ADVANCED GRAMMAR FOR ADVANCED CLASSESS

WRITTEN AND COMPILED BY

ISHAQ MUSA
SADIQ ALIYU USMAN

ABOUT THE BOOK

Advanced Grammar for Advanced Classes covers areas like: direct and indirect
speech, active and passive voice, components of sentence, phrase analysis, sentence
analysis by function and structure, the use of conjunction, tenses and technical
grammar.
FIRST TERM
MODULE 1
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech is the direct quoting of a speaker’s or writer’s words. Quotation marks are
used to set off the quoted words:
1a. Musa said, ‘books are getting more and more expensive’
In direct or reported speech is the reporting or the indirect quoting of a speaker or writer.
1b. Musa said that books were becoming more expensive
In sentence (1b) we notice some changes.
One, the words of then speaker have been subordinate in the form of a “that”
clause. Two, there is the omission of quotation marks. And finally, the change of tense
(known as BACKSHIFT) from present to past.
RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH
Let us discuss some rule to bear in mind when changing direct speech forms.
1. Inverted comma which enclose the words actually spoken or quoted speech are
omitted in direct speech:
Direct: Dr. Abdurrahman said, “He who is tired of Zaria is tired of the North”
Indirect: Dr. Abdurrahman said that the man who is tired of Zaria was tired of the North.
2. Tenses of the verbs also change:
Direct: He said, “the newspaper vendor is late”
Indirect: He said that the newspaper vendor was late.
3. Other changes in the verbs take place:
Direct speech Indirect speech
I write she/he wrote
I am writing she/he is writing
She/he has written she/he had writing
Shall write should written
Will write would write
Can write could write
May write might write
4. Changes in pronoun
The first person pronouns (I or we) usually change to the third person pronouns (he, she,
or they).
5. Changes in time and place
Important changes take place in words referring to time or place. Events or places
become more distant in time or in place in indirect speech.
Direct speech indirect speech
Here becomes there
This place becomes that place
Now becomes then
These becomes those
Today becomes that day
Yesterday becomes the previous day
Last year becomes the year before
MODULE 2
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Backshift

‘Backshift’ refers to the changes we make to the original verbs in indirect speech because
time has passed between the moment of speaking and the time of the report.
Compare

direct speech indirect speech

I said, ‘I’m not very happy at work.’ I told her I was not very happy at work.

They said: ‘We’re going home.’ They told us they were going home.

He said, ‘Jane will be late.’ He said that Jane would be late.

‘I’ve been working,’ she said. She said she had been working.

‘What happened to make her so angry?’ He asked what had happened to make her
he asked. so angry.

In these examples, the present (am) has become the past (was), the future (will) has
become the future-in-the-past (would) and the past (happened) has become the past
perfect (had happened). The tenses have ‘shifted’ or ‘moved back’ in time.
Backshift changes

Direct Indirect

present simple → past simple

present continuous → past continuous

 Direct Indirect

present perfect simple → past perfect simple

present perfect continuous → past perfect continuous

past simple → past perfect simple

past continuous → past perfect continuous

future (will) → future-in-the-past (would)

past perfect ↔ past perfect (no change)

The past perfect does not shift back; it stays the same:

Direct speech Indirect speech

He asked: ‘Had the girls He asked if the

already left?’ girls had already left.

Modal verbs

Some, but not all, modal verbs ‘shift back’ in time and change in indirect speech.

direct speech indirect speech change

He promised
‘We will be there,’
will they would be will becomes would
he promised.
there.

shall She said, She said shall usually becomes would

‘I shall need more she would need
in reported
money.’ more money.
questions, shall becomes should
‘Shall I open it?’ She asked if
she asked. she should open
 direct speech indirect speech change

it.

He added that
‘I can see you at
can he could see me can becomes could
2.30,’ he added.
at 2.30.

She said
‘I may be back
she might be may (possibility)
later,’ she said.
back later. becomes might
may ‘You may wait in
He said may (permission)
the hallway,’ he
we could wait in becomes could
said.
the hallway.

She said we had

She said,
to pay by 30th
‘You must pay by must (obligation) usually
April.
30th April.’ becomes had to
Must She said
‘It must be awful to must (speculation) does not
it must be awful
live in such a noisy change
to live in such a
place,’ she said.
noisy place.

He said
‘We could sell it for
they could sell it
could about 2,000 euros,’ no change
for about 2,000
he said.
euros.

‘You should go She said

Should there immediately,’ I should go there no change
she said. immediately.

‘I would buy it if I He said

would had the money,’ he he would buy it if no change
said. he had the money.
 direct speech indirect speech change

He warned that
‘It might snow
might it might snow no change
tonight,’ he warned.
that night.

‘You needn’t come He said

Need till six o’clock,’ he we needn’t come no change
said. till six o’clock.

MODULE 3
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
No backshift

We don’t need to change the tense in indirect speech if what a person said is still true or
relevant or has not happened yet. This often happens when someone talks about the
future, or when someone uses the present simple, present continuous or present perfect in
their original words:
He told me his brother works for an Italian company. (It is still true that his brother
works for an Italian company.)
She said she’s getting married next year. (For the speakers, the time at the moment of
speaking is ‘this year’.)
He said he’s finished painting the door. (He probably said it just a short time ago.)
She promised she’ll help us. (The promise applies to the future.)
Indirect speech: changes to pronouns

Changes to personal pronouns in indirect reports depend on whether the person reporting
the speech and the person(s) who said the original words are the same or different.

Direct indirect

‘I don’t want to shock Tahir said he didn’t want to different speakers

people,’ Tahir said. shock people. (I changes to he)

‘I’ll look after I said I would look after same speaker (no
Talatu,’ I said. Talatu. change)
Direct indirect

‘You need to be here at

Garba told Binta she needed different speakers
nine o’clock,’ Garba told
to be there at nine o’clock. (you changes to she)
Binta.

I told same speaker (no

‘I hope you will join us
James I hoped he would join change
tonight,’ I said to James.
us that night. to I; you changes to he)

Indirect speech: changes to adverbs and demonstratives

We often change demonstratives (this, that) and adverbs of time and place (now, here,
today, etc.) because indirect speech happens at a later time than the original speech, and
perhaps in a different place.
Compare

direct speech indirect speech

I told her I would meet her there the

I said, ‘I’ll meet you here tomorrow.’
next/following day.

She said, ‘I do not wish to discuss She said she did not wish to discuss it at
it at this moment in time.’ that moment in time.

He said, “I want it now.” He said he wanted it then/at that moment.

‘I finished the job three weeks ago,’ the The boy protested that he had finished the
boy protested. job three weeks before.

Typical changes to demonstratives, adverbs and adverbial expressions

Direct Indirect

This → That
Direct Indirect

These → Those

Now → Then

Yesterday → the day before

the next/following
Tomorrow →
day

two weeks
→ two weeks before
ago

here → There

MODULE 4
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
 Reported Statements
Reported statements are one form of reported speech.

direct statement reported statement

He said, "I am He said that he was sick.

sick."

We usually introduce reported statements with "reporting verbs" such as "say" or "tell":
 He said (that)...
 He told me (that)...
When we report a statement, we can say "He said that..." or simply "He said...". Both are
possible. "He said that..." is more formal.
When we use our own words to report speech, there are one or two things that we
sometimes change:
 pronouns may need to change to reflect a different perspective
  tense sometimes has to go back one tense (eg, present becomes past) - this is
called backshift

pronoun change tense change

direct statement He said, "I am sick."

reported statement He said (that) he was sick.

There are sometimes other things too that we may need to change, such as time or place.
Look at these examples:

pronoun tense time change

change change

direct Jamila said, "I was sick yesterday."

statement

reported Jamila said she had been sick the day

statement (that) before.

tense change place change

direct statement She said, "I is hot in here."

t

reported statement She said (that) it was hot in there.

