Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications

LECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
DEFINITION OF STATISTICS DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS
 Statistics - the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, Quantitative variables may be further classified into:
and analyzing information to draw conclusions or answer 1. Discrete variable - a quantitative variable that either a finite
questions. In addition, statistics is about providing a measure number of possible values or a countable number of possible
of confidence in any conclusions. values. If you count to get the value of a quantitative variable,
Statistics is important because: it is discrete.
- It enables people to make decisions based on empirical 2. Continuous variable - a quantitative variable that has an
evidence. infinite number of possible values that are not countable. If
you measure to get the value of a quantitative variable, it is
- Provides us with tools needed to convert massive data into
continuous.
pertinent information that can be used in decision making.
- Provide us information that we can use to make sensible LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
decisions. 1. Nominal Level - a scale that classifies persons or objects into
 Data - “factual information used as a basis for reasoning, two or more categories.
discussion, or calculation”. - sometimes called categorical scales or categorical data
 Data can be numerical, as in height, or nonnumerical, as in - a person can only be in one category
gender. In either case, data describe characteristics of an
individual. - members of a given category have a common set of
characteristics.
DEFINITION OF TERMS 2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may be arranged in
• Universe - the set of all entities under study. some order or ranking. An ordinal scale not only classifies
subjects but also ranks them in terms of the degree to which
• Population - the total or entire group of individuals or
they possess a characteristic of interest.
observations from which information is desired by a
researcher. - differences between data values either cannot be
• Individual - a person or object that is a member of the determined or meaningless.
population being studied. 3. Interval Level - This is a measurement level not only classifies
• Sample - the subset of the population. and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent
• Parameter - a numerical summary of a population along the scale from low interval to high interval.
• Descriptive statistics - consist of organizing and
- A value of zero does not mean the absence of the quantity.
summarizing data. Descriptive statistics describe data
through numerical summaries, tables, and graphs. - Arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction can
• Inferential statistics - uses methods that take a result from be performed on values of the variable
a sample, extend it to the population, and measure the 4. Ratio Level - It has the properties of the interval level of
reliability of the result. measurement and the ratios of the values of the variable have
meaning.
PROCESS OF STATISTICS
- represents the highest, most precise, level of measurement
1. Identify the research objective.
2. Collect the information needed to answer the questions. - A value of zero means the absence of the quantity.
3. Organize and summarize the information. - Arithmetic operations such as multiplication and division
4. Draw conclusion from the information. can be performed on the values of the variable.
.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES .
.
• Variables - are the characteristics of the individuals within .
the population .
• If variables did not vary, statistical inference would not be .
necessary. .
Variables can be classified into two groups: .
.
1. Qualitative variables (Categorical) - variable that yields .
categorical responses. It is a word or a code that represents a .
class or category. .
2. Quantitative variables (Numeric) - takes on numerical .
values representing an amount or quantity. .
. .

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Statistics Analysis w/ Software Applications
LECTURE
DATA COLLECTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
DATA COLLECTION PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD
 Because data are powerful, they can be dangerous when 1. Direct personal interviews - The researcher has direct
misused. The misuse of data usually occurs when data are contact with the interviewee. The researcher gathers
incorrectly obtained or analyzed. information by asking questions to the interviewee.

 Data collection - the process of gathering and measuring 2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method - involve sourcing and
information on variables of interest, in an established accessing existing data that were originally collected for the
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research purpose of the study.
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes - Designing good “questioning tools” forms an important and
time consuming phase in the development of most research
Steps in Data Gathering:
proposals.
1. Set the objectives for collecting data Once the decision has been made to use these techniques, the
2. Determine the data needed based on the set objectives. following questions should be considered before designing our tools:
- What exactly do we want to know?
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering and define
the comprehensive data collection points. - Of whom will we ask questions and what techniques will
we use?
4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
- Are our informants mainly literate or illiterate?
5. Collect data. - How large is the sample that will be interviewed?

