Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counseling

Assignment

Submitted By
Bulbul Ahammed
ID: 2202001
Session: 2022-2023
Department: Educational Technology and Engineering
E-mail: [email protected]

Submitted To
Zakia Nayem
Assistant Professor
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Digital University,
Bangladesh
E-mail: [email protected]
 Classical Conditioning By Pavlov

Actually classical conditioning is a kind of unconscious and automatic learning. In this learning
process a conditioned response is created with the association between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus. Actually in this learning system classical conditioning add placing a
neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex.
One of the most famous and oldest experiment about this learning process is pavlov’s classic
experiments with dog.
There are three phages in this experiment.
1. Before conditioning
2. During conditioning
3. After conditioning
To know all of the above phages we will have to understand some terminologies
Unconditioned Stimulus
An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. Suppose a
person is eating biriyani in front of someone, the secretion of saliva will automatically have
started. So here biriyani an unconditioned Stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now
leads to a response. If someone previously didn't pay attention to any animal which can bite, but
then got bit by some of them, and now he/she feel fear every time when he/she see the animal,
the animal has become a conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response
An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought
when an unconditioned stimulus is present. In the above example of Unconditioned Stimulus the
saliva is an unconditioned response.
Conditioned Response
A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response
existed before. In the above example of conditioned Stimulus the fear for the animal is a
conditioned response.
Now we can understand the three phages of pavlov’s experiments
Phage 1: Before Conditioning
 In this phage the food was kept in front of the dog, the food made the dog’s saliva. It was
measured for comparing for the next phage. Here food is an unconditioned stimulus and the
saliva is an unconditioned response
Phase 2: During Conditioning
In this phage when the food was kept in front of the dog, a bell was also rung. The bell was rung
just to prepare the dog to the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. This time also the
dog started to secretion of saliva remain the same and it was measured.
Phage 3: After Conditioning
In this phage the food was removed and only the bell was rung. In this time they also saw that
only hearing the bell the dog started to secretion. And this time also the quantity of saliva
remains the same. But this time the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus and the saliva is a
conditioned response.

Unconditioned Unconditioned
Response Stimulus

Conditioned Conditioned
Stimulus Response

We can use the conditioning learning in our daily classroom activities.

Suppose a teacher of class 2 can try the conditioning theory very easily and effectively.
A student is fear of math not understanding a math with theory. In this case not understanding
with is an unconditioned stimulus because a student generally not understand math with theory.
The teacher then can apply the math with an example with same theory.The student this time
understand the math well. Then the teacher apply those kind of math only using example and this
time also the student understand the math same as theory with example. Now the example is
worked as a conditioned stimulus and the understanding is worked as a conditioned response.

Criticism of the theory

Some psychologists maintain that classical conditioning represents a reductive, mechanical
explanation for some behaviors. Some other criticisms of classical conditioning center on the fact
that:
Classical conditioning does not take human individuality and free will into account
It generally does not predict human behavior; people can form associations but still not act upon
them
Many different factors can impact the associations and outcomes
People can choose to not act on the associations they have made through classical conditioning

Trial and Error method

Trial and error is a fundamental method of Problem solving. It is characterised by repeated,
varied attempts which are continued until success,or until the agent stops trying.Until getting the
right answer the problem is repeating through various steps.This type of problem solving is
called trial and error method. Actually this method was invented by Edward Thorndike. He
showed that if a strong stimulus can get some he/she will trial repeatedly and after attempting
some random response he/she will be success. It is same for the animal. In fact Edward
Thorndike performed his experiment into an hungry cat.
Actually the method has some core basis which it made a successful experiment
1. Drive: Drive is an essential condition for learning. This drive motivates the learner, and directs
his activities to reach the goal. This was the reason that in experiments of Thorndike cat was
hungry. Hunger is a drive which motivated the animals to learn.
2. Obstruction in satisfaction of drive: The when the needs are not easily satisfied, the organism
becomes active, and shows efforts to achieve it. This activity or trial-and-error behaviour helps
the organism to achieve the goal.
3. Random Movement: In the beginning, both cat showed random behaviour. If someone is
confronted with any problematic situation, some types of trial-and-error behaviour are observed.
He first tries to solve the problem through his random movements or activities. For example, we
can see in the experiment that the cat firstly make some random attempt
4. Accidental Success: In course of the random activities, sometimes accidental success is
achieved.
During the course of random behaviour, accidently the paw of the cat pressed the latch, and she
was free from the puzzle box. This appropriate response, which was accidental, was repeated
time and again by the cat, and it learned to open the door.
5. Selection of the Right Response: Out of several random responses, the cat learned to select the
appropriate response which helped it to come out of the puzzle box, and to get food. Thus during
the course of learning, the cat and the rat attempted to select right responses for satisfaction of
their needs.
6. Fixation of the Right Response: Actually this is the last condition of learning, when the learner
is facing a problem situation and which he has to reach a goal such as escape from a problem box
or attainment of food; he does this by selecting the right response. That is response which gives
satisfaction to the learner are repeated, and as such fixed or stamped.
There are three law’s that is also very much important for this method
1 . Law of readiness: This laws define that when anyone is ready to do any job, he/she will be
satisfying after starting the job.
2 . Law of effect: The law states "When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and
response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs the strength of
connection is increased.
3 . Law of exercise: Actually this laws says that when a person do a job regularly the job will bw
very much easier and the person can satisfying to do the job.
This method can also easily implementable in the classroom environment.
Suppose a teacher can announce that the student who can do a critical and new math given by the
teacher solve, he/she will get a gift. In this case the gift will be worked as a stimulus. The
students will randomly try their best possible ways to solve the problem. Then their trying will
be random attempt. Finally one or more students can easily learn how to solve this kind of math.

