Chapter 13

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
 Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of
two or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed
uniformly throughout the solvent.
• The ability of substances to form solutions
depends on
– natural tendency toward mixing.
– intermolecular forces.
Natural Tendency toward Mixing
• Mixing of gases is a spontaneous process.
• Each gas acts as if it is alone to fill the container.
• Mixing causes more randomness in the position
of the molecules, increasing a thermodynamic
quantity called entropy.
• The formation of solutions is favored by the
increase in entropy that accompanies mixing.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Any intermolecular force of attraction can

be the attraction between solute and
solvent molecules.
 Attractions Involved When
Forming a Solution
• Solute–solute interactions must be overcome
to disperse these particles when making a
solution.
• Solvent–solvent interactions must be
overcome to make room for the solute.
• Solvent–solute interactions occur as the
particles mix.
Solvation (Hydration)
Energetics of Solution Formation

• For an endothermic reaction to occur, ΔHmix must

be close to the sum of ΔHsolute and ΔHsolvent.
Entropy (randomness) will matter.
• Exothermic solutions are spontaneous.
Aqueous Solution vs. Chemical
Reaction

Just because a substance disappears when it

comes in contact with a solvent, it does not mean
the substance dissolved. It may have reacted, like
nickel with hydrochloric acid.
 Opposing Processes
• The solution-making process and
crystallization are opposing processes.

• When the rate of the opposing processes is

equal, additional solute will not dissolve unless
some crystallizes from solution. This is a
saturated solution.
• If we have not yet reached the amount that will
result in crystallization, we have an
unsaturated solution.
 Solubility
• Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that
can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a
given temperature.
• Saturated solutions have that amount of solute
dissolved.
• Unsaturated solutions have any amount of solute
less than the maximum amount dissolved in
solution.
• Surprisingly, there is one more type of solution.
 Supersaturated Solutions

• In supersaturated solutions, the solvent holds

more solute than is normally possible at that
temperature.
• These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or
scratching the side of the flask.
• These are uncommon solutions.
 Factors That Affect Solubility

• Solute–solvent interactions
• Pressure (for gaseous solutes)
• Temperature
 Solute–Solvent Interactions
• Simply put: “Like dissolves like.”
• That does not explain everything!
• The stronger the solute–solvent
interaction, the greater the
solubility of a solute in that
solvent.
• The gases in the table exhibit only
dispersion force. The larger the
gas, the more soluble it will be in
water.
 Organic Molecules in Water
• Polar organic molecules
dissolve in water better than
nonpolar organic molecules.
• Hydrogen bonding increases
solubility, since C–C and C–H
bonds are not very polar.
 Liquid/Liquid Solubility
• Liquids that mix in all
proportions are
miscible.
• Liquids that do not
mix in one another
are immiscible.
• Because hexane is
nonpolar and water is
polar, they are
immiscible.
Solubility and Biological Importance
• Fat-soluble vitamins (like vitamin A) are nonpolar;
they are readily stored in fatty tissue in the body.
• Water-soluble vitamins (like vitamin C) need to
be included in the daily diet.
Sample Exercise 13.1 Predicting Solubility Patterns
Predict whether each of the following substances is more likely to dissolve in the nonpolar solvent carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) or in water: C7H16, Na2SO4, HCl, and I2.

Solution
Analyze We are given two solvents, one that is nonpolar (CCl4) and the other that is polar (H2O), and asked to
determine which will be the better solvent for each solute listed.

Plan By examining the formulas of the solutes, we can predict whether they are ionic or molecular. For those that are
molecular, we can predict whether they are polar or nonpolar. We can then apply the idea that the nonpolar solvent will
be better for the nonpolar solutes, whereas the polar solvent will be better for the ionic and polar solutes.

Solve C7H16 is a hydrocarbon, so it is molecular and nonpolar. Na2SO4, a compound containing a metal and nonmetals,
is ionic. HCl, a diatomic molecule containing two nonmetals that differ in electronegativity, is polar. I2, a diatomic
molecule with atoms of equal electronegativity, is nonpolar. We would therefore predict that C7H16 and I2 (the nonpolar
solutes) would be more soluble in the nonpolar CCl4 than in polar H2O, whereas water would be the better solvent for
Na2SO4 and HCl (the ionic and polar covalent solutes).
 Pressure Effects

• The solubility of solids

and liquids are not
appreciably affected
by pressure.
• Gas solubility is
affected by pressure.
 Henry’s Law
• The solubility of a gas is
proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas
above the solution.
•
Sample Exercise 13.2 A Henry’s Law Calculation
Calculate the concentration of CO2 in a soft drink that is bottled with a partial pressure of CO 2 of 0.41 MPa over the
liquid at 25 °C. The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water at this temperature is 3.4 × 10–4 mol/m3-Pa.

Solution
Analyze We are given the partial pressure of CO2, PCO2, and the Henry’s law constant, k, and asked to calculate the
concentration of CO2 in the solution.

Plan With the information given, we can use Henry’s law, Equation 13.4, to calculate the solubility, SCO2.

Solve

Check The units are correct for solubility, and the answer has two significant figures consistent with both the partial
pressure of CO2 and the value of the Henry’s law constant.

Practice Exercise 1
You double the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid at constant temperature. Which of these statements is then true?
(a) The Henry’s law constant is doubled.
(b) The Henry’s law constant is decreased by half.
(c) There are half as many gas molecules in the liquid.
(d) There are twice as many gas molecules in the liquid.
(e) There is no change in the number of gas molecules in the liquid.
 Temperature Effects
• For most solids, as temperature
increases, solubility increases.
However, clearly this is not
always true—some increase
greatly, some remain relatively
constant, and others decrease.
• For all gases, as temperature
increases, solubility decreases.
Cold rivers have higher oxygen
content than warm rivers.
 Solution Concentration
• We have discussed solubility and
solutions qualitatively: saturated (which
is quantitative), unsaturated, and
supersaturated.
• Now we will give specific amounts to
solutions.
 Units of Concentration
1) Mass percentage
2) Parts per million (ppm)
3) Parts per billion (ppb)
4) Mole fraction
5) Molarity
6) Molality
 1) Mass Percentage
• Percent means “out of 100.”
• Take the ratio of the mass of the solute
to the total solution mass.
• Multiply by 100 to make it a percent.
 2) Parts per Million (ppm)
3) Parts per Billion (ppb)
• Still relating mass of a solute to the total mass of
the solution.
• Since percent is out of 100, we multiplied
by 100.
• ppm is per million, so we multiply by 106.

• ppb is per billion, so we multiply by 109.

Sample Exercise 13.3 Calculation of Mass-Related Concentrations
(a) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 0.100 kg of water. What is the mass percentage
of solute in this solution?
(b) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 µg of Zn2+. What is the concentration of Zn2+ in parts
per million?
Solution
(a) Analyze We are given the number of grams of solute (13.5 g) and the number of grams of solvent
(0.100 kg = 100 g). From this, we must calculate the mass percentage of solute.

Plan We can calculate the mass percentage by using Equation 13.5. The mass of the solution is the sum of the
mass of solute (glucose) and the mass of solvent (water).

Solve

Comment The mass percentage of water in this solution is (100 – 11.9)% = 88.1%.

(b) Analyze In this case we are given the number of micrograms of solute. Because 1 µg is 1 × 10–6 g,
5.4 µg = 5.4 × 10–6 g.
Plan We calculate the parts per million using Equation 13.6.

Solve:
 (4) Mole Fraction (χ)
• Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of a
substance to the total number of moles in
a solution.
• It does not matter if it is for a solute or for
a solvent.
 (5) Molarity (M)
(6) Molality (m)
• Be careful of your penmanship!
• Molarity was discussed in Chapter 4 as moles
of solute per liter of solution.

• Molality is moles of solute per kilogram of

solvent.
 Molarity vs. Molality
• When water is the solvent, dilute
solutions have similar molarity and
molality.
• Molality does not vary with temperature
(mass does not change).
• Molarity varies with temperature (volume
changes).
 Converting Units
• Follow dimensional analysis techniques
from Chapter 1.
• To convert between molality and
molarity, the density of the solution
must be used.
Sample Exercise 13.4 Calculation of Molality
A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 25.0 mL of water at 25 °C. Calculate the molality of
glucose in the solution. Water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.

Solution
Analyze We are asked to calculate a solution concentration in units of molality. To do this, we must determine the
number of moles of solute (glucose) and the number of kilograms of solvent (water).

Plan We use the molar mass of C6H12O6 to convert grams of glucose to moles. We use the density of water to convert
milliliters of water to kilograms. The molality equals the number of moles of solute (glucose) divided by the number of
kilograms of solvent (water).

