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Chapter 8: Failure
Course: Material Science (MEC213)

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
11/ /
 Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Chapter 8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (by (Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.) Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8 - 2
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic

Chapter 8 - 3
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 4
 Example: Pipe Failures
• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 8 - 5
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Failure Stages: Crack propogation Shear fracture
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 6
 Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture in gray

cast iron.
In aluminium
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic surface contour

is termed a cup-and-cone fracture because one of the mating
surfaces is in the form of a cup and the other like a cone.
Chapter 8 - 7
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Much more detailed information regarding the mechanism of fracture is available from microscopic
examination, normally using scanning electron microscopy. Studies of this type are termed
fractographic. The scanning electron microscope is preferred for fractographic examinations
because it has a much better resolution and depth of field than does the optical microscope; these
characteristics are necessary to reveal the topographical features of fracture surfaces.
Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 8 - 8
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular • Transgranular
(between grains) 304 S. Steel (through grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge National D.R. Diercks, Argonne
Lab.)
160 mm
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
Chapter 8 - 9
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
INTRAGRANULAR FRACTURE

Chapter 8 - 10
INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE

Chapter 8 - 11
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Chapter 8 - 12
 Principles of Fracture Mechanics

The measured fracture strengths for most materials are

significantly lower than those predicted by theoretical
calculations based on atomic bonding energies. This
discrepancy is explained by the presence of microscopic flaws
or cracks that always exist under normal conditions at the
surface and within the interior of a body of material.

Chapter 8 - 13
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Because of their ability to amplify an applied stress in their locale, these
flaws are sometimes called stress raisers.

• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a
sm = 2so   = K t so
 t 

t where
t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip
a= the length of the surface crack or
half length of the internal crack
Kt = stress concentration factor
Chapter 8 - 14
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Chapter 8 - 15
❑ Note that stress amplification is not restricted to
microscopic defects; it may occur at macroscopic internal
discontinuities (e.g., voids or inclusions), sharp corners,
scratches, and notches.
❑ Furthermore, the effect of a stress raiser is more significant
in brittle than in ductile materials. For a ductile metal,
plastic deformation ensues when the maximum stress
exceeds the yield strength. This leads to a more uniform
distribution of stress in the vicinity of the stress raiser and
to the development of a maximum stress concentration
factor less than the theoretical value.

Chapter 8 - 16
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
s smax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = s
0
w
smax
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 17
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips.
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 18
 CRITICAL STRESS FOR CRACK PROPAGATION IN A BRITTLE MATERIAL

Criterion for Crack Propagation

Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm)
exceeds a critical stress (sc)
1/ 2
 2E s 
i.e., sm > sc sc =  
 a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy

Chapter 8 - 19
 PDF Page#218

Chapter 8 - 20
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Fracture Toughness

❑ In this expression Kc is the fracture toughness, a property that is a

measure of a material’s resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is
present. Kc has the unusual units of MPa 𝑚 or psi 𝑖𝑛. (alternatively,
ksi 𝑖𝑛.).
❑ Here, Y is a dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both
crack and specimen sizes and geometries as well as on the manner of
load application.
❑ Crack length = a

Chapter 8 - 21
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
Plain Strain Fracture Toughness (Klc)

Chapter 8 - 22
 Modes of Crack Surface
Displacement

Opening
Sliding Tearing
or tensile
mode mode
mode

Chapter 8 - 23
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m 0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 24
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
sdesign 
Kc 1  K c 
amax 
Y am ax   Ysdesign 
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
Chapter 8 - 25
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc =
Y am ax
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
KIc
= s a = constant
Y 
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

(s c amax ) = (s
A c amax ) B

Answer: (sc )B = 168 MPa Chapter 8 - 26

 Impact Testing
• Two standardized tests: Charpy and (Charpy)
Izod to measure the impact energy.
• Charpy V-Notch technique is
commonly used in USA.

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 27
 Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni) Low strength material

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers Mild Steels
Brittle More Ductile
High Strength Material
High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Temperature Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
❑ Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen.
❑ The point where the material experiences the change from either brittle to ductile or ductile
Chapter 8 - 28
to brittle is called as „ductile to brittle transition“.
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
The Discovery of the Titanic.) "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)

• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below

room temperature. Chapter 8 - 29
 Fatigue The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural
(bending), or torsional (twisting) in nature. In general, three
different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible.

• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.

specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. s

smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
S
cycling frequency sm
smin time

sinusoidal
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 30
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 31
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
= (K )
m
dN
~ (s ) a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
• crack gets longer Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
• loading freq. increases. 8.21 is from D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 32
 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile sm
Larger tensile sm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
bad better Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 33
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope (e/t).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 34

 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 8 - 35
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

e s = K 2s n exp − c 
Q
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427ºC (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
Stress (MPa)

increases 100 Handbook: Properties

538ºC and Selection:
with increasing 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, s 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
649ºC 9th ed., D. Benjamin
(Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 36
 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Chapter 8 - 37
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

100 Time to rupture, tr

T (20 + log t r ) = L

Stress (103 psi)

20 temperature function of
10 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 38
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20 + log t r ) = L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24x103 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
Chapter 8 - 39
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s):
- cycles to fail decreases as s increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. Chapter 8 - 40