We also sometimes need to think about the third person singular "s":

pronoun person
change

direct statement Maryam said, "I Work in

 pronoun person
change

London."

reported Maryam said she Works in London.

statement (that)

Notice that in the above example, we do not change the tense. Usually, with the present
simple, if something is still true now - she still works in London - we don't need to change
it.
Typical reporting verbs for statements: say, tell, mention, inform

He said that...
He said...
He told me that...
He told me...
He mentioned that...
He informed me that...
 Backshift
Backshift in Reported Speech

direct speech reported speech

He said: "I feel sad." He said that he felt sad.

In simple terms, the structure of reported speech is:

reporting clause [+ conjunction] + reported clause

reporting clause conjunction reported clause

Jamilu said (that) he was hungry.

Jamilu's original words: "I am hungry."

We sometimes change the tense of the reported clause by moving it back one tense. For
example, present simple goes back one tense to past simple. We call this change
"backshift".
When do we use backshift?
We use backshift when it is logical to use backshift. So, for example, if two minutes
ago John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I might NOT use backshift
(because John is still hungry):
 John just said that he is hungry.
But if yesterday John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I would likely
use backshift:
 Yesterday, John said that he was hungry.
So we use backshift SOMETIMES but not always. And WHEN we use backshift, here's
how it works with these common tenses and modals:

Backshift

This goes back to this

present simple → past simple

present → past continuous

continuous

past simple → past perfect

present perfect

past continuous → past perfect continuous

Can → could

May might
 Backshift

This goes back to this

Will would

Shall should

We NEVER use backshift when the original words are:

 past perfect
 could
 might
 would
 should
Remember:
 If a situation is still true, backshift is optional.
 For a general truth there is no need for backshift.
Look at the following examples. See if you can understand when and why they use
backshift:

tenses and direct speech reported speech

modals

present He said, "I like coffee." He said (that) he likes coffee.

simple*

He said (that) he liked coffee.

present She said, "Musa is living here She said Musa is living there
continuous* with us." with them.

She said Musa was living there

with them.
tenses and direct speech reported speech
modals

past simple Jamilu said, "We bought a Jamilu said they had bought a
house last week." house the week before.

present perfect Ramatu said, "I haven't seen Ramatu said he hadn't seen
Avatar." Avatar.

past Ahmad said, "Were you Ahmad asked if I had been

continuous watching TV when I called." watching TV when he called.

past perfect** Atiku said, "I had never lived in Atiku told us that he had never
Thailand before." lived in Thailand before.

Can She said, "Tanimu can't swim." She said Tanimu couldn't swim.

She said Tanimu can't swim.

could** He said, "Could you swim when He asked me if I could swim

you were three?" when I was three.

May She said: "I may be late." She said she might be late. (and
she was late)

She said she may be late. (the

time to be late has not yet
arrived)

might** She said, "I might come early." She said she might come early.
tenses and direct speech reported speech
modals

Will She said, "I'll call you She said she would call me the
tomorrow." next day.

She said she will call me

tomorrow. (tomorrow has not
come)

would** She said, "I wouldn't like to go." She said she would not like to
go.

Shall He said: "Shall I open the He asked if he should open the

door?" door.

should** Nura said, "You should come Nura said I should go there.
here."

Must The kidnapper phoned me and The kidnapper phoned me and

said: "You must come here said I had to go there then.
now."

Atiku said, "I must find a job Atiku said he must find a job
next year." next year. (next year hasn't come
yet)

have to Talatu said: "I have to do my Talatu said she had to do her
homework." homework.

Talatu says she has to do her

homework.
* if still true, change is optional (sometimes a matter of emphasis)
** never changes
 Time and Place
Time and Place in Reported Speech
When we report something, we may need to make changes to:
 time (now, tomorrow)
 place (here, this room)

direct speech reported speech

She said, "I saw Mary yesterday." She said she had seen Mary the day before.

He said: "My mother is here." He said that his mother was there.
Don't confuse time with tense. "Tense" is the grammatical form of the verb that in the
reported clause we sometimes shift back (backshift). "Time" refers to the actual time that
something happens, such as "today" or "now" or "5 weeks ago".
Time words
If we report something around the same time, then we probably do not need to make any
changes to time words. But if we report something at a different time, we need to change
time words. Look at these example sentences:
 He said: "It was hot yesterday." → He said that it had been hot the day before.
 He said: "We are going to swim tomorrow." → He said they were going to
swim the next day.
Here is a list of common time words, showing how you change them for reported speech:

direct speech reported speech

Now then, at that time

Today that day, on Sunday, yesterday

Tonight that night, last night, on Sunday night

 direct speech reported speech

tomorrow the next day/ the following day, on Sunday, today

Yesterday the day before/ the previous day, on Sunday

last night the night before/ the previous night, on Sunday night

this week that week, last week

last month the month before/ the previous month, in May

next year the following year, in 2014

two minutes two minutes before

ago

in one hour one hour later

Place words
If we are in the same place when we report something, then we do not need to make any
changes to place words. But if we are in a different place when we report something,
then we need to change the place words. Look at these example sentences:
 He said: "It is cold in here." → He said that it was cold in there.
 He said: "How much is this book?" → He asked how much the book was.
Here are some common place words, showing how you change them for reported speech:

direct speech indirect speech

Here there, in Starbucks

 direct speech indirect speech

This That

this book the book, that book, War and Peace

in this room in the room, in that room, in the kitchen

MODULE 5
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
 Reported Questions
Reported questions are one form of reported speech.

direct question reported question

She said: "Are you cold?" She asked me if I was cold.

He said: "Where's my pen?" He asked where his pen was.

We usually introduce reported questions with the verb "ask":

 He asked (me) if/whether... (YES/NO questions)
 He asked (me) why/when/where/what/how... (question-word questions)
As with reported statements, we may need to change pronouns and tense (backshift) as
well as time and place in reported questions.
But we also need to change the word order. After we report a question, it is no longer a
question (and in writing there is no question mark). The word order is like that of a
normal statement (subject-verb-object).
Reported YES/NO questions
We introduce reported YES/NO questions with ask + if:

direct question She said, "Do you like coffee?"

reported She asked if I liked coffee.

 question

Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is
pronoun change and backshift.
Note that we sometimes use "whether" instead of "if". The meaning is the same.
"Whether" is a little more formal and more usual in writing:
 They asked us if we wanted lunch.
 They asked us whether we wanted lunch.
Reported question-word questions
We introduce reported question-word questions with ask + question word:

direct question He said, "Where do you live?"

reported He asked me where I lived.

question

Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is
pronoun change and backshift.
Remember that there are basically three types of question:
1. YES/NO questions: Do you want tea?
2. Question Word questions: Where did you drink tea?
3. Choice questions: Do you prefer tea or coffee?
Reported choice questions have the same structure as Reported YES/NO questions.
Questions with the verb BE always have a different structure: Was the tea cold? Where is
my tea? You can see all these differences in the examples below.
Look at these example sentences:

direct question reported question

YES/NO I said: "Can I help you?" I asked if I could help her.

questions

She said to us: "Did you feel She asked if we had felt cold.
cold?"

He said: "Are your hands He asked whether my hands

 direct question reported question

cold?" were cold.

question-word He said: "Where are you He asked me where I was going.

questions going?"

He said: "Why didn't you say He asked me why I hadn't said

something?" anything.

He said: "When will they He asked when they would

come?" come.

He said: "Who has seen He asked me who had seen

Avatar?" Avatar.

He said: "How much might He asked me how much it might

it cost?" cost.

She said to me: "Where is She asked me where the station

the station?" was.

choice questions He asked, "Do you want tea He asked whether I wanted tea
or coffee?" or coffee.

He said, "Is the car new or He asked whether the car was
second-hand?" new or second-hand.
MODULE 6
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
 Reported Requests
A request is when somebody asks you to do something – usually politely. Reported
requests are one form of reported speech.

direct request reported request

She said: "Could you open the window, She asked me to open the
please?" window.

He said: "Please don't smoke." He asked them not to smoke.

We usually introduce reported requests with the verb "ask". The structure is very simple:

ask + noun + to infinitive

pronou
n

 We asked the man to help us.

 They asked us to wait.
Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported
statements and reported questions, we may need to change pronouns as well
as time and place in reported requests.
Here are some examples:

direct request reported request

I said politely, "Please make less noise." I asked them politely to make less
noise.

