PRESSURE

You can push a drawing pin into a piece of wood – but you cannot push your finger into the
wood even if you exert a larger force. The difference in each case is the different area in
contact. The pin has a much smaller area in contact than the finger. Hence, exerts a much
higher pressure that makes the substance yield to the force.
Pressure (p) is defined as the perpendicular force (F) acting on unit area of a surface or the
force per unit area (A).
F
P=
A
SI unit of pressure is the pascal or newton per metre square. (Pa or N m-2) It is a scalar
quantity.

Example 1

Find the pressure exerted on a person by a few plastic blocks of total mass 42 kg, the bottom
of which in contact with the person has an area of 840 cm2. State what will happen to the
pressure if the area is now decreased to a very small value.

Solution

F mg 24 ×10
Pressure, P=
A
= =
A 480 ×10−4
=5000 Pa

In order to find out what will happen to the pressure with a small area, you can replace the
area, A in the above equations with a value that is smaller than 840 cm2. You will find that, if
the area is decreased to a very small value, the pressure would increase to a very large value.
Example 2
The base for a statue rests on level ground. It is made from stone and is 2.0 m long, 2.5 m
high and 0.80 m wide. It has a weight of 96 000 N. Calculate the pressure.

Pressure acting on an object depends on two things:

 1. How much force is applied to the object.
If higher force applied on an object the pressure act on the object will be more.
2. How big (or small) the area of the object on which force applied: If the area of the
object on which force applied is more the pressure act on the object is low and if the
area of the object on which force applied is less the pressure act on the object is
more.

Everyday examples of how pressure varies with force and area.

1. Increasing pressure by reducing the area

The end of the pin is very sharp,

it provide great pressure to the
objects and so easy to put into
objects

2. Reducing pressure by increasing the area

Skis have a large area to

reduce the pressure on the
snow so that they do not sink
in too far
Tractors have wide tyres to
reduce the pressure that act on
the ground so that they do not
sink too far off the ground

Atmospherics Pressure
Air has weight and owing to its weight the atmosphere exerts a pressure. This pressure is
called atmospheric pressure. It is approximately 100 000 Pa (100 k Pa). The atmospheric
pressure acts on all surfaces of the earth...

Demonstration of an action of atmospheric pressure

The crushing can experiment
The large forces which can be produced by atmospheric pressure can be demonstrated by
means of metal can filled with an air-tight stopper. The stopper having been removed, a small
quantity of water is boiled in the can for few minutes until the steam has driven out the air.
The cork is tightly replaced and simultaneously the flame is beneath the can is turned out.
Cold water is then poured over the can. This causes the steam inside to condense, producing
water and water vapour at a very low pressure.
Consequently, the excess atmospheric pressure outside the can causes it to collapse inward as
shown below.

Pressure in Liquids
In a liquid such as water, pressure does not simply act down wards – it equally in all
directions. This is because the molecules of the liquid move around in all directions, causing
pressure on every surface they collide with.

Factors affecting the pressure in a liquid

The pressure in a liquid depends on
1. Depth of the liquid (h)
The deeper the liquid, the higher pressure
2. Density of the liquid ( ρ )
The more dense the liquid, the higher pressure at particular depth

3. Gravitational field strength (g)

Pressure of the liquid doesn’t depend shape of the container.

Calculating the Pressure in a Liquid

The pressure on the liquid can be calculated by using the following equation:

Pressure on the liquid = density of the liquid × gravitational field × depth of the liquid

P = ρgh

In a fluid, if two points are separated by a vertical height, their difference in pressure is:

Δp = ρgΔh
From the formula, P=ρgh, we can see that the pressure depends on the depth and density of
the liquid and NOT on the cross-sectional area or volume of the liquid. Hence, the water
pressure at the bottom of the container in the figure above will be the same throughout the
container as the water level is the same! The shape of the container does NOT matter in the
computation of the water pressure!

Simple derivation of the formula for hydrostatic pressure p=ρgh

Consider a column of water occupying a total volume V and a base surface area of A.

The weight of all the water is:

W = mg

Recall that the mass of the water is just the density of the water X volume of water: m =ρV.
Hence,

W = ρVg

We note that volume is a product of surface area and height: V = Ah

W = ρAhg

We recall that, formula for pressure:

F
P=
A

Substituting W = ρAhg

ρAhg
We have P=
A
= ρgh

Properties (Summary)

 Pressure is transmitted throughout the liquid

 Pressure acts in all directions
 All points at the same depth in a fluid are at the same pressure
 Pressure increases with depth
 Pressure is dependent not on the shape of the container but on its depth.
Example

A rectangular storage tank is filled with paraffin to a depth of 0.8m. The density of the
paraffin is 800kg/cm3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Solution

P = ρgh

P = 800 × 10 × 0.8

= 6400 Pa

Experiment to demonstrate that the pressure in a liquid increases with depth

This is simply demonstrated by means of a tall vessel full of water with side tubes fitted at
three different height as shown below:

Transmission of Pressure in Fluids

Pascal’s Principle

It states that, in a confined fluid, an externally applied pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions.

Application of Pascal’s Principle

Hydraulic System

A hydraulic system is a device in which a small applied force can give rise to a larger force.
The principle in the hydraulic system is widely used in jacks, vehicle brake systems,
hydraulic presses and heavy machinery.
In hydraulic machine the following properties of the liquids is used:

 Liquids are virtually incompressible- they cannot be squashed.