Solve
Use the molar mass of glucose, 180.2 g/mol, to convert grams to moles:

Because water has a density of 1.00 g/mL, the mass of the solvent is:

Finally, use Equation 13.9 to obtain the molality:

Sample Exercise 13.5 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality
An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass. (a) Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the
solution. (b) Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.

Solution
Analyze We are asked to calculate the concentration of the solute, HCl, in two related concentration units, given only
the percentage by mass of the solute in the solution.

Plan In converting concentration units based on the mass or moles of solute and solvent (mass percentage, mole
fraction, and molality), it is useful to assume a certain total mass of solution. Let’s assume that there is exactly 100 g of
solution. Because the solution is 36% HCl, it contains 36 g of HCl and (100 – 36) g = 64 g of H2O. We must convert
grams of solute (HCl) to moles to calculate either mole fraction or molality. We must convert grams of solvent (H2O) to
moles to calculate mole fractions and to kilograms to calculate molality.

Solve
(a) To calculate the mole fraction of HCl, we convert the masses of HCl and H2O to moles and then use Equation 13.7:
Sample Exercise 13.5 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality
Continued

(b) To calculate the molality of HCl in the solution, we use Equation 13.9. We calculated the number of moles of HCl
in part (a), and the mass of solvent is 64 g = 0.064 kg:

Notice that we can’t readily calculate the molarity of the solution because we don’t know the volume of the 100 g
of solution.

Practice Exercise 1
The solubility of oxygen gas in water at 40 °C is 1.0 mmol per liter of solution. What is this concentration in units of
mole fraction?
(a) 1.00 × 10–6 (b) 1.80 × 10–5 (c) 1.00 × 10–2
(d) 1.80 × 10–2 (e) 5.55 × 10–2

Practice Exercise 2
A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62% by mass of NaOCl in water. Calculate (a) the mole fraction and (b) the
molality of NaOCl in the solution.
Sample Exercise 13.6 Calculation of Molarity Using the Density
of the Solution
A solution with a density of 0.876 g/mL contains 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) and 225 g of benzene. Calculate the
molarity of the solution.

Solution
Analyze Our goal is to calculate the molarity of a solution, given the masses of solute (5.0 g) and solvent (225 g)
and the density of the solution (0.876 g/mL).

Plan The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of solution
(Equation 13.8). The number of moles of solute (C7H8) is calculated from the number of grams of solute and its
molar mass. The volume of the solution is obtained from the mass of the solution (mass of solution = mass of solute
+ mass of solvent = 5.0 g + 225 g = 230 g) and its density.

Solve
The number of moles of solute is:

The density of the solution is used to convert the mass of the solution to its volume:
Sample Exercise 13.6 Calculation of Molarity Using the Density of
the Solution
Continued

Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution:

Check The magnitude of our answer is reasonable. Rounding moles to 0.05 and liters to 0.25 gives a molarity of
(0.05 mol)/(0.25 L) = 0.2 M.

The units for our answer (mol/L) are correct, and the answer, 0.21, has two significant figures, corresponding to the
number of significant figures in the mass of solute (2).

Comment Because the mass of the solvent (0.225 kg) and the volume of the solution (0.263) are similar in
magnitude, the molarity and molality are also similar in magnitude: (0.054 mol C7H8)/(0.225 kg solvent) = 0.24 m.

Practice Exercise 1
Maple syrup has a density of 1.325 g/mL, and 100.00 g of maple syrup contains 67 mg of calcium in the form of Ca2+
ions. What is the molarity of calcium in maple syrup?
(a) 0.017 M (b) 0.022 M (c) 0.89 M (d) 12.6 M (e) 45.4 M
 Colligative Properties
• Colligative properties depend only on the
quantity, not on the identity of the solute
particles.
• Among colligative properties are
– Vapor-pressure lowering
– Boiling-point elevation
– Freezing-point depression
– Osmotic pressure
 Vapor Pressure
Because of solute–solvent intermolecular attraction,
higher concentrations of nonvolatile solutes make it
harder for solvent to escape to the vapor phase.
Therefore, the vapor pressure of a solution is lower
than that of the pure solvent.
 Raoult’s Law
• The vapor pressure of a volatile solvent over
the solution is the product of the mole fraction
of the solvent times the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent.