She has often said to me, "Could you stay the She has often asked me to stay the
night?" night.

They said to the architect: "We'd like you to They asked the architect to meet
meet us here tomorrow." them there the next day.
 direct request reported request

She will certainly say to John, "Please stay She will certainly ask John to stay for
for lunch." lunch.

She always says, "Please don't forget me." She always asks me not to forget her.
Notice above that we report a negative request by using not.
MODULE 7
- DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
 Reported Orders

An order is when somebody tells you to do something and you have no choice. It is
not usually polite. It is a "command". Reported orders are one form of reported
speech.

direct order reported order

She said: "Stop!" She told him to stop.

We usually introduce reported orders with the verb "tell". The structure is very simple:

tell + noun + to infinitive

pronoun

 We told the man not to smoke.

 The policeman told us to follow him.
Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported
statements and reported requests, we may need to change pronouns as well
as time and place in reported orders.
Here are some examples:
 direct order reported order

She said, "Eat your food now!" She told the boy to eat his food right then.

The policeman said: "Get out of your The policeman instructed us to get out of
car!" our car.

She said, "You must make the bed She told her husband to make the bed
before you go to work!" before he went to work.

The doctor said: "Don't smoke in here!" The doctor told them not to smoke in
there.

Notice above that we report a negative order by using not.

The most common verb for reporting an order is "tell", but we can also use other verbs
such as: order, command, instruct. For example:

The sergeant commanded his men to stand straight.

Reported speech is called "indirect speech" by some people. Other people regard reported
speech simply as one form of indirect speech. Other forms are, for example:
 questions-within-questions: Can you tell me if they are expensive?
mental processes: He believes that politics is a dirt

MODULE 8
- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Active Voice

In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb:
 The student wrote a song.

Passive Voice

In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb:
 A song was written by the student.
Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs

The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the verb "to be" + past
participle:
Tense Passive voice form
Present it is cleaned
Past it was cleaned
Future it will be cleaned
Present perfect it has been cleaned
Past perfect it had been cleaned
Future perfect it will have been cleaned

Uses of Passive Voice

Use the passive voice to:

 Call attention to receiver of the action rather than the performer:
 The professor was hit by three snowballs.
 Point out the receiver of the action when performer is unknown or unimportant:
 A love letter was slipped under the door.
 The signs will be posted.
 Avoid calling attention to the performer of the action (known as the "institutional
passive"):
 The fines will be collected on Monday.
Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms:
Active Passive
The hunter killed the lion. The lion was killed by the hunter.
Someone has cleaned the windows. The windows have been cleaned.
Passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:
Subject be Past participle Adverbial
English is spoken all over the world.
The windows have been cleaned.
Lunch was being served.
The work will be finished soon.
They might have been invited to the party.
If we want to show the person or thing doing the action, we use by:
She was attacked by a dangerous dog.
The money was stolen by her husband.
The passive infinitive is made up of to be with a past participle:
The doors are going to be locked at ten o'clock.
You shouldn't have done that. You ought to be punished.
We sometimes use the verb get with a past participle to form the passive:
Be careful with that glass. It might get broken.
Peter got hurt in a crash.
We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb:
Active Passive
I gave him a book for his birthday. He was given a book for his birthday.
Someone sent her a cheque for a thousand euros.
She was sent a cheque for a thousand euros.
We can use phrasal verbs in the passive:
Active Passive
They called off the meeting. The meeting was called off.
His grandmother looked after him. He was looked after by his grandmother.
They will send him away to school. He will be sent away to school.
Some verbs which are very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-
infinitive:
be supposed to be expected to be asked to be told to
be scheduled to be allowed to be invited to be ordered to
John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting.
You are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.
MODULE 9
- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present tense
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + base form or 3rd Subject + don’t/doesn’t + Do/does + subject +
person singular form + base form + object base form + object
object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + is/am/are + past Subject + isn’t/am Is/am/are + subject +
participle form of the main not/aren’t + past participle past participle form of
verb + by + object form of the main verb + by the main verb + by +
+ object object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
 c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ The fruiter sells fruits. Fruits are sold by the fruiter.
- The fruiter doesn’t sell fruits. Fruits aren’t sold by the fruiter.
? Does the fruiter sell fruiter? Are fruits sold by the fruiter?
+ He washes it. It is washed by him.
- He does wash it. It isn’t washed by him.
? Does he wash it? Is it washed by him?
+ The gives me. I am given by them.
- They don’t give me. I am not given by them.
? Do they give me? Am I given by them?
Present continuous
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + is/am/are + Subject + isn’t/am Is/am/are + subject +
present participle form + not/aren’t + present present participle form
object participle form + object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + is/am/are + being Subject + isn’t/am Is/am/are + subject +
+ past participle form of the not/aren’t + being + past being + present
main verb + by + object participle form of the main participle form
verb + by + object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ My brother is punishing the boys. The boys are being punished by my
brother.
- My brother isn’t punishing the boys. The boys aren’t being punished by my
brother.
? Is my brother punishing the boys? Are the boys being punished by my
brother?
+ Habiba is peeling yam. Yam is being peeled by Habiba.
- Habiba isn’t peeling yam. Yam isn’t being peeled by Habiba.
? Is Habiba peeling yam? Is yam being peeled by Habiba?
+ You are calling me. I am being called by you.
- You aren’t calling me. I am not being called by you.
? Are you calling me? Am I being called by you?
MODULE 10
- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Present perfect
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + has/have + past Subject + hasn’t/haven’t +
participle form + object past participle form + Has/have + subject +
object past participle form +
object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + has/have + been + Subject + hasn’t/haven’t + Has/have + subject +
past participle form + object been + past participle form been + past participle
+ object form + object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ This girl has understood the lessons. The lessons have been understood by this
girl.
- This girl hasn’t understood the lessons. The lessons haven’t been understood by
this girl.
? Has this girl understood the lessons? Have the lessons been understood by this
girl?
+ We have visited him. He has been visited by us.
- We haven’t visited him. He hasn’t been visited by us.
? Have we visited him? Has he been visited by us?
+ Zainab has swept a class. A class has been swept by Zainab.
- Zainab hasn’t swept a class. A class hasn’t been swept by Zainab.
? Has Zainab swept a class? Has a class been swept by zainab?
Simple past
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + past form + object Subject + didn’t + base Did + subject + base
form + object form + object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + was/were + past Subject + wasn’t/weren’t + Was/were + subject +
participle form of the main past participle form of the past participle form of
verb + by + object main verb + by + object the main verb + by +
object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ The teacher taught five students. Five students were taught by the teacher.
- The teacher didn’t teach five students. Five students weren’t taught by the teacher.
? Did the teacher teach five students? Were five students taught by the teacher?
+ She saw me. I was seen by her.
- She didn’t see me. I wasn’t seen by her.
? Did she see me? Was I seen by her?
+ Nura greeted Anas. Anas was greeted by Nura.
- Nura didn’t greet Anas. Anas wasn’t greeted by Nura.
? Did Nura greet Anas? Was Anas greeted by Nura?
MODULE 11
- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Past continuous
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + was/were + Subject + wasn’t/weren’t + Was/were + subject +
present participle form + present participle form + being + present
object object participle form
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + was/were + being Subject + wasn’t/weren’t + Was/were + subject +
+ past participle form of the being + past participle being + past participle
main verb + by + object form of the main verb + by form of the main verb +
 + object by + object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ That car was carrying passengers. Passengers were being carried by that car.
- That car wasn’t carrying passengers. Passengers weren’t being carried by that car.
? Was that car carrying passengers? Were passengers being carried by that car?
+ It was eating food. Food was being eaten by it.
- It wasn’t eating food. Food wasn’t being eaten by it.
? Was it eating food? Was food being eaten by it?
+ Khadija was cooking couscous. Couscous was being cooked by Khadija.
- Khadija wasn’t cooking couscous. Couscous wasn’t being cooked by Khadija.
? Was Khadija cooking couscous? Was couscous being cooked by Khadija?
Past perfect
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + had + past Subject + hadn’t + past Had+ subject + past
participle form + object participle form + object participle form + object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + had + been + past Subject + hadn’t + been + Had + subject + been +
participle form + object past participle form + past participle form +
object object
Note:
d. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
e. The subject of passive is the object of active and
f. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ That young lady had praised the book. The book had been praised by that young
lady.
- That young lady hadn’t praised the The book hadn’t been praised by that
book. young lady.
 ? Had that young lady praised the praised Have the book been praised by that
the book? young lady?
+ We had caught them. They had been caught by us.
- We hadn’t caught them. They had been caught by us.
? Had we caught them? Had they been caught by us?
+ Junaidu had marked the scripts. The scripts had been marked by Junaidu.
- Junaidu hadn’t marked the scripts. The scripts hadn’t been marked by
Junaidu.
? Had Junaidu marked the scripts? Had the scrpits been marked by Junaidu?
MODULE 12
- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Simple future
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + will + base form + Subject + won’t + base Will + subject + base
object form + object form + object

Passive Affirmative Negative Question

Subject + will + be + past Subject + won’t + be + Will + subject + be +
participle form of the main past participle form of the past participle form of
verb + by + object main verb + by + object the main verb + by +
object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ The typist will type a letter. A letter will be typed by the typist.
- The typist won’t type a letter. A letter w be typed by the typist.
? Will the typist type a letter? Will a letter be typed by the typist?
+ We will grow maize. Maize will be grown by us.
- We won’t grow maize. Maize won’t be gown by us.
? Will we grow maize? Will maize be grown by us?
+ Nura will marry Hafsat. Hafsat will be married by Nura.
- Nura won’t marry Hafsat. Hafsat won’t be married by Nura.
? Will Nura marry Hafsat? Will Hafsat be married by Nura?
Future perfect
Structures
Active Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + will + have + past Subject + won’t + have + Will + subject + have +
participle form + object past participle form + been + past participle
object form + object
Passive Affirmative Negative Question
Subject + will + have + past Subject + won’t + have + Will + subject + have +
participle form of the main past participle form of the past participle form of
verb + by + object main verb + by + object the main verb + by +
object
Note:
a. Any form of main verb that is given in active is changed to the past participle form
in passive
b. The subject of passive is the object of active and
c. The object of passive is the subject of active
Examples:
Active Passive
+ The driver will have driven a car. A car will have been driven by the driver.
- The driver won’t have driven a car. A car won’t have been driven by the
driver.
? Will the driver have driven a car? Will a car have been driven by the
driver?
+ You will have collected it. It will have been collect by you.
- You won’t have collected it. It won’t have been collected by you.
? Will you have collected it? Will it have been collected by you?
+ Dauda will have divorced Talatu. Talatu will have been divorced by
Dauda.
- Dauda won’t have divorced Talatu. Talatu won’t have been divorced by
Dauda.
? Will Dauda have divorced Talatu? Will Talatu have been divorced by
Dauda?
SECOND TERM
MODULE 1
- COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
Basic components of sentence include:
 A. Subject: the subject is usually a noun, pronoun or noun phrase that names
the person, place, thing or idea the sentence is about.
For example
Musa is an author.
Musa and Aisha were here last week.
He was killed.
The man bought a car.
B. Verb
A verb is usually comes immediately after the subject of the sentence.
For example
He is an architect.
Thomas had written a test.
My sisters went to school.
C. Objects
We have direct and indirect objects.
Direct object
Children play games
I played the piano
Games and the piano are direct objects.
Indirect objects
He buys me lovely shoes
Sarah gave her cat a bath
Me and her cat are indirect objects
Shoes and a bath are direct objects. Direct
Notice that the indirect objects come before the objects
D. Complement
There are two types of complements
Subject and object complements
(i) Subject or subjective complement
The girl is kind.
Ngozi is a teacher.
 Kind and a teacher are subjective complements
(ii) Object or objective complement
The students made Smauel the coach.
They call Joseph a mad man.
The coach and a madman are objective complements.
E. Adjunct (Adverbial)
This is a word or group of words that act as an adverb in a sentence. It modified a
verb. The adjunct may be an adverbial phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a noun phrase.
i. The girl is in the room.
ii. The goat is behind the door.
In the room and behind the door are adjuncts
MODULE 2
- COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
The seven basic simple sentence patterns
There are many sentence patterns in the English language. We shall however concentrate
on the simple sentence, that has only one main clause. All sentence patterns to be treated
here however intricate they may be, will still centre on only one main clause. These
sentence patterns provide the basic structure for most of the sentences we use.
1a. The girl laughed
b. Children run. S.V
2a She bought the book.
b. Children play gamesS.V. O
3a. Ngozi is kind.
b. Ada is a nurse. S.V.C
4a, He buys me expensive clothes
b. My mother gave Ijeoma the money. SVOO
5a, she considers him kind.
b. She considers him a fool. SVOC
6a. Yusuf is in the kitchen.
b. The boy is here. SVA
7a. I placed the cup on the table.
b. The teacher kept the chalk in his bag. SVOA
Pattern 1: Subject- Verb (S-V)
The girl laughed
Children run. SV
This is the only simple sentence pattern that needs no completer or complement. This is
because it has an intransitive verb. This is a verb that is complete in itself. Here we have
just a subject and a verb making up the sentence. The verb here goes no further because it
does not lead to anything. Anything added is merely optional.
In actual sentences therefore, this basic pattern can be extended by using other elements
that are not part of the basic structure. A noun for instance may have other materials like
modifiers and prepositional phrases that combine with it to form a noun cluster or a noun
phrase. On the other hand, prepositions and adverbs can help add more materials to the
verb.
Subject- Verb pattern without added material.
Subject Verb
The birds are eating
The champion was resting
The artist was painting
The child smiles
Subject – Verb pattern with Adjectives and Adverbs.
Subject Verb
The beautiful birds are eating quietly
The clever champion rests peacefully
The gentle artist was painting noiselessly
The sleepy child smiles cheerfully
Subject – Verb pattern with prepositional phrases
i. The stranger from Lagos arrived unexpectedly in the afternoon
ii. The gentle artist in blue jeans was painting in his art studio
iii. The child in the sitting room smiled after eating his food
MODULE 3
 - COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
Pattern 2: Subject - Verb – Object (S.V.O)
a. She bought the book
b. Children play gamesSVO
In this pattern, the verb directs the action to a target- the direct object. In this
pattern, the subject and the verb do not give complete statement because the activity
named in the verb is performed on something called the direct object – “the book”,
“games”. This type of verb that has to do completed is called a transitive verb. The object
in this kind of sentence pattern is not an optional item or an afterthought. It is a completer
for without it, the sentence is unfinished.
The subject- verb- object pattern can be expanded in various ways by the use of
adverbs, prepositional phrases and adjectives.
Subject- verb- object pattern without added materials
Subject (Agent) Verb (Action) Object (Target)
Nnenna was writing a composition
Their dog scratched my chair
Subject- Verb- Object – Pattern with added materials
adj. adv. adj. obj.
i. The small vulture hungrily ate a large worm.

adj. adv. obj.

ii. The expert liar never gave up lying

P. P obj. p.p
iii. The women from Obohia saw the girl in the torn clothes
MODULE 4
- COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
Pattern 3: Subject- Verb- Complement (S.V.C)
Ngozi is kind.
Ada is a nurse. SVC
In this pattern, the verb is followed by a second noun, but unlike the Subject-
Verb- Object pattern, where one thing affects something else, here, the second noun-
gives a description of the first noun, renaming it. The verb here, gives a label to the
subject. Such verbs are called linking verbs. The most common linking verb is ‘be’ and
its forms (is, are, was, were been, etc.). Other linking verbs include: grow, appear,
become, keep, sound, stay, taste, turn, feel, look, prove, smell, turn, remain.
In the sentence above, “kind” describes “Ngozi”, while “nurse” describes “Ada”.
This rename is called subjective complement because it renames or describes the subject
this is also called predicate nominative.
This pattern can be expanded in many ways. Various modifiers can help build up
the subject, the verb or even the added noun.
Subject- Verb – Complement without added material.
Subject Verb Complement
Abubakar Was a captain
The president Head been a lawyers
The girl was his niece
Subject- Verb- Complement with modifiers.
p.p adj
i. The novel on the table is my favourite book

adj adj
ii. General Abubakar was a Great captain

adj adj
iii. The excellent dancer became my popular wife
MODULE 5
- COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
Pattern 4: Subject- Verb – Indirect Object- Direct Object
(S V O O)
i. He buys me expensive clothes
ii. My mother gave Ijeoma the money SVOO
Here we have two completers- the indirect and the direct objects.
(a) The direct object,i.e. the receiver of the action, answers the question – Who? Or
What? i.e. after the transitive verb. (Note, that the verbs used in this pattern are
the transitive verbs).

What does he buy for me? – expensive clothes – Direct object

 What did my mother give Ijeoma?
The money – (Direct object).
(b) The indirect object is the additional noun placed between the verb and its object-
the direct object. The indirect object comes before the direct object the indirect
object answers questions such as “Whom?”, “for Whom?”, or “to Which?”.

For whom does he buy expensive clothes? Me (indirect object).

Note the following:
(1) The indirect object normally precedes the direct object.
(2) The verb that are used in this pattern are involved in some kind of transfer or
passing on of something to somebody or something. Examples of such verbs
include- send, write, buy, give, lend, offer, bring, show, tell, ask
MODULE 6
- COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE
Pattern 5: Subject- Verb – Object – Complement. (SVOC)
i. She considers him kind
ii. She calls the lady a genius SVOC
Verbs that fit this pattern are words like make call , elect, appoint, name, Consider.
Here we have two complements or completers.
(a) The one closer to the verb is the direct object “the lady”, “him”
(b) The second is the objective complement - “kind”, “a genius”
The objective complement is an oun or adjective that renames or describes the
direct object. This patter is similar to pattern 3 with its subjective complement.
More Examples:
(i) Grace called her son a fool
(ii) My parents considered the marriage a failure
The underlined words are objective complements.
Patter 6: Subject- verb – Adverbial (Adjunct) (SVA)
Yetunde is in the kitchen
The boy is near the door (SVA)
The completers here are adverbials (adjuncts- “in the kitchen”, “near the door”) An
adverbial or adjunct, is a group of words which function like an adverb in the sentence.
The adverbial may be an adverb, an adverbial clause, a noun phrase, a prepositional
phrase or an adverbial phrase.
i. My brother walks quickly (Adverb as adverbial)
ii. She bought the car last year (noun phrase as adverbial)
iii. The goat is in the room. (Propositional phrase as adverbial)
iv. The cow is wherever it can find grass. (Adverbial clause as adverbial).
Pattern 7: Subject- Verb- Object- Adverbial (SVOA)
i. I placed the cup on the table
ii. The teacher kept the chalk in his bag
iii. The teacher beats his students often.
Here we have two completers. The first one is the direct object “the cup”, “the chalk”
“his students”. The second completer is the adverbial- “on the table”, “in is bag” and
“often”.
MODULE 7
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Introduction
A phrase is a group of words whose meaning is incomplete although the group of words
is part of sentence. A phrase could also be defined as a group of words without finite
verb. Generally, a phrase is a group of words which does not make complete sense.
Examples
 At the bus stop
 With love and care
 Bitterly cold
 My own business
 Before 11 o’clock
 Extremely hot
 The man
 Her beautiful room
 A young beautiful Nigerian woman
  Some stupid students
Types of Phrase
1. Noun phrase
2. Verb phrase
3. Adverbial phrase
4. Adjectival phrase
5. Prepositional phrase
6. Participial phrase
7. Gerundial phrase
8. Infinite phrase
What is phrase structural analysis?
Phrase structural analysis is a type of rewrite rule used to describe a given language’s
syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of transformational grammar,
proposed by Noam Chomsky 1957.
MODULE 8
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Acronyms/abbreviations used in phrase structural analysis
1. N.P = Noun Phrase
2. V.P = Verb Phrase
3. P.P = Prepositional Phrase
4. Adj. P = Adjectival Phrase
5. Adv. P = Adverbial Phrase
6. Prep. Phr. = Prepositional Phrase
7. M = Modifier
8. Art. = Article
9. Aux. V = Auxiliary Verb
10. M.V = Main Verb
11. Adj. = Adjective
12. N = Noun
13. S.S = Simple Sentence
Example
D N Aux. M.v D N
The man will find your books.
N.P V.P N.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + N.P
N.P = M + N
V.P = Aux. + M.v
N.P = M + N
Exercise
Analysis the following:
- That boy is a criminal
- A hungry man is an angry man.
- The school bought the farm.
- My sister will buy some sugar.
- A young beautiful Nigerian woman may touch that car.
MODULE 9
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Example
M M M N Aux. M.v M M N
A hard working boy can beat an intelligent one.
N.P V.P N.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + N.P
N.P = M + M + M + N
V.P = Aux. + M.v
N.P = M + + M + N
M M M N M.v P M M N
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
N.P V.P P.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + P.P
N.P = M + M + M + N
V.P = M.v
P.P = P + + M + M + N
MODULE 10
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Example
M M N M.V P M N
Some stupid students smoked in the class.
N.P V.P P. Phr.
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + P. Phr.
N.P = M + M + M + N
V.P = M.v
P. Phr. = M + + M + N
Example
M M N M.V P M M N
The brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
N.P V.P P.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + P.P
N.P = M + M + N
V.P = M.v
P.P = P + + M + + M + N
MODULE 11
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Example
M N M.V P M N
The sun rises at the east.
N.P V.P P.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + P.P
N.P = M + N
V.P = M.v
P.P = P + M + N
M N p Adj. N Aux. M.V M M N
The girl in white dress will become my second wife.
N.P Adj. Phr V.P N.P
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + Adj. Phr + V.P + N.P
N.P = M + N
Adj. phr = P + Adj. + N
V.P = Aux. + M.v
N.P = M+ M + N
MODULE 12
- PHRASE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
M N Aux. M.v M N P Adj. Adv.
These drivers were driving the cars with great speech.
N.P V.P N.P Adv. Phr.
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + V.P + N.P + Adv. Phr.
N.P = M + N
V.P = M.v
N.P = M + N
Adv. Phr. = P + Adj. + Adv.
M N P M N Aux. M.v Adv. Adj. N
The women over the window may buy very expensive cars.
N.P P.P V.P Adv. Phr.
Rewrite Rule
S.S = N.P + P.P + V.P + Adv. Phr
N.P = M + N
P.P = P + M + N
V.P = Aux. + M.v
Adv. Phr. = Adv. + Adj. + N
THIRD TERM
MODULE 1
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to function

Sentences can be classified according to functions or use. So, we have sentences that
make statements or deny them, sentences that ask questions and that command, and
sentences that express strong fielding

1. Declarative sentence
This makes a statement or denies it. It states a fact
Example
- Umar likes beans.
- Usman does the reading.
- The book is on the table.
- We are many there.
- Everything is fine.
- Yoruba is spoken in Western Nigeria.
 - Zainab Alkali is a Nigerian writer.
- Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
- All is well with her.
- ELSA is great.
- That man is rich.
- I am a teacher.
- She is not hungry.
- Aisha and Anas were here.
- Everybody is going home.
- They are singing a song.
MODULE 2
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to function
Interrogative Sentence
Interrogative sentence asks a question.
Example:
- Who bit you?
- How to drive a car?
- Do you know me?
- Can they come to school?
- Where are your brothers?
- What is wrong?
- How are you?
- Which of these pencils is yours?
- Who is the engineer in charge?
- Which plan is likely to be approved?
- When will the construction project end?
- How often do they propose to inspect the site?
- Have you filled in all the necessary forms?
- Were the construction specifications adequate?
MODULE 3
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to function
Exclamatory Sentence
This expresses strong feelings of anger, grief, sorrow, wonder, surprise, gratitude etc. It
has an exclamation mark at the end.

