mainly literate or illiterate?
5. Collect data. - How large is the sample that will be interviewed?

SOURCES OF DATA  Open-ended question - a type of question that does not

include response categories. The respondent is not given any
 Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand account of an event possible answers to choose from. This type of question is
or time period and are considered to be authoritative. They usually appropriate for collecting subjective data. It permit
are usually the first formal appearance of original research. free responses that should be recorded in the respondent’s
own words.
 Primary Data - are data documented by the primary source.
The firsthand information obtained by the investigator is  Closed-ended question - is a type of question that includes a
more reliable and accurate since the investigator can extract list of response categories from which the respondent will
the correct information by removing doubts. It permits select his answer. It is useful if the range of possible responses
explanation of questions concerning difficult subject matter. is known. This type of question is usually appropriate for
collecting objective data.
 Secondary Sources - offer an analysis, interpretation or a
restatement of primary sources and are considered to be 3. Focus group - a group interview of approximately six to
persuasive. twelve people who share similar characteristics or common
interests. A facilitator guides the group based on a
- often involve generalisation, synthesis, interpretation, predetermined set of topics.
commentary or evaluation in an attempt to convince the
4. Experiment - a method of collecting data where there is direct
reader of the creator's argument.
human intervention on the conditions that may affect the
- often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. values of the variable of interest.

 Secondary Data - are data documented by a secondary 5. Observation - a technique that involves systematically
source. The data collectors had the data documented by other selecting, watching and recoding behaviors of people or other
sources. phenomena and aspects of the setting in which they occur, for
the purpose of getting (gaining) specified information. It
- less expensive to collect both in money and time. includes all methods from simple visual observations to the
use of high-level machines and measurements, sophisticated
- These data can also be better utilized and sometimes the equipment or facilities
quality of such data may be better because these might
have been collected by persons who were specially It gives relatively more accurate data on behavior and
trained for that purpose. activities but Investigators or observer’s own biases, prejudice,
desires, and etc. and needs more resources and skilled human
- On the other hand, such data must be used with great care, power during the use of high-level machines.
because such data may also be full of errors. .
.
- there may have been bias introduced, the size of the .
sample may have been inadequate, or there may have .
been arithmetic or definition errors, hence, it is necessary .
to critically investigate the validity of the secondary data. .
. .

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 TWO TYPE OF SAMPLES
• Cluster Sampling
1. Probability Sample
- You take the sample from naturally occurring groups in
- Samples are obtained using some objective chance your population.
mechanism, thus involving randomization.
- The clusters are constructed such that the sampling units
- They require the use of a complete listing of the are heterogeneous within the cluster and homogeneous
elements of the universe called the sampling frame. among the clusters.
- The probabilities of selection are known.
- They are generally referred to as random samples. • Multi - Stage Sampling
- They allow drawing of valid generalizations about the - Selection of the sample is done in two or more steps or
universe/population. stages, with sampling units varying in each stage.
2. Non - probability Sample - The population is first divided into a number of first-stage
- Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected sampling units from which a sample is drawn. Smaller
purposively or are taken as volunteers. units, called the secondary sampling units, comprising the
selected first-stage units then serve as the sampling units
- The probabilities of selection are unknown. for the next stage. If needed additional stages may be added
- They should not be used for statistical inference. until the units of observation for the survey are clearly
identified. The units comprising the samples selected from
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING the previous stage constitute the frame for the stages.
• Simple Random Sampling
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- Most basic method of drawing a probability sample.
• Accidental Sampling - There is no system of selection but only
- Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible
those whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance.
sample.
• Quota Sampling - There is specified number of persons of
- Results to a simple random sample
certain types is included in the sample. The researcher is aware
- This is preferable to use if the population is not widely of categories within the population and draws samples from
spread geographically. each category. The size of each categorical sample is
• Systematic Random Sampling proportional to the proportion of the population that belongs
in that category.
- It is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the
population. • Convenience Sampling - It is a process of picking out people
in the most convenient and fastest way to get reactions
- The first individual selected corresponds to a random immediately. This method can be done by telephone interview
number between 1 to k. to get the immediate reactions of a certain group of sample for
- It is easy to administer and the sample is spread evenly a certain issue.
over the population. • Purposive Sampling - It is based on certain criteria laid down
- advisable to use if the ordering of the population is by the researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are
essentially random and when stratification with numerous interviewed. It is used to determine the target population of
data is used. those who will be taken for the study.

• Stratified Random Sampling • Judgement Sampling - selects sample in accordance with an

expert’s judgment.
- It is obtained by separating the population into non-
overlapping groups called strata and then obtaining a Cases wherein Non-Probability Sampling is Useful
simple random sample from each stratum. - Only few are willing to be interviewed
- The individuals within each stratum should be - Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying subjects
homogeneous (or similar) in some way.
- Probability sampling is more expensive to implement
- advantageous in terms of precision of the estimates of the
characteristics of the population - Cannot enumerate the population elements.
- use if the data is in different categories. Ensures every
classification of data has equal representation.

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Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications
LECTURE
-
f = frequency of data
HOW TO MAKE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
1. Identify Range - count the frequency of data form the sample

Range = Highest score – Lowest Score x = class midpoint

2. Compute for Class size - computed using the formula:

𝐿𝐿 + 𝑈𝐿
C= 2
C = Class size class boundaries

R = Range - computed using the formula: UL + 0.5, LL – 0.5

K = Desired number of class interval cf = cumulative frequency

To compute for K use the Sturges formula: - copy the frequency of the lowest class interval then

K = 1 + 3.3 log n accumulate the frequency to the succeeding class interval

n = number of samples
 After computing the class size, subtract one to compute for  If you subtract the lower level of the first class interval to the

addends lower level of the next class interval, it should be equal to C

 The addends is the number you will add to the class interval

4
Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications
LECTURE
-
 Grouped data is the type of data which is classified into groups  Mode
after collection - It is the most frequently occurring value in a list of data.
- Number of sample is more than 30 - It is sometimes called nominal average.
 Ungrouped data which is also known as raw data is data that - It is an appropriate measure of average for data using the
has not been placed in any group or category after collection. nominal scale of measurement.
- Number of sample is less than 30

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 Mean
- It is also called the average
- It is appropriate only for data under interval and ratio scale
measurement.
Formula:

Quantiles - measure of position under the distribution

Formula:

 Median
- It is the “middle observation”
- It divides the distribution into two equal parts.
Formula: