FLUID MACHINERY

MODULE IV
PART 1
 AIR COMPRESSOR
• An air compressor or air pump is a machine which takes in
atmospheric air, compresses it with the help of some
mechanical energy and delivers it at higher pressure.

• An air compressor increases the pressure of air by decreasing

its specific volume using mechanical means.

• Thus compressed air carries an immense potential of energy.

• A reciprocating compressor is used to produce high-pressure
gas. It uses the displacement of piston in the cylinder for
compression. It handles a low mass of gas and a high pressure
ratio.
• The rotary compressors are used for low and medium
pressures. They usually consist of a bladed wheel or impeller
that spins inside a circular housing. They handle a large mass
of gas.
• These compressors may be single stage or multistage to
increase the pressure ratio.
 Classification of Air compressors
1. According to working
– Reciprocating air compressor
– Rotary air compressor
2. According to action of piston
– Single acting air compressors
– Double acting air compressors
3. According to the number of stages
– Single stage air compressors
– Multi stage air compressors
4. According to the method of cooling
– Air cooled air compressors
– Water cooled air compressors
5. According to the number of cylinders
– Simplex air compressors (single cylinder)
– Duplex air compressors ( double cylinder)
– Triplex air compressors ( three cylinder)
 Classification of Air compressors
6. According to the power driven
– Direct drive air compressors
– Belt drive air compressors
– Chain drive air compressors
7. According to the nature of installation
– Portable air compressors
– Semi fixed air compressors
– Fully fixed air compressors
8. According to the principle of operation
– Positive displacement air compressors
– Dynamic air compressors
9. According to the applications
– Rock drill air compressors
– Sand blasting air compressors
– Spray painting air compressors
– Pneumatic land tool air compressors
– Trench digging air compressors
Single acting and double acting reciprocating compressors

• In a single acting reciprocating compressor, only one side of the piston

is used to suck, compress, deliver the air

• For a single acting compressor for one revolution of crank, compressed

air is delivered one time through the delivery pipe

• In a double acting reciprocating compressor, both sides of the piston are

used to suck, compress, deliver the air. When suction occurs on one side,
compression and delivery will be taken on the other side

• For a double acting compressor for one revolution of crank, compressed

air is delivered two times through the delivery pipe
Applications of Air compressor
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR TERMINOLOGY
• Pressure ratio is defined as the ratio of absolute discharge pressure to
absolute suction pressure.
• Free air is the air that exists under atmospheric condition.
• Compressor displacement volume is the volume created when the
piston travels a stroke. It is given as
𝜋 2
𝑉= 𝑑 𝐿
4
where d is the bore of the cylinder and L the is stroke of the piston.
• Induction-volume rate or volume-flow rate into the compressor is
expressed in m3/s
✓ For the single-acting reciprocating compressor, only one cycle (thus,
one induction) takes place for each revolution of the crank. Thus, for a
compressor without clearance
𝜋 2 𝑁
ሶ
𝑉= 𝑑 𝐿
4 60
✓ For the double-acting reciprocating compressor, the induction takes
place on both sides of the piston for each revolution. Thus,
𝜋 2 𝑁
ሶ
𝑉 =2× 𝑑 𝐿
4 60
• Free Air delivery (FAD) It is the discharge volume of the
compressor corresponding to ambient conditions.
• Piston speed is the linear speed of the piston measured in m/min.
It is expressed as
𝑉𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2𝐿𝑁
• Mean Effective Pressure (pm) is a hypothetical average pressure,
which if acted on the piston during the entire compression stroke
will require the same power input as required during the actual
cycle.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑚 = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 × 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
 Ideal reciprocating compressor
• An ideal reciprocating compressor is one in which:

i.The clearance volume is zero, i.e., at the end of discharge process,

the volume of refrigerant inside the cylinder is zero.

ii. No pressure drops during suction and compression

iii. Suction, compression and discharge are reversible and adiabatic

 Clearance volume and Swept volume
• In practical design of compressors, some clearance is required between
the cylinder and piston to prevent hitting of piston to crown of the cylinder
and for the smooth functioning of valves. This volume made is known as
Clearance volume (Vc)

• Some volume of air always remain in the clearance volume after the piston
has reached the IDC. The volume of this entrapped air is equal to the
clearance volume.