• In ideal solutions, it is assumed that each

substance will follow Raoult’s law while in the
mixture.
Sample Exercise 13.7 Calculation of Vapor Pressure of a Solution
Glycerin (C3H8O3) is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with a density of 1.26 g/mL at 25 °C. Calculate the vapor pressure
at 25 °C of a solution made by adding 50.0 mL of glycerin to 500.0 mL of water. The vapor pressure of pure water at
25 °C is 3.17 kPa (Appendix B), and its density is 1.00 g/mL.

Solution
Analyze Our goal is to calculate the vapor pressure of a solution, given the volume of solute and solvent and the
density of the solute.

Plan We can use Raoult’s law (Equation 13.10) to calculate the vapor pressure of a solution. The mole fraction of the
solvent in the solution, Xsolvent, is the ratio of the number of moles of solvent (H2O) to total moles of solution (moles
C3H8O3 + moles H2O).

Solve
To calculate the mole fraction of water in the solution, we must determine the number of moles of C3H8O3 and H2O:
Sample Exercise 13.7 Calculation of Vapor Pressure of a Solution
Continued

We now use Raoult’s law to calculate the vapor pressure of water for the solution:

Comment The vapor pressure of the solution has been lowered by 3.17 kPa – 3.09 kPa = 0.08 kPa relative to that of
pure water. The vapor–pressure lowering can be calculated directly using Equation 13.11 together with the mole
fraction of the solute, C3H8O3: P = XC3H8O3P°H2O = (0.024)(3.17 kPa) = 0.076 kPa. Notice that the use of Equation
13.11 gives one more significant figure than the number obtained by subtracting the vapor pressure of the solution from
that of the pure solvent.

Practice Exercise 1
The vapor pressure of benzene, C6H6, is 13.33 kPa at 26.1 °C. Assuming Raoult’s law is obeyed, how many moles of a
nonvolatile solute must be added to 100.0 mL of benzene to decrease its vapor pressure by 10.0% at 26.1 °C? The
density of benzene is 0.8765 g/cm3.
(a) 0.011237 (b) 0.11237 (c) 0.1248 (d) 0.1282 (e) 8.765

Practice Exercise 2
The vapor pressure of pure water at 110 °C is 142.7 kPa. A solution of ethylene glycol and water has a vapor pressure
of 1.00 atm at 110 °C. Assuming that Raoult’s law is obeyed, what is the mole fraction of ethylene glycol in the
solution?
 Boiling-Point Elevation
Since vapor pressures are lowered for
solutions, it requires a higher temperature to
reach atmospheric pressure. Hence, boiling
point is raised.
 Freezing-Point Depression
The construction of the phase diagram for a
solution demonstrates that the freezing point is
lowered while the boiling point is raised.
 Boiling-Point Elevation and
Freezing-Point Depression
• The change in temperature is directly proportional to
molality (using the van’t Hoff factor).
• The van’t Hoff factor is the number of particles a
substance becomes when it dissolves.
Sample Exercise 13.8 Calculation of Boiling-Point Elevation and
Freezing-Point Depression
Automotive antifreeze contains ethylene glycol, CH2(OH)CH2(OH), a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte, in water.
Calculate the boiling point and freezing point of a 25.0% by mass solution of ethylene glycol in water.

Solution
Analyze We are given that a solution contains 25.0% by mass of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute and asked to
calculate the boiling and freezing points of the solution. To do this, we need to calculate the boiling-point elevation
and freezing-point depression.

Plan To calculate the boiling-point elevation and the freezing-point depression using Equations 13.12 and 13.13, we
must express the concentration of the solution as molality. Let’s assume for convenience that we have 1000 g of
solution. Because the solution is 25.0% by mass ethylene glycol, the masses of ethylene glycol and water in the
solution are 250 and 750 g, respectively. Using these quantities, we can calculate the molality of the solution, which
we use with the molal boiling-point-elevation and freezing-point-depression constants (Table 13.3) to calculate Tb
and Tf. We add Tb to the boiling point and Tf to the freezing point of the solvent to obtain the boiling point and
freezing point of the solution.