 If a trapped liquid is put under pressure, the pressure is transmitted all parts of the
liquids.
1. Hydraulic Jacks/Press
Hydraulic jacks are used to lift a heavy load such as when changing a car tyre. When
the handle is pressed down, a valve closes and the small piston forces hydraulic fluid
through another valve to the larger cylinder. The pressure transmitted results in a large
force on the load.

When the handle is raised, valve B closes and hydraulic fluid flows from the buffer tank
through valve A into the small cylinder. The handle is moved up and down repeatedly until
the load is sufficiently lifted up.

The large piston can be lowered at the end by opening the release valve to allow all the
hydraulic fluid to flow back into the buffer tank.
The hydraulic system shown above when the 15N force applied to the piston 1, it provides
pressure of 1500Pa to the hydraulic oil.

F 15
P=
A
= 0.01 = 1500Pa

This pressure flows through the hydraulic oil and acts on piston 2. As a result the piston 2
produces the larger output force of 150N.

F
P= , F = P × A = 1500 × 0.1 = 150N
A

So sometimes hydraulic system is also called force multiplier.

Uses of the Press

1. It used for the compression of soft materials such as waste paper and cotton into
compact bales.
2. It is used for shaping motor cars.
3. For lifting heavy objects.

The hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brakes are used in cars, lorries and motorcycles.

In a hydraulic brake system, a liquid, known as brake fluid,

is used to transmit pressure from the brake pedal to all the wheels of the vehicle.
When the brake pedal is pressed, the piston of the control cylinder applies a pressure on the
brake fluid and this pressure is transmitted, via a system of pipes, to each cylinder at the
wheels.
The cylinder at the wheels cause a pair of pistons to push a pair of friction pads to press
against the surface of the brake discs or brake drums. The frictional forces between these
brake components cause the vehicle to slow down and stop.
When the brake pedal is released, a spring restores the brake discs to their original positions.

Barometers

A barometer is a simple instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.A barometer can be

made by filling up a long glass tube with mercury, then turning it upside down in a bath of
mercury as shown. The space at the top of the barometer tube is a vacuum and exerts no
pressure on the mercury column.

The atmosphere pushes against the mercury bath, which in turn pushes the mercury up the
tube. Hence,

Pressure due to mercury column = Pressure due to atmospheric pressure

The vertical height of the mercury column gives the required atmospheric pressure.

Pair = hρg, where h is the height of mercury column, ρ is density of mercury, g is gravitational
acceleration.

We can compute the length of the mercury column if 1 atm (1.013×105 Pa) of atmospheric
pressure is acting on the mercury bath. The computation is as follows: (Density of mercury is
13.6×103kg m−3)
 P = ρgh

1.013×105 =13.6×103 × 9.8 × h

h = 0.760 m = 76 cm

The figure above shows barometers of different heights and sizes. Since the principle behind
the barometer is the phenomenon of hydrostatic pressure, we know that only the height of the
fluid column is important in the determination of the pressure at the bottom. This means that
the height, h in the above figure will remain unchanged if:

1. the glass tube is lifted up slightly from the dish

2. the glass tube is lowered further into the dish
3. the diameter of the glass tube increases
4. the glass tube is tilted
5. the quantity of mercury in the dish is increased.

Let’s consider the figure above. We have:

  The pressure at Pa is zero. (It is a vacuum in the air gap.)
 The pressure at Pb is due to 26 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pe is due to 76 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pf is due to 84 cm of mercury.
 The pressure at Pb and Pc is the same. Similarly, the pressure at Pd and Pe is the
same. This is because the points are at the same level.

Characteristics

 Standard Atmosphere is the mean atmospheric pressure naturally existing at sea level
on the surface of the Earth. It is equivalent to the pressure exerted by a vertical
column of mercury (as in a barometer) 760 mm high or 101,325 Pa.
 If the mercury is replaced by water, the vertical column of water equivalent to the
atmospheric pressure is approximately 10 m.
 The atmosphere pressure does vary from day to day and place to place.

The Manometer

A differential manometer is a simple instrument for comparing pressures, usually by the

difference in height of two liquid columns.

The simplest of such instrument is a U-tube containing some liquid, usually mercury, water
or oil.

The pressure exerted by a confined gas changes the levels of the mercury in the manometer.
The total pressure of a gas or liquid is the total pressure it exerts, including the effect of
atmospheric pressure. (Patm).

When the manometer is not connected to any gas supply, the liquid levels in the left and right
side of the instrument are equal since atmospheric pressure acts on both surfaces of the liquid.
When one end of the tube is connected to a gas supply, the pressure exerted by the gas
changes the levels of the mercury column.

If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is greater than the atmospheric pressure (as shown
by the image above), it will drive down the liquid level in the left side of the manometer. The
pressure of the gas, Pgas can be calculated by:

Pgas = Patm+ Pressure of mercury column (height, Δh) = Patm + ρgΔh

If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is smaller than the atmospheric pressure, it will
drive down the liquid level in the right side of the manometer.

The pressure of the gas, Pgas can be calculated by:

Pgas = Patm − Pressure of mercury column (height, Δh) = Patm – ρgΔh

Siphon

1. A rubber tube can be used to siphon liquid from a container at a higher level to another at a
lower level. For example, we can remove petrol from the petrol tank of a vehicle or dirty
water from aquarium.

2. The tube is first filled with the liquid and one end is placed in the liquid in the container A.
The other end is placed at a level which must be lower than the surface of the liquid in
container A.