• In general , clearance volume is expressed as a percentage of swept

volume (Vs)

• Swept/Stroke/Displacement volume is defined as the actual volume swept

(moved) by the piston while moving from ODC to IDC.
20
• Total volume of cylinder = Swept volume + Clearance volume
Clearance volume and Swept volume
 Single acting reciprocating air
•
compressor
Reciprocating compressors consist of a piston moving back and forth
in a cylinder

• suction and compression of air is completed in one revolution of the

crank

• The suction side of the reciprocating compressor is connected to

suction pipe through suction valve

• The delivery side of the reciprocating compressor is connected to

delivery pipe through delivery valve

• The suction (inlet) and the discharge (outlet) valves open and close due
to pressure differences between the cylinder and inlet or outlet
manifolds respectively
• During the start of suction stroke the piston is in IDC. As the crank rotates
from 0° to 180° , the piston moves towards ODC, thus creating a lower
pressure inside the cylinder. This opens the inlet valve and air get inside
the cylinder. During the end of the suction stroke the suction valve get
closed
• When the crank rotates from 180° to 360°, the piston moves up from ODC.
In air compressor both the compression and delivery happens when the
crank rotates from 180° to 360°. During the start of this stroke both the
valves are closed. When the piston moves up the air inside get
compressed. This increases the pressure of air. When the pressure inside
the cylinder is large enough to open the outlet valve, the compressed air is
delivered to the outlet pipe. During the end of this process, piston is at IDC
 Working principle of reciprocating compressors
• Figure shows the schematic of an ideal compression process on
pressure-volume and pressure-crank angle (θ) diagrams. As shown in
the figures, the cycle of operations consists of:
Process 4-1: This is an isobaric suction process, during which the piston
moves from the Inner Dead Centre (IDC) to the Outer Dead Centre
(ODC). The suction valve remains open during this process and air at a
constant pressure (P4=P1) flows into the cylinder. Volume increases
from V4 to V1
Process 1-2: This is a compression process. The compression may be
isothermal or polytropic or isentropic process. During this process, the
piston moves from ODC . The compression continues till the pressure
reaches P2. Both the suction and discharge valves remain closed during
the process and the pressure of air increases from P1 to P2..Volume of
air decreases from V1 to V2
Process 2-3: Discharge valve opens when the pressure inside the cylinder
become more than to open the delivery valve. The discharge is
isobaric. During this process, the suction valve remains closed and the
discharge valve opens. Air at constant Pressure is expelled from the
cylinder as the piston moves to IDC. In the process P2=P3 and volume
decreases from V2 to V3
10
11
 Workdone by the compressor
The compression of air may be isothermal or polytropic or isentropic
process. Thus the workdone to compress the air will be different for
these three processes.
CASE 1: Workdone during isothermal compression without clearance volume
workdone by compressor = Area of 1- 2 - 3 - 4 in PV diagram
V 
W = P2 V2 + P2 V2 ln  1  − P1V1
 V2 
PV = mRT. 
 V1   
= P2V2 ln  
 For isothermal process T is a constant.
 V2  P1V1 = P2 V2 
 V1 
= P1V1 ln  
 2
V
 V1 
= mRT ln  
 2
V
 P2   V1 P2 
= mRT ln    =  12
 P1   V2
P1 
 
CASE 2 : Workdone during polytropic compression PV n = C without clearance volume 
Work done = Area of 1- 2 - 3 - 4
P2 V2 − P1V1
workdone during a polytropiccompression is given by,
n −1
P2 V2 − P1V1
Workdone = P 2V 2 + − PV
1 1
n −1
(n −1)P V + P V − P V − (n −1)P V
= 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

n −1
nP V - P V + P2 V2 − P1V1 − nP1V1 + P1V1
= 2 2 2 2
n −1
=
n
(P2V2 − P1V1)
n -1
PV 
= n  P1V1  2 2 −1......................................... (1)
n -1  P1V1 
For polytropicprocess,P V n = P V n
1 1 2 2
1/ n
V2 P 
=  1 
V1  P2 
  P  P 1/ n 
substituting this valve in eqn (1)gives, W =  P1V1   P2  P1  −1
n
n -1  1  2  
 
n −1
 n 
  
−1..........................................(2 )
n P
W=  P1V1   P1 
2

n -1 
 
 n −1
 n 
  P2  
........................................(3)
n
W=  mRT1   P1  −1
n -1  
 
P1V1 = mRT1
P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
T2 P2 V2
= 
T1 P1 V1
1/ n
T2 P2 P 
=   1 
T1 P1  P2 
−1/ n
T2 P2 P 
=   2 
T1 P1  P1 
n −1

T2  P2 
,substituting this value in eqn (3)gives,
n
= 
T1  P1 
n T 
W=  mRT1  2 −1
n -1  T1 
 T −T 
W = n  mRT1  2 1 
n -1  T1 

W = n  mR (T2 − T1).......................................(4)
n -1
CASE 3 : Workdone during isentropiccompression (PV  = constant )
without clearance volume
Here the polytropicindex n changes by isentropicindex  and the
workdone is obtained thus by substituting the value of  instead of n
−1
 
   P2  
W=  P1V1   −1..........................................(1)
 -1  P1  
 
−1
  
  
 mRT1  2  −1........................................(2)
P
W=
 -1  P1 
 

W=  mR (T2 − T1)..................................................(3)
 -1
Now Cp - Cv = R
Cp -
Cp
=R  Cp Cp 
 =  or Cv = 
  Cv  
 1   −1
C p 1-  = R or C p  =R
     
  m C   −1(T − T )
substituting value of R in eqn (3)gives, W = p   2 1
 -1   
04-May-17 p (T2 − T1 )
W = mC
 Minimum workdone
•The work done can be found out by taking the area under the
curve in PV diagram
•It can be seen from the below PV diagram, the workdone on
air is minimum when the air is compressed isothermally
( shown by curve 1-22)
•Thus isothermal process is recommended as it requires less
input power to compress the air. But isothermal process
requires compression very slow to maintain the temperature
constant. Thus it is difficult to obtain the isothermal process
normally.
But isothermal thermal process can be achieved by
(1) using air cooling or water cooling during compression
(2)by inter cooling in multistage compressors
Clearance volume and Swept volume

35
 Workdone by reciprocating air compressor with
clearance volume
• Graph below shows the PV diagram of a compressor with clearance
volume. Consider the compression to be polytropic
• At point 1 the piston is at ODC. The piston then starts compressing air
from point 1 till it reaches point 2, where the pressure is P2.
• At point 2 the delivery valve opens and the piston is further moves
towards IDC. When the piston moves the compressed air is delivered
through the valve till point 3. It can be seen that when the piston reaches
IDC, some volume of air equal to clearance volume Vc is still left inside
the cylinder.
• During the next suction stroke, when the piston moves from IDC, this
air in clearance volume expands (polytropic expansion) back to initial
pressure P4 and volume V4.
• At point 4 the suction valve opens and the fresh atmospheric air enters
the cylinder. Thus the actual volume of air is taken during suction stroke
is V1-V4 which is less than swept volume Vs. This actual volume is called
free air delivered or effective swept volume
36
Workdone by reciprocating air compressor with
clearance volume