Example:
- Oh! What happened?
- Wow! That is an amazing drama.
- What? You never told me that!
- Aw! I did not want him to come.
- Yes! I will definitely do it.
- What a surprising conclusion!
- That’s wrong!
- What a field day for the lawyers that will be!
- Oh, I doubt that!
- No!
- How surprising!
- A shame!
- How excellent it is!
- What is amiss!
- Ah! I have seen him!

MODULE 4
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to function

Imperative Sentence

This gives a command or makes a request or suggestion.

The subject of an imperative sentence, is often not stated but can be easily supplied or
understood.

Example:
- Stop the work.
- Call him for her.
- Do not come here again.
- Fetch me a glass of water.
 - Go home.
- Shut the door! (Request)
- Come here at once! (command)
- Leave this room immediately! (command)
- Please post the letter.
- Can you lend me 10, 000?
- May I use your phone?
- Could you wait for me outside?

MODULE 5
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to function

Volatile sentence

This expresses a wish

Example

- May the king live long.

- May you pass your examination!
- May you witness many happy returns of your birthday!
- May you get well soon!
- May you live long!
- May we see the day!
- May he get it safely!
- May return home safely!
- May God bless and uplift ELSA!

MODULE 6
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to structure
About five type of constructions can be distinguished in sentences- simple compound,
multiple, complex and compound complex sentences.

1. Simple sentences
This contains one subject and one predicate, or verb unit. It is made up of one
main clause. Simple sentences can be extended by adding modifiers and
compliments.
Example
- I always wanted to be a writer. (one clause – one verb)
- The women bought drugs.
- The woman ran away.
- He is the room.
- The work stopped.
- The thief has been caught.
- The pump failed. (single subject and verb)
- The new steam pump failed after only 3 weeks of service. (single subject and verb)
- We analyzed the blueprints. (single subject and verb)
MODULE 7
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to structure
Compound sentences

Compound sentences are a union of two or more simple sentences. These simple
sentences are usually linked by one of the simple coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or,
nor, for, yet and so.
clause 1 conj. m.clause 2

i. The work stops/ but/ the tools are kept handy

m.clause 1 conj. m.clause 2

ii. Ngozi found the goat/ and// she took it to her mother.

m.clause 1 conj. m.clause 2

 iii. The plumber has been firedand// the carpenter has left the
company

Notice that in these examples, each of the clauses can stand alone as a complete
sentence.

More examples
- The project was expensive, and management still hadn’t decided to proceed with
it.
- Our supervisor wanted to increase office productivity, but the turnover in
personnel made such an increase unlikely.
- I always wanted to be a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (two
independent clause – two verbs)
- The women bought drugs, but my mother bought clothes.
Sometimes the simple sentences are linked by a semicolon or by a semicolon and a
conjunctive adverb:
The data confirmed our initial assumptions about the problems in prototype production;
with these problems, the project will almost certainly exceed the budget.
The surveying was to have been completed by October 15; however, construction must
start on or before November 15.
NOTE 1: A quick test for a compound sentence is to see if you can divide the sentence
into two or more simple sentences:
• The surveying was to have been completed by October 15. Construction must start on
or before November 15.
NOTE 2: Sometimes three or more simple sentences can combine into a compound
sentence:
The site was ready, the construction crew was ready, and the materials were ready, but
the weather was not cooperative.
MODULE 8
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to structure
The complex sentence
A complex sentence also has more than one clause but one of them must be an
independent clause and the other/others must be a dependent clause (es). There are also
some particular connectors for the clause of a complex sentence to be connected.
Example
m.cl. Sub.cl.
i. When it rains. // he does not go to work
(one main clause and one subordinate clauses)
Sub.cl. m.cl.
ii. Grace did not do the assignment // which the English teacher gave her.
(one main clause and one subordinate clause)
Note:
The independent or main clause of a complex sentence can stand alone as a sentence. It is
the subordinate conjunction which begins the subordinate clause, that gives it a sense of
incompleteness. Such subordinating conjunctions include – before, although, because,
since, wherever, after etc.
More examples
- I know that you always wanted to be a doctor. (Here, a dependent clause is
followed by a connector and an independent clause. the other way around is
possible.)
- Sadiq travelled home and brought his cousin to live with him.

MODULE 9
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
According to structure
The compound complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence ( or complex-compound sentence) is a mixture of the
compound and complex sentence in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example
m.cl 1 Sub.cl conj. m.cl 2
The work stops// when it rains// but. // the tools are kept very handy.
m.cl 1 conj. m.cl.2 sub.cl.
Samuel came in and// told us that he was although his score
the morning// successful in the was very low.
examination//
More example
- I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become
a doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two
independent clauses with a conjunction between them.)
- Sadiq travelled home and he brought his cousin to live with him.
MODULE 10
- SENTENCE ANALYSIS BY FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE
Multiple sentence

This contains more than two main clauses linked bycoordinating conjunctions.

m.clause 1 m.clause 2 conj. m.clause 3

The child climbed onto urinated on my and// smiled at me

my laps. // trousers// happily.

m.clause 1 conj. m.clause 2 conj. m.clause 3

The choirmaster and// asked for his flute// but// it could not be
returned from the church// found.

MODULE 11
Revision
MODULE 12
Evaluation
FOURTH TERM
MODULE 1
- THE USE OF CONJUCTION

Although and though meaning ‘in spite of’

Although and though both mean ‘in spite of something’. They are subordinating
conjunctions. This means that the clause which they introduce is a subordinate
clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete:
Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although we lost the match!
Though it was rainy, we put on our jackets and went for a walk.
Spoken English:
Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common
than although in speaking. For emphasis, we often use even with though (but not
with although).
Warning:
When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma
at the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a
comma:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
I still feel hungry even though I had a big lunch.

Although and though with -ing clauses

In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:
[a teacher talking about a student]
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into
mathematics.
[a doctor talking about a patient]
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.

Although and though with reduced clauses

In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even

though to introduce a clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didn’t show any emotion when she invited him to go
for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.
MODULE 2
- THE USE OF CONJUCTION

As though
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as
though:
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
He looks as though/as if he hasn’t slept.
As
The conjunction as has several different meanings. We use as when one event happens
while another is in progress (‘during the time that’). In this case the verb after is often in
the continuous form:
They arrived as we were leaving. (time conjunction meaning ‘while’ or ‘when’)
We use as to connect a result with a cause:
I went to bed at 9 pm as I had a plane to catch at 6 am. (reason and result meaning
‘because’)
We also use as to mean ‘in the way that’:
As the forecast predicted, the weather was dreadful for the whole of the weekend.
She arrived early, as I expected.

The same as

We use as with the same to talk about identical things:

Your jacket is the same colour as mine.

As: simultaneous changes

We use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as with this
meaning, we usually use a simple (rather than continuous) form of the verb:
As the show increases in popularity, more and more tickets are sold daily.
Compare

When you get older, moving house One thing happens first and as a result the
gets harder. second thing is true.