Criticism of the theory

Thorndike emphasised upon randomness in learning because he considered it as a trial-and error
process. Critics, particularly Kohlar (1947) and other Gestalt psychologists, have said that
Thorndike considered animals as stupid (in puzzle boxes) making random and undirected
responses, but the reality was that they were made to be stupid because they were put in such a
situation that it did not give an overall view of the whole situation. Therefore, animals, critics
said, were not stupid, rather the situation was stupid and it forced them to behave in a random
way. But Marx and Cronan-Hillix (1987) have defended Thorndike by claiming that even in
open and less controlled situations (that permits overview of the whole situation) there may be
random and trial-and-error behaviour though observed less frequently than the intelligent
behaviour.

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is
influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated,
and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.
Basically the inventor of the operant theory ‘B.F.Skinner’ believe that we do have such a thing as
a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal
mental events.
We can easily understand the key components of the theory by using a diagram

Positive
Reinforcement

Operant
Conditioning
Negative
Reinforcement

Punishment

Key components of Operant Conditioning

 Positive Reinforcement: Increases the frequency of a behavior when applied.
Negative Reinforcement: Increases the frequency of a behavior when removed.
Punishment: Decrease the frequency of a behavior.

Actually Skinner observed three of responses

Neutral operants: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
We can use the operant theory of learning in our daily life as well
Suppose you are a coach and want your team to improve their passing accuracy in football.
When the players execute accurate passes during training, you praise their technique. This will
worked as a positive reinforcement.
But If you notice your team working together effectively and exhibiting excellent team spirit
during a tough training session, you might end the training session earlier than planned, which
the team perceives as a relief. They understand that teamwork leads to positive outcomes,
reinforcing team behavior. Here end the session is negative work but it will reinforce the team to
do a work together.
Criticism of the theory
Operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in
learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.
For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of
insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)
suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal
experience.
The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation.
Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their
anatomy and physiology are different from humans, and they cannot think about their
experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.

Piaget theory
Actually The Piaget`s theory focus on development and learning theories. Development focus on
the leaner`s capabilities and the learning focuses on the realization of such capabilities and the
education. The cognitive theory, the behavior reflects the emergence of various psychological
structures, organized units or patterns of thinking that influence on how children interpret the
information.
There are four stage in the of development according the theory.
The stages are –
Stage Age Goal
Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought
Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought
Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

The Sensorimotor Stage:

Age: Birth- two years
During the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) a child develop basic motor skills and learn to act
and interact with their environment through physical sensations and body coordination.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The child learns about the world through their senses and through their actions.
 During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include:
object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from
them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
 Cognitive abilities relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function.
 At about 8 months, the children will understand the nature of objects and that they will
still exist even if they can’t see them, and the child will search for them when they
disappear.
The Preoperational Stage:
Age: 2 – 7 years
In this second stage of development is the preoperational stage, which occurs between 2 and 7
years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations (a set of logical rules), so
thinking is influenced by how things look or appear to them rather than logical reasoning.
Firstly the child of this stage is egocentric. He assumes that other people see the world as he
does, as shown in the Three Mountains study. As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism
declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s
pretend play becomes more important.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
  Child and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability
to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is.
 Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion. He can classify objects but
cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two
or more categories simultaneously.
The Concrete Operational Stage:
Age: 7 – 11
In this concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can
understand quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way, and demonstrate
improvement in inclusion tasks.
Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 This stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation, understanding that, although
things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
 During this stage the children can mentally reverse things.
 In this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel.
The Formal Operational Stage:
Age: 12 to more on
The formal operational period begins at about age 11. Actually child enters adolescents in this
stage, they gain the ability to think abstractly, the ability to add and classify items in a more
furnished way and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 In this stage of development concrete operations are carried out on physical objects on
the other hand formal operations are carried out on ideas.
 In this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas.
 People can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
 Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. For
example, if asked, ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour?’ they
could speculate about many possible consequences.
Criticism of the theory
Small sample size
Potential researcher bias
Age-related issues
Cultural limitations
Task design