Solve
The molality of the solution is calculated as follows:
Sample Exercise 13.8 Calculation of Boiling-Point Elevation and
Freezing-Point Depression
Continued

We can now use Equations 13.12 and 13.13 to calculate the changes in the boiling and freezing points:

Hence, the boiling and freezing points of the solution are readily calculated:

Comment Notice that the solution is a liquid over a larger temperature range than the pure solvent.
 Osmosis
• Some substances form semipermeable membranes,
allowing some smaller particles to pass through but
blocking larger particles.
• The net movement of solvent molecules from solution of
low to high concentration of solute across a
semipermeable membrane is osmosis. The applied
pressure to stop it is osmotic pressure.
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic pressure is a colligative property.

• If two solutions separated by a semipermeable

membrane have the same osmotic pressure,
no osmosis
will occur.
Types of Solutions and Osmosis
1) Isotonic solutions: same osmotic pressure;
solvent passes the membrane at the same
rate both ways.
2) Hypotonic solution: lower osmotic pressure;
solvent will leave this solution at a higher
rate than it enters with.
3) Hypertonic solution: higher osmotic pressure;
solvent will enter this solution at a higher rate
than it leaves with.
 Osmosis and Blood Cells
• Red blood cells have semipermeable membranes.
• If stored in a hypertonic solution, they will shrivel as water
leaves the cell; this is called crenation.
• If stored in a hypotonic solution, they will grow until they
burst; this is called hemolysis.
• Intravenous (IV) solutions MUST be isotonic to blood.
Sample Exercise 13.9 Osmotic Pressure Calculations
The average osmotic pressure of blood is 780 kPa at 25 °C. What molarity of glucose (C6H12O6) will be isotonic
with blood?

Solution
Analyze We are asked to calculate the concentration of glucose in water that would be isotonic with blood, given
that the osmotic pressure of blood at 25 °C is 780 kPa.

Plan Because we are given the osmotic pressure and temperature, we can solve for the concentration, using
Equation 13.14. Because glucose is a nonelectrolyte, i = 1.

Solve

Comment In clinical situations, the concentrations of solutions are generally expressed as mass percentages. The
mass percentage of a 0.31 M solution of glucose is 5.3%. The concentration of NaCl that is isotonic with blood is
0.16 M, because i = 2 for NaCl in water (a 0.155 M solution of NaCl is 0.310 M in particles). A 0.16 M solution of
NaCl is 0.9% mass in NaCl. This kind of solution is known as a physiological saline solution.
Sample Exercise 13.10 Molar Mass from Freezing-Point
Depression or Boiling-Point Elevation
A solution of an unknown nonvolatile nonelectrolyte was prepared by dissolving 0.250 g of the substance in 40.0 g
of CCl4. The boiling point of the resulting solution was 0.357 °C higher than that of the pure solvent. Calculate the
molar mass of the solute.

Solution
Analyze Our goal is to calculate the molar mass of a solute based on knowledge of the boiling-point elevation of its
solution in CCl4, Tb = 0.357 °C, and the masses of solute and solvent. Table 13.3 gives Kb for the solvent (CCl4),
Kb = 5.02 °C/m.

Plan We can use Equation 13.12, Tb = iKbm, to calculate the molality of the solution. Because the solute is a
nonelectrolyte, i = 1. Then we can use molality and the quantity of solvent (40.0 g CCl4) to calculate the number of
moles of solute. Finally, the molar mass of the solute equals the number of grams per mole, so we divide the
number of grams of solute (0.250 g) by the number of moles we have just calculated.
Sample Exercise 13.10 Molar Mass from Freezing-Point
Depression or Boiling-Point Elevation
Continued

Solve
From Equation 13.12, we have:

Thus, the solution contains 0.0711 mol of solute per kilogram of solvent. The solution was prepared using
40.0 g = 0.0400 kg of solvent (CCl4). The number of moles of solute in the solution is therefore:

The molar mass of the solute is the number of grams per mole of the substance:
Sample Exercise 13.11 Molar Mass from Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution of a certain protein was measured to determine the protein’s molar
mass. The solution contained 3.50 mg of protein dissolved in sufficient water to form 5.00 mL of solution. The
osmotic pressure of the solution at 25 °C was found to be 205 Pa. Treating the protein as a nonelectrolyte,
calculate its molar mass.

Analyze Our goal is to calculate the molar mass of a high-molecular-mass protein, based on the osmotic pressure and a
knowledge of the mass of protein and solution volume. Since the protein will be considered as a nonelectrolyte, i = 1.