As you get older, moving house gets The two things happen at the same time.
harder.
Not: While you get older …

Warning:
We don’t use as alone to introduce examples. We say such as:
They gave them gifts such as flowers and fruit and sang a special welcome song.
Not: … gifts as flowers …
MODULE 3
- THE USE OF CONJUCTION
“neither _____ nor” used when mentioning two things that are not true or possible.
Examples
1. Ummussalma neither attended nor apologized.
2. Neither the poor nor the rich smiles nowadays.
3. Anas neither dilly dallies nor plays truancy.
4. Neither the teacher nor the students left early.
5. Neither Ahlan nor Maimuna felt happy about the distance.
6. Salame could neither insult nor could she gossip.
7. Nether he nor his wife enjoyed the vocation.
8. Neither her father nor her mother speaks Hausa.
9. She is neither a teacher nor a student.
10. Some prisoners neither committed any crime nor got justice.
MODULE 4
- THE USE OF CONJUCTION
“either ______ or” used to begin a list of two or more possibilities.
Examples
1. Either Musa or Adam paid the bill.
2. Either my friend or my brother took the money.
3. Either Tukur or Tanko swept the balcony.
4. You either come in or go out.
5. Either the host or the guest sat on the pouch.
6. Either the teacher or the students are here.
7. Either the students or the student is here.
 8. You either move or join the labourers.
9. Aliyu either forgot the instruction or acted rudely.
10. Either his neighbour or his wife was called.
MODULE 5
- TENSES
Tense is any form of a verb that shows the time, continuance, or completion of an action
or state that is expressed by the verb. ‘I am’ is in present tense, ‘I was’ is past tense, and
‘I will be’ is future tense.
Types of tense
Generally there are types of tense namely:
- Present tense
- Past tense
- Future tense
Each of this tense is further divided into four parts:
Present
a. Simple Present Tense
b. Present Continuous Tense
c. Present Perfect Tense
d. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Past
a. Simple Past Tense
b. Past Continuous Tense
c. Past Perfect Tense
d. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Future
a. Simple Future Tense
b. Future Continuous Tense
c. Future Perfect Tense
d. Future Perfect Continuous
Structures for English Tenses
1.
Affirmative statement (+) — used to show agreement
2.
Negative statement (-) — used to show disagreement
3.
Positive interrogative statement (+?) — used to ask question
4.
Interrogative–Negative statement (-?) — used to ask question and show
disagreement
MODULE 6
- TENSES
Simple tenses
 Simple present tense Simple past tense Simple future tense
+ I go to school. I went to school. I will go to school.
- I do not go to school. I did not go to school. I will not go to school.
I don’t go to school. I didn’t go to school. I won’t go to school.
+? Do I go to school? Did I go to school? Will I go to school?
-? Do I not go to school? Did I not go to school? Will I not go to school?
Don’t I go to school? Didn’t I go to school? Won’t I go to school?
+ He speaks good English. He spoke good English. He will speak good English.
- He does not speak good He did not speak good He will not speak good English.
English. English. He won’t speak good English.
He doesn’t speak good He didn’t speak good
English. English.
+? Does he go speak good Did he go speak good Will he go speak good English?
English? English?
-? Does he not speak English? Did he not speak Will he not speak English?
Doesn’t he speak good English? Won’t he speak good English?
English? Didn’t he speak good
English?
+ The teacher teaches well. The teacher taught well. The teacher will teach well.
- The teacher does not teach The teacher did not The teacher will not teach well.
well. teach well. The teacher won’t teach well.
The teacher doesn’t teach The teacher didn’t teach
well. well.
+? Does the teacher teach well? Did the teacher teach Will the teacher teach well?
well?
-? Does the teacher not teach Did the teacher not Will the teacher teach well?
well? teach well? Won’t the teacher teach well?
Doesn’t the teacher teach Didn’t the teacher teach
well? well?
+ The teachers teach well. The teachers taught The teachers will teach well.
well.
- The teachers do not teach The teachers did not The teachers will not teach well.
well. teach well. The teachers won’t teach well.
The teachers don’t teach The teachers didn’t
well. teach well.
+? Do the teachers teach well? Did the teachers teach Will the teachers teach well?
well?
-? Do the teachers teach well? Did the teachers teach Will the teachers teach well?
Don’t the teachers teach well? Won’t the teachers teach well?
well? Didn’t the teachers
teach well?
+ Nuhu pays school fees. Nuhu paid school fees. Nuhu will pay school fees.
- Nuhu does not pay school Nuhu did not pay school Nuhu will not pay school fees.
fees. fees. Nuhu won’t pay school fees.
Nuhu doesn’t pay school Nuhu didn’t pay school
fees. fees.
+? Does Nuhu pay school fees? Did Nuhu pay school Will Nuhu pay school fees?
fees?
-? Does Nuhu not pay school Did Nuhu not pay Will Nuhu not pay school fees?
fees? school fees? Won’t Nuhu pay school fees?
Doesn’t Nuhu pay school Didn’t Nuhu pay school
fees? fees?
+ Nana and Sadiya fetch well Nana and Sadiya Nana and Sadiya will fetch well
water. fetched well water. water.
- Nana and Sadiya do not Nana and Sadiya did not Nana and Sadiya will not fetch
fetch well water. fetch well water. well water.
Nana and Sadiya don’t fetch Nana and Sadiya didn’t Nana and Sadiya won’t fetch
well water. fetch well water. well water.
+? Do Nana and Sadiya fetch Did Nana and Sadiya Will Nana and Sadiya fetch
well water? fetch well water? well water?
-? Do Nana and Sadiya not Did Nana and Sadiya Will Nana and Sadiya not fetch
fetch well water? not fetch well water? well water?
Don’t Nana and Sadiya fetch Didn’t Nana and Sadiya Won’t Nana and Sadiya fetch
well water? fetch well water? well water?
MODULE 7
- TENSES
Continuous tenses
Present continuous tense Past continuous tense Future continuous tense
+ I am waiting for you here. I was waiting for you I will be waiting for you here.
here.
- I am not waiting you here. I was not waiting you I will not be waiting you here.
here. I won’t be waiting you here.
I wasn’t waiting you
here.
+? Am I waiting for you here? Was I waiting for you Will I be waiting for you here?
here?
-? Am I waiting for you here? Was I not waiting for Will I not be waiting for you
you here? here?
Wasn’t I waiting for you Won’t I be waiting for you
here? here?
+ We are listening to the We were listening to the We will be listening to the
lecture. lecture. lecture.
- We are not listening to the We were not listening to We will not be listening to the
lecture. the lecture. lecture.
We aren’t listening to the We weren’t listening to We won’t be listening to the
lecture. the lecture. lecture.
+? Are we listening to the Were we listening to the Will we be listening to the
lecture? lecture? lecture?
-? Are we not listening to the Were we not listening to Will we not be listening to the
lecture? the lecture? lecture?
Aren’t we listening to the Weren’t we listening to Won’t we be listening to the
lecture? the lecture? lecture?
+ It is raining. It was raining. It will be raining.
- It is not raining. It was not raining. It will not be raining.
It isn’t raining. It wasn’t raining. It won’t be raining.
+? Is it raining? Was it raining? Will it be raining?
-? Is it not raining? Was it not raining? Will it not be raining?
Isn’t it raining? Wasn’t it raining? Won’t it be raining?
MODULE 8
- TENSES
Perfect tenses
Present perfect tense Past perfect tense Future perfect tense
+ I have bought smart phone. I had bought smart I will have bought smart phone.
phone.
- I have not bought smart I had not bought smart I will not have bought smart
phone. phone. phone.
I haven’t bought smart I hadn’t bought smart I won’t have bought smart
phone. phone. phone.
+? Have I bought smart phone? Had I bought smart Will I have bought smart
phone? phone?
-? Have I not bought smart Had I not bought smart Will I not have bought smart
phone? phone? phone?
Haven’t I bought smart Hadn’t I bought smart Won’t I have bought smart
phone? phone? phone?
+ She has gone home. She had gone home. She will have gone home.
- She has not gone home. She had not gone home. She will not have gone home.
She hasn’t gone home. She hadn’t gone home. She won’t have gone home.
+? Has she gone home? Had she gone home? Will she have gone home?
-? Has she not gone home? Had she not gone home? Will she not have gone home?
Hasn’t she gone home? Hadn’t she gone home? Won’t she have gone home?
+ The cook has cooked The cook had cooked The cook will have cooked
couscous. couscous. couscous.
- The cook has not cooked The cook had not The cook will not have cooked
couscous. cooked couscous. couscous.
The cook hasn’t cooked The cook hadn’t cooked The cook won’t have cooked
couscous. couscous. couscous.
+? Has the cook cooked Had the cook cooked Will the cook have cooked
couscous? couscous? couscous?
-? Has the cook not cooked Had the cook not Will the cook not have cooked
couscous? cooked couscous? couscous?
Hasn’t the cook cooked Hadn’t the cook cooked Won’t the cook have cooked
couscous? couscous? couscous?
+ The cooks have cooked The cooks had cooked The cooks will have cooked
couscous. couscous. couscous.
- The cooks have not cooked The cooks had not The cooks will not have cooked
couscous. cooked couscous. couscous.
The cooks haven’t cooked The cooks hadn’t The cooks won’t have cooked
couscous. cooked couscous. couscous.
+? Have the cooks cooked Had the cooks cooked Will the cooks have cooked
couscous? couscous? couscous?
-? Have the cooks not cooked Had the cooks not Will the cooks not have cooked
couscous? cooked couscous? couscous?
Haven’t the cooks cooked Hadn’t the cooks Won’t the cooks have cooked
couscous? cooked couscous? couscous?
MODULE 9
- TENSES
Perfect continuous tenses
Present perfect continuous Past perfect Future perfect continuous
tense continuous tense tense
+ I have been learning for two I had been learning for I will have been learning for
years. two years. two years.
- I have not been learning for I had not been learning I will not have been learning for
two years. for two years. two years.
I haven’t been learning for I hadn’t been learning I won’t have been learning for
two years. for two years. two years.
+? Have I been learning Had I been learning Will I have been learning
English for two years? English for two years? English for two years?
-? Have I not been learning Had I not been learning Will I not have been learning
English for two years? English for two years? English for two years?
Haven’t I been learning Hadn’t I been learning Won’t I have been learning
English for two years? English for two years? English for two years?
+ It has been barking since It had been barking It will have been barking since
morning. since morning. morning.
- It has not been barking since It had not been barking It will not have been barking
morning. since morning. since morning.
It hasn’t been barking since It hadn’t been barking It won’t have been barking
morning. since morning. since morning.
+? Has it been barking since Had it been barking Will it have been barking since
morning? since morning? morning?
-? Has it not been barking Had it not been barking Will it not have been barking
since morning? since morning? since morning?
Hasn’t it been barking since Hadn’t it been barking Won’t it have been barking
morning? since morning? since morning?
+ Tanimu and Dauda have Tanimu and Dauda had Tanimu and Dauda will have
been coming to school for been coming to school been coming to school for five
five months. for five months. months.
- Tanimu and Dauda have not Tanimu and Dauda had Tanimu and Dauda will not
been coming to school for not been coming to have been coming to school for
five months. school for five months. five months.
+? Have Tanimu and Dauda Had Tanimu and Dauda Will Tanimu and Dauda have
been coming to school for been coming to school been coming to school for five
five months? for five months? months?
-? Have Tanimu and Dauda not Had Tanimu and Dauda Will Tanimu and Dauda not
been coming to school for not been coming to have been coming to school for
five months? school for five months? five months?
Haven’t Tanimu and Dauda Hadn’t Tanimu and Won’t Tanimu and Dauda have
been coming to school for Dauda been coming to been coming to school for five
five months? school for five months? months?