SOURCES OF DATA  Open-ended question - a type of question that does not

include response categories. The respondent is not given any
 Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand account of an event possible answers to choose from. This type of question is
or time period and are considered to be authoritative. They usually appropriate for collecting subjective data. It permit
are usually the first formal appearance of original research. free responses that should be recorded in the respondent’s
own words.
 Primary Data - are data documented by the primary source.
The firsthand information obtained by the investigator is  Closed-ended question - is a type of question that includes a
more reliable and accurate since the investigator can extract list of response categories from which the respondent will
the correct information by removing doubts. It permits select his answer. It is useful if the range of possible responses
explanation of questions concerning difficult subject matter. is known. This type of question is usually appropriate for
collecting objective data.
 Secondary Sources - offer an analysis, interpretation or a
restatement of primary sources and are considered to be 3. Focus group - a group interview of approximately six to
persuasive. twelve people who share similar characteristics or common
interests. A facilitator guides the group based on a
- often involve generalisation, synthesis, interpretation, predetermined set of topics.
commentary or evaluation in an attempt to convince the
4. Experiment - a method of collecting data where there is direct
reader of the creator's argument.
human intervention on the conditions that may affect the
- often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. values of the variable of interest.

 Secondary Data - are data documented by a secondary 5. Observation - a technique that involves systematically
source. The data collectors had the data documented by other selecting, watching and recoding behaviors of people or other
sources. phenomena and aspects of the setting in which they occur, for
the purpose of getting (gaining) specified information. It
- less expensive to collect both in money and time. includes all methods from simple visual observations to the
use of high-level machines and measurements, sophisticated
- These data can also be better utilized and sometimes the equipment or facilities
quality of such data may be better because these might
have been collected by persons who were specially It gives relatively more accurate data on behavior and
trained for that purpose. activities but Investigators or observer’s own biases, prejudice,
desires, and etc. and needs more resources and skilled human
- On the other hand, such data must be used with great care, power during the use of high-level machines.
because such data may also be full of errors.
- there may have been bias introduced, the size of the
sample may have been inadequate, or there may have
been arithmetic or definition errors, hence, it is necessary
to critically investigate the validity of the secondary data.
.

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 • Multi - Stage Sampling
TWO TYPE OF SAMPLES
1. Probability Sample - Selection of the sample is done in two or more steps or
stages, with sampling units varying in each stage.
- Samples are obtained using some objective chance
mechanism, thus involving randomization. - The population is first divided into a number of first-stage
sampling units from which a sample is drawn. Smaller
- They require the use of a complete listing of the units, called the secondary sampling units, comprising the
elements of the universe called the sampling frame. selected first-stage units then serve as the sampling units
- The probabilities of selection are known. for the next stage. If needed additional stages may be added
until the units of observation for the survey are clearly
- They are generally referred to as random samples. identified. The units comprising the samples selected from
- They allow drawing of valid generalizations about the the previous stage constitute the frame for the stages.
universe/population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
2. Non - probability Sample
• Accidental Sampling - There is no system of selection but only
- Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected those whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance.
purposively or are taken as volunteers.
• Quota Sampling - There is specified number of persons of
- The probabilities of selection are unknown. certain types is included in the sample. The researcher is aware
- They should not be used for statistical inference. of categories within the population and draws samples from
each category. The size of each categorical sample is
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING proportional to the proportion of the population that belongs
• Simple Random Sampling in that category.
- Most basic method of drawing a probability sample. • Convenience Sampling - It is a process of picking out people
in the most convenient and fastest way to get reactions
- Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible
immediately. This method can be done by telephone interview
sample.
to get the immediate reactions of a certain group of sample for
- Results to a simple random sample a certain issue.
- This is preferable to use if the population is not widely • Purposive Sampling - It is based on certain criteria laid down
spread geographically. by the researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are
• Systematic Random Sampling interviewed. It is used to determine the target population of
those who will be taken for the study.
- It is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the
population. • Judgement Sampling - selects sample in accordance with an
expert’s judgment.
- The first individual selected corresponds to a random
number between 1 to k. Cases wherein Non-Probability Sampling is Useful

- It is easy to administer and the sample is spread evenly - Only few are willing to be interviewed
over the population. - Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying subjects
- advisable to use if the ordering of the population is - Probability sampling is more expensive to implement
essentially random and when stratification with numerous
data is used. - Cannot enumerate the population elements.

• Stratified Random Sampling

- It is obtained by separating the population into non-
overlapping groups called strata and then obtaining a
simple random sample from each stratum.
- The individuals within each stratum should be
homogeneous (or similar) in some way.
- advantageous in terms of precision of the estimates of the
characteristics of the population

• Cluster Sampling
- You take the sample from naturally occurring groups in
your population.
- The clusters are constructed such that the sampling units
are heterogeneous within the cluster and homogeneous
among the clusters.