Plan The temperature (T = 25 °C) and osmotic pressure ( = 205 Pa) are given, and we know the value of R so we can
use Equation 13.14 to calculate the molarity of the solution, M. In doing so, we must convert temperature from °C. We
then use the molarity and the volume of the solution (5.00 mL) to determine the number of moles of solute. Finally, we
obtain the molar mass by dividing the mass of the solute
(3.50 mg) by the number of moles of solute.

Solve
Solving Equation 13.14 for molarity gives:
Sample Exercise 13.11 Molar Mass from Osmotic Pressure
Continued

Because the volume of the solution is 5.00 mL = 5.00 × 10–3 L, the number of moles of protein must be:

The molar mass is the number of grams per mole of the substance. Because we know the sample has a mass of
3.50 mg = 3.50 × 10–3 g, we can calculate the molar mass by dividing the number of grams in the sample by the
number of moles we just calculated:

Comment Because small pressures can be measured easily and accurately, osmotic pressure measurements provide a
useful way to determine the molar masses of large molecules.
Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
A 0.100-L solution is made by dissolving 0.441 g of CaCl2(s) in water. (a) Calculate the osmotic pressure of this
solution at 27 °C, assuming that it is completely dissociated into its component ions. (b) The measured osmotic
pressure of this solution is 259.4 kPa at 27 °C. Explain why it is less than the value calculated in (a), and calculate the
van’t Hoff factor, i, for the solute in this solution. (c) The enthalpy of solution for CaCl2 is H = –81.3 kJ/mol. If the
final temperature of the solution is 27 °C, what was its initial temperature? (Assume that the density of the solution is
1.00 g/mL, that its specific heat is 4.18 J/g-K, and that the solution loses no heat to its surroundings.)

Solution
(a) The osmotic pressure is given by Equation 13.14,  = iMRT. We know the temperature, T = 27 °C = 300 K, and the
gas constant, R = 8.314 m3-Pa/mol-K.. We can calculate the molarity of the solution from the mass of CaCl2 and the
volume of the solution:

Soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes. (Sections 4.1 and 4.3) Thus, CaCl2 consists of metal cations
–
(Ca ) and nonmetal anions (Cl ). When completely dissociated, each CaCl2 unit forms three ions (one Ca2+ and
2+

two Cl–). Hence, the calculated osmotic pressure is:

Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued

(b) The actual values of colligative properties of electrolytes are less than those calculated because the electrostatic
interactions between ions limit their independent movements. In this case, the van’t Hoff factor, which measures
the extent to which electrolytes actually dissociate into ions, is given by:

Thus, the solution behaves as if the CaCl2 has dissociated into 2.62 particles instead of the ideal 3.

(c) If the solution is 0.0397 M in CaCl2 and has a total volume of 0.100 L, the number of moles of solute is:

Hence, the quantity of heat generated in forming the solution is:

The solution absorbs this heat, causing its temperature to increase. The relationship between temperature change
and heat is given by Equation 5.22:
Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued

The heat absorbed by the solution is q = +0.323 kJ = 323 J. The mass of the 0.100 L of solution is (100 mL)(1.00 g/mL)
= 100 g (to three significant figures). Thus, the temperature change is:

A kelvin has the same size as a degree Celsius. (Section 1.4) Because the solution temperature increases by
0.773 °C, the initial temperature was:
 Colloids
• Suspensions of particles larger than individual
ions or molecules, but too small to be settled out
by gravity, are called colloids.
• Colloids form the dividing line between solutions
and suspensions.
Tyndall Effect
• Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of light.
(Solutions do not.)
• This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.
• The glass on the right
holds a colloid. The one
on the left holds a
solution.
 Colloids and Biomolecules
• Some molecules have a
polar, hydrophilic (water-
loving) end and a nonpolar,
hydrophobic (water-fearing)
end.
• Large molecules that form
colloids in water often have
the hydrophilic portions
facing outward to interact
with the water.
Stabilizing Colloids by Adsorption
• Ions can adhere to the surface of an
otherwise hydrophobic colloid.
• This allows it to interact with aqueous
solution.
 Colloids in Biological Systems
• Colloids can aid in the
emulsification of fats
and oils in aqueous
solutions.
• An emulsifier causes
something that
normally does not
dissolve in a solvent to
do so.
 Brownian Motion

• Motion of colloids due to numerous collisions

with the much smaller solvent
Selected Problems: 15, 17, 23,27, 29, 33, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 51, 53, 55, 59, 63, 65, 67,
68, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 81, 83.