MODULE 9
- TENSES
Conditionals
Normally conditional sentences are called conditionals. These sentences usually contain
the conjunction if. Sometimes they are called ‘if clause’.
Types of conditionals
There are mainly two types of conditionals:
 The real conditional
 The unreal conditional
The real conditionals
The real conditionals express factual or habitual conditions which have the possibility to
occur in the future or generally occur in the present.
Examples:
1. I’ll go if you give me the ball.
2. If I feel better, I’ll certainly play.
 3. If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you a gift.
Structures of the real conditionals:
For future conditions
If + subject + simple present tense + subject + will/can/may/must + verb in the base
form…
Subject + will/can/may/must + verb in the base form… + if + subject + simple present
tense
Examples:
1 If I have money, I will buy a phone.
2 I can make you cry if you keep doing that.
3 If he goes there, he may get robbed.
4 If you go outside, you must wear heavy clothes.
For habitual conditions
If + subject + simple present tense + subject + simple present tense…
Subject + simple present tense + if + subject + simple present tense…
Examples:
1 If I have the money, I always buy the necessary things.
2 If Ahmad gets break, he usually calls me.
3 He works harder if the payment is good.
For commands
If + subject + simple present tense + command form (simple present)…
Command form (present form)… + if + subject + simple present tense
Examples:
1 If you have the money, use it wisely.
2 Please call me if you get chance.
MODULE 10
- TENSES
The unreal conditionals
The unreal conditionals express hypothetical conditions which have no possibility to
occur in the past, present or future but describe what could/might have occurred
supposedly.
Examples:
1 If I were rich, I would travel my whole life.
2 If I had a car, I could go anywhere.
3 If we had not missed the train, we would have reached the city.
Structures of unreal conditionals:
For present/future conditions
if + subject + simple past tense + subject + would/could/might + verb in the base form…
Subject + would/could/might + verb in the base form + if + subject + simple past tens
Examples:
1 If I had money, I would buy a new phone.
 2 If I were the present, I would not support war policies.
3 If he were not ill, he could come with us.
4 If I could play tomorrow, I would definitely win the match.

For past conditions

If + subject + past perfect tense + subject + would/could/might + have + verb in the past
participle form
Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in the past participle form + if + subject +
simple past tense
Examples:
1 If I had played well, we would have won the match.
2 I could have caught you if you had been a little closer.
3 If he had written well, I could have given him a better mark.
Note:
There is another structure of unreal which does not use the conjunction if. Had replaces if
and creates a conditional sentence.
Had + subject + verb in the past participle + subject + would/could/might +have + verb in
past participle
Examples:
1 Had I reached earlier, I could have caught the train.
2 Had she found the watch, she would have told me.
3 Had I known, I might have taken it.
MODULE 11
- TECHNICAL GRAMMAR
What is technical grammar?
Technical grammar refers to the technical terms, rules and convections that are used to
describe the structure and use of language.

Term Definition
affirmative statement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth or "yes"
meaning; opposite of negative
eg: The sun is hot.
Affix language unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after (or sometimes
within) the root or stem of a word
eg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix)
agreement logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words based
(also known as on tense, case or number
"concord") eg: this phone, these phones
 Term Definition
article determiner that introduces a noun phrase as definite (the) or
indefinite (a/an)
aspect feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or completion of
time; verbs can have no aspect (simple), or can have continuous or
progressive aspect (expressing duration), or have perfect or
perfective aspect (expressing completion)
auxiliary verb verb used with the main verb to help indicate something such as
(also called tense or voice
"helping verb") eg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.
case form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other words in the
sentence; case can be subjective, objective or possessive
eg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my dog"
comparative, form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or "more" that is
comparative used to show differences or similarities between two things (not
adjective three or more things)
eg: colder, more quickly
complement part of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to the predicate
eg: Mary did not say where she was going.
conjugate to show the different forms of a verb according
to voice, mood, tense, number and person; conjugation is quite
simple in English compared to many other languages
eg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they walk; I walked,
you walked, he/she/it walked, we walked, they walked
continuous verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions that are in
(also called progress or continuing over a given time period (can be past, present
"progressive") or future); formed with "BE" + "VERB-ing"
eg: "They are watching TV."
contraction shortening of two (or more) words into one
eg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have)
declarative sentence type typically used to make a statement (as opposed to a
sentence question or command)
eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny"
determiner word such as an article or a possessive adjective or other adjective
 Term Definition
that typically comes at the beginning of noun phrases
eg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new shirt?", "Let's
buy some eggs"
MODULE 12
- TECHNICAL GRAMMAR

gerund noun form of a verb, formed with VERB-ing

eg: "Walking is great exercise"
helping verb another term for auxiliary verb
imperative form of verb used when giving a command; formed with BASE VERB
only
eg: "Brush your teeth!"
indirect noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly affected by the
object action of the verb; see also direct object
eg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought his wife a new
car"
infinitive base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare infinitive
eg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be: that is the
question"
inflection change in word form to indicate grammatical meaning
eg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took, taking, taken (five
inflections)
interrogative (formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally used when asking
a question
eg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?"
lexicon, lexis all of the words and word forms in a language with meaning or
function
modifier word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of another word
eg: the house => the white house, the house over there, the house we
sold last year
Morpheme unit of language with meaning; differs from "word" because some
cannot stand alone
e.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable
nominative another term for subjective case
case
Number change of word form indicating one person or thing (singular) or more
than one person or thing (plural)
eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they