Gay Su Pinnell & Irene C.

Fountas

The Research Base

This document describes features and components of Phonics Lessons: Letters, Words, and How They Work, Grades K, 1,
and 2 (Heinemann) that address the five essential elements identified by The National Reading Panel as
critical to successful reading instruction:
(1) phonemic awareness instruction
(2) phonics instruction
(3) fluency instruction
(4) vocabulary instruction
(5) comprehension instruction
These five elements are the building blocks of Reading First and the national Leave No Child Behind Act.
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The basic framework of Phonics Lessons: Letters, Words, and How They Work is designed to satisfy the five critical
elements through the use of the following:
♦ direct teaching lessons (10 to 15 minutes), each dedicated to a specific
principle
♦ principles that are organized along a continuum (sequence) that ranges from
easier to harder concepts
♦ application activities in each lesson for children to practice using and ex-
ploring the principle
♦ shared culmination activities in each lesson reinforcing understanding and
application of the principle.
This systematic approach to literacy instruction is based on principles and practices validated by scientifically-based
reading research, as defined by the National Reading Panel (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001; National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, 2001a and 2001b). In addition, the effectiveness of implementation of
these research-based practices is monitored through collection of assessment data to document children’s progress
in classrooms.

(1) Phonemic Awareness Instruction

“Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds–phonemes–in spoken
words.” (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, p. 4) Phonics Lessons provides explicit instruction in both phonological aware-
ness (providing a strong foundation for hearing and using sounds) and phonemic awareness (helping children learn to
identify and manipulate sounds) through the use of the following:
♦ short, concise, and direct lessons (see topics on the following page)
♦ several lessons for each topic to reinforce the principles involved
♦ assessment of children’s present levels of competence
♦ a lesson selection tool to provide the amount of training children need in this area.
“In the NRP analysis, studies that spent between 5 and 18 hours teaching PA yielded very large effects on the acquisi-
tion of phonemic awareness. Studies that spent longer or less time than this also yielded significant effect sizes, but
effects were moderate and only half as large. Transfer to reading was greatest for studies lasting less than 20 hours. In
fact effect sizes were more than twice as large for shorter programs than for the longest-lasting programs.”(NICHD,
2001a, pp. 2-42)
Lesson topics are listed below for kindergarten and grade 1.
Kindergarten Lesson Topics Grade One Lesson Topics
Phonological Hearing Rhymes Recognizing and Making Rhymes
Awareness Making Rhymes Identifying Onsets and Rimes
Instruction Hearing, Saying, and Clapping Syllables Hearing and Blending Onsets and Rimes
Blending Syllables Saying Words Slowly to Predict Letter Sequence
Hearing and Blending Onsets and Rimes Exploring Syllables
Identifying and Blending Onsets and Rimes Hearing Sounds in Sequence

Phonemic Saying Words Slowly to Hear Sounds Hearing Sounds in Sequence

Awareness Hearing Beginning Sounds Hearing and Identifying Beginning Sounds
Training Hearing Ending Sounds Hearing and Identifying Ending Sounds
Hearing Middle Sounds Hearing Middle Sounds
Hearing Sounds in Sequence Blending Sounds
Hearing and Substituting Sounds Hearing and Changing Ending Sounds
Blending and Segmenting Sounds in Words Hearing and Changing Beginning and Ending Sounds
Hearing, Saying, and Deleting Beginning Sounds
Hearing Long Vowel Sounds in the Middle of Words

Children engage in a variety of application activities that include:

♦ sorting and matching picture cards for beginning and ending sounds, rhymes, and word patterns
♦ segmenting and blending sounds of objects in pictures
♦ oral games that involve segmenting, blending, deleting, and adding phonemes
♦ identifying word parts by clapping and segmenting them
♦ making connections among words with similar beginning, middle, and ending sounds.
In addition, a rich collection of children’s literature provides a foundation for phonological awareness through daily
reading of rhyming stories, poems, and songs using language that draws attention to the nature of words.
Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness training have been found to be effective, but the panel warns that
“In the rush to teach phonemic awareness, it is important not to overlook the need to teach letters as well. The NRP
analysis has shown that PA instruction was more effective when it was taught with letters.” (NICHD, 2001b,
pp. 2-33) Phonics Lessons provides specific lesson and application activities related to learning letters–their names and
features. In kindergarten and grade one, children explore the shapes of letters through working with name puzzles,
alphabet charts, and magnetic letters. They match and sort letters, noticing the features. They learn to use a verbal
path to describe directionality in forming letters; handwriting lessons provide further practice.

(2) Phonics Instruction

“Phonics instruction teaches children the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the
individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language.”(Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, p. 12) The goal is to help chil-
dren learn and use the alphabetic principle–the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships
between written letters and spoken words. Phonics Lessons includes explicit lessons on letter-sound relationships
along with application activities. Lessons are ordered along a continuum of difficulty across the year.
Phonics Lessons also includes a systematic and organized approach to learning common spelling patterns or phonograms
(for example, -at, -it, -ake, -ame). Work with these patterns helps children notice and understand larger units in words.
Lessons are organized to present groups of phonograms, and knowledge is periodically summarized. Children apply
knowledge through building words, sorting words, and a variety of games designed to help them notice word pat-
terns. The goal of this work is to help them become pattern seekers. Children also work with the CVC, CVCe, and
CVVC word structures.

(3) Fluency Instruction

“Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly.” (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 22) Fluent
readers recognize words automatically and group words to gain meaning. Oral reading sounds effortless and expres-
sive. The National Reading Panel has described fluency as a “bridge” between word recognition and comprehension
and suggests that “repeated and monitored oral reading improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement.”
(Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 24)
Phonics Lessons provides one component of a comprehensive reading program that includes daily reading of
continuous text, where fluency is a priority. In addition to extensive work on decoding in word study activities,
students in grades K, 1, and 2:
♦ work with word parts to increase quick word solving
♦ practice high-frequency word recognition to increase rapid word solving.

(4) Vocabulary Instruction

“Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively.” (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001,
p. 34) In general, vocabulary can be described as speaking, listening, reading or writing. Vocabulary instruction
refers to both the indirect and direct teaching that we provide for children. Phonics Lessons includes specific, explicit
lessons on word meanings, which include concept words that primary children often meet while reading and/or that
are used to organize primary texts. Concept words include: colors, numbers, days of the week and months of the
year, weather words, ordinal words, etc. Children learn to categorize words by meaning through lessons and sorting
words. In grade two, lesson topics cover simple antonyms, synonyms, and homophones.

(5) Comprehension Instruction

“Using their experiences and knowledge of the world, their knowledge of vocabulary and language structure, and
their knowledge of reading strategies (or plans), good readers make sense of the text and know how to get the most
out of it.” (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 48) A comprehensive literacy program includes lessons on
comprehension, both through read-aloud sessions and through small group reading instruction. Phonics Lessons is
designed to contribute to comprehension in the following ways; it:

♦ helps children develop rapid, flexible word solving so attention is given to

comprehension
♦ works with words and word parts to increase quick word solving
♦ requires children to practice high-frequency recognition to increase rapid
word solving
♦ builds a large repertoire of words that are known or can be solved rapidly,
freeing attention for the meaning of the text
♦ works with words in categories of meaning to expand vocabulary.
Summary
The relationship between Phonics Lessons and the research base for the national literacy effort is summarized below:
Essential Phonics Lessons
Elements
Identified
Direct Lessons Application Extension
by Research
Phonemic Rhymes Making words Read aloud rhymes, songs,
Awareness Onsets and rimes Matching pictures and rich language texts to
Instruction Beginning & ending consonant Sorting pictures build phonological awareness
sounds Clapping and tapping Prompt children to notice
Vowel sounds syllables mismatches while reading
Syllables Saying words slowly Prompt children to say
Blending sounds words slowly while trying to
Identifying (segmenting) sounds write them
Substituting sounds
Deleting sounds

Phonics Letter names Sorting words Read aloud books that

Instruction Consonants in beginning, medial, Making words emphasize beginning, medial,
and ending position Matching words and ending sounds
Consonant clusters Games: Lotto, Follow the Prompt children to use skills
(blends/digraphs) Path, Crazy Eights, etc. to monitor and correct
Short and long vowels Word Study Notebook reading
Vowels with r and with silent e Use word work in guided
Double consonants reading to build rapid
Vowel combinations decoding and attention to
words

Fluency Decoding practice Practice with games— Read aloud books to develop
Instruction High-frequency word recognition overlearning the use of word fluent, phrased reading
parts Prompt for fluent reading
Word searches for problem during reading instruction
solving and flexibility Demonstrate reading words
rapidly (high frequency) and
taking words apart

Vocabulary Word meanings—concept words Making word connections Read aloud books that
Instruction Word connections Word webs and charts expand vocabulary
Synonyms Matching synonyms, knowledge
Antonyms antonyms, and homophones Read aloud books that
Homophones and homographs Problem-solving homophones demonstrate synonyms,
and homographs antonyms, and homophones

Comprehension Decoding practice Sorting and matching words Read aloud books that offer
Instruction Word meanings by meaning literary elements to discuss
Working with homophones Build children’s decoding and
and homographs to comprehending skills
determine meaning through large amounts of
reading texts that are
matched to readers
References:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2001a. Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read–An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research
Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Reports of the Subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2001b. Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read–An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research
Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health.
Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. 2001. Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read–Kindergarten through Grade 3. Jessup, MD: National Institute for
Literacy.