MODR 1760 C January 9, 2024

Notes on Categorical Logic, Part I

Categorical logic is a way of thinking about some sentences that illuminates the idea of deductively
validity for sentences involving “all” and “some.” If an argument is deductively valid, its premises are
automatically good grounds for its conclusion. Perfect grounds in fact.

1. Deductive Validity vs. Inductive argument

Deductive Validity is a good quality of argument.
Defn: An argument is deductively valid if the truth of the pre mises guarantees the truth of
the conclusion.

Example:
All mammals are warm-blooded.
Whales are mammals.
Therefore,
All whales are warm-blooded.

In a deductively valid argument, it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

In an inductive argument, even a good one, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion but
instead they make it more likely. More about them later in the term.

2. Subject/Predicate Distinction
In order to understand categorical logic, you must understand the distinction between subject and
predicate of a sentence.

Consider:
(A) Manpreet runs.

“Manpreet” is the subject of the sentence. Manpreet is doing the running. She is a person.
“Runs” is the predicate of the sentence. It is the action Manpreet is doing.
We write this briefly as :
Manpreet / runs.
In English grammar, the subject always comes before the predicate. That is peculiar to English.

(B) My cat is hungry.

“My cat” is the subject of the sentence. “is hungry” is the predicate.
My cat / is hungry.

(C) The doctor in the hospital saw my mother.

The doctor in the hospital / saw my mother.

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The subject of the sentence is the person, place or thing that is doing the action or being described.
The predicate is the action what the subject is doing, (if there is a verb like “runs” “sees” etc.), or a
description of the subject that uses a copula.

A copula is an instance of the verb “to be.” Examples: is” “are” “was” “were” etc.
So in example B, “is hungry” is the predicate, “is” + an adjective.

3. Quantifier Words

Categorical sentences use the quantifier words “all” and “some” as their basis.

There are four categorical sentences:

Categorical Sentence Example of this type:
A: All S are P. All snakes are poisonous.
E: No S are P. No snakes are poisonous.
(can be understood as “All S are non-P.) (All snakes are not poisonous.)
I: Some S are P. Some snakes are poisonous.
O: Some S are not P. Some snakes are not poisonous.

Here three quantifier words are used: “All” “No” “Some.” “Not” is also used. It is a very important
logical word that is used with quantifiers and elsewhere. It is not a quantifier.
The quantifier words “all”, “no” “some” are part of the subject of the sentence. They tell us
something the type or category of things in the subject term.

All snakes/ are poisonous.

No snakes / are poisonous.
Some snake / is poisonous.
Some snake / is not poisonous.

There are many other quantifier words in English. Some of these words (used in sentences) are
equivalent to “all” and “some.”

Equivalent to “All” Quantifiers: Equivalent to “Some” Quantifiers:

- a universal quantifier-
“No” = (all + not) “at least one”
“Every” “there is a”
“Any”
“Each”
“Only”
Sometimes “a” Sometimes “a”

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There are lots more quantifier words in English that are not equivalent to these two.
Here are some examples:

“many” “most” “a lot of” (indicate a majority but not “all” )

“a few” “a couple of” (indicate “at least one” and a vague amount more)
“both” “three of” (indicate a precise number of things)
“the” (indicates “some” and more)

3. The Truth and Meaning of Categorical Sentences

A-sentences: All S are P.

An A-sentence is true when every single thing of the type S has the property P without exception.
So, to speak about the world we live in:
“All snakes are poisonous” is false. b/c There are many species of non-poisonous snakes.

E-sentences: No S is P.
An E-sentence is true when every single thing of the type S does not have the property P.
“No Snakes are poisonous.” This is false in real life.

I-Sentences: Some S is P.
An I-sentence is true when there is at least one thing that has the property S and the property P.

O-Sentences: Some S are not P.

An O-sentence is true when there is at least one thing that has the property S and does not have the
property P.

In real life, both “some snakes are poisonous” is true and “some snakes are not poisonous are true.

Note: We cannot have an A sentence and an E-sentence (about the same things) both be true
however.

Also note: To say that some S is P does not really exclude the truth of all S is P.
But there is a deductively valid argument from an A sentence to an I sentence.

All snakes are poisonous.

Therefore,
Some snake is poisonous

Is a valid argument. If the premise is true, the conclusion must be true.

We say that a A and E sentences are universal because they tell us something about every item of the
kind S.

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We say that I and O sentences are particular, because they speak of one thing that is S.

E and O sentences are negative, because they contain a word that is a negation word. “No” in the
case of E sentences, and “not” in the case of O sentences. This is just about the words in the
sentence and has nothing to do with the meaning of the predicate.

4. Equivalence and Contradictories

Defn: Two sentences are logically equivalent to one another when they have the same
meaning. It is not possible one to be true and the other one false.

Example not using categorical sentences:

“Judy is shorter than Iain.”
“Iain is taller than Judy.”

The words “taller than” compare two things in height, and it is part of the meaning of it that they are
different such than one is higher. “shorter” than describes the opposite.

We have categorial sentences that display equivalences.

Defn: The contradictory of a sentence is its denial. That is, if the sentence is abbreviated as
P. Its denial is Not-P. Whenever P is true not-P is false, and when P is false, not-P is true.

Example:
P: It is raining.
Not-P: It is not raining. = It is false it is raining.

Please NOTE WELL:

A Priori Fact: An O sentence is the contradictory of an A sentence.
Example:
A: All sunshine warms the skin.
O: Some sunshine does not warm the skin.

And an A sentence is the contradictory of an O sentence.

A Priori Fact: An E sentence is the contradictory of an I sentence. And vice-versa

Example:
E: No sunshine warms the skin.
I: Some sunshine warms the skin.

An I sentence is the contradictory of an E sentence.

These two facts give us a bunch (8 in fact) deductively valid arguments:

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4a. An A- sentence,as a premise gives us as a valid conclusion the contradictory of an O sentence.

P1: All sage travellers send postcards.

Therefore,
Conc: It is not true that some sage traveller does not send postcards.

What are the seven inferences? Take a few moments to think about it.

5. Venn Diagrams. Read the section: p 188-191.

This is usually helpful in clarifying contradictories for example.
An x means there is something in a section.
It being shaded in means that there is nothing in that section.

6. Converses and Obverses, but ignore Contrapositives PLEASE.

The converse of the sentence is when you switch the subj and predicate terms. Nothing else changes.

Categorical Sentence Converse of the Sentence Is the Converse equivalent?

A: All S are P. All P are S. No
E: No S are P. No P are S. Yes
I: Some S are P. Some P are S. Yes
O: Some S are not P. Some P are not S. No

The obverse is when you i. switch the positive form to negative form (A to E), (I to O), etc, and
ii. make the predicate term P into non-P.

Categorical Sentence Obverse of the Sentence Is the Obverse equivalent?

A: All S are P. No S are non-P. Yes
E: No S are P. All S are non-P. Yes
I: Some S are P. Some S is not non-P. Yes
O: Some S are not P. Some S are non-P. Yes

More to come on the difference between non-P and not-P.

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