37
Veffective = V1 − V4
Workdone / cy cle = Area 12341
= Area 123651- Area 36543

 n −1
  n −1

 according to 
 P V  P2  −1 −  P V  P3  −1
n n
=  
n n

n -1 1 1  P1  n -1 4 4  P4   p olytrop iceqn 
   
n −1 n −1
     
P n
 P n

 P1V1  2 −1 −  P1V 4  2 −1
n n
=  
 P1  n -1  P1 
n -1
    

n −1
  
P n
 P1 (V1 − V 4 )  2 −1.................................(1)
n
= 
n -1  P1  
 
n −1
  
 n
 mR (T1 − T4 )  2  −1................................(2 )
n P
=
n -1  P1 
 
where (V1 − V 4 )and m are actual volume and mass of air sucked in suction stroke

38
 Power and Efficiency
• Indicated Power (IP) The work done on air per unit time is called
indicated power input to the compressor.
❑ 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊𝑁𝑘
𝐼𝑃 =
60
❑ 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑚 𝐿 𝐴 𝑁𝑘
𝐼𝑃 =
60
o W = Indicated work input per cycle
o Pm = Indicated mean effective pressure
o L= Stroke length
o A= cross-sectional area of cylinder of bore, d
o N= number of rotation per minute
o k= number of suction per revolution of crank shaft
= 1 for single-acting reciprocating compressor
= 2 for double-acting reciprocating compressor
• Brake Power (BP) The actual power (brake power or shaft
power) input to the compressor is more than the indicated
power because some work is required to overcome the
irreversibilities and mechanical frictional effects.
❑ BP = Indicated power + Frictional power
• Mechanical Efficiency (𝜂𝑚 ) The mechanical efficiency of the
compressor is given by
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑚 =
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
• The brake power is derived from a driving motor or engine.
The input of a driving motor can be expressed as
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
❑ 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒
 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
❑ Adiabatic Efficiency, 𝜂𝑎𝑑 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
❑ Compressor Efficiency, 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 =
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
❑ Isothermal Efficiency, 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
▪ Power for single acting = work done per cycle X N/60
▪ Power for double acting = work done per cycle X 2N/60
✓ Ideal power(Minimum power) : It is the power obtained by using
an Isothermal process.
 VolumetricEfficiency, ηv
➢ Volumetric efficiency is another definition to measure the performance
of a compressor.
➢ It can be defined as the ratio of the actual delivered gas volume to the
swept volume of the cylinder or,

➢ Where,

➢ If the volumetric efficiency is 100%, it

means the compressor has no clearance volume.
 VolumetricEfficiency, ηv
➢ The volumetric efficiency also can be written as:

➢ or
 1

Vc  P2  n 
v = 1−    −1
Vs  P1  
 
➢ From the definition, the volumetric efficiency decreases as the
pressure ratio and clearance ratio increase.
➢ This efficiency is made worse if leaks occur past the valves or piston.
 Derivation for Volumetric Efficiency
Free air delivered
Volumetric efficiency,  vol =
Swept volume
because of the presence of clearance volume, vol is always less than unity.
vol is generally varies from 60% to 85%
Clearance volume
Clearance ratio = = V3 V
= c =c
Swept volume V1 − V3 Vs
value of c varies from 4% to10%
V −V
 vol = 1
(V1 − V3 )+ (V3 − V 4) V V
V1 − V3 = = 1+ V − V − V −4V
4 3
V1 − V3 1 3 1 3

V4 V  V4 V3 V
 vol = 1+ c − = 1+ c − 3 = 1+ c − c  4
V1 − V3 V1 − V3 V3
1
 n 
P   
1

 vol = 1+ c − c   3 
n
 V4
= 
P 
 P4   V3  P4  
3

 
1

 P2  n
 vol = 1+ c − c     P3 = P2 ; P4 = P1 
 P1  26
Derivation for Volumetric Efficiency

 1

 V1  
  P2  = 1 
n V
vol = 1+ c − c      P 
 V2   1  V2 
 
 V4 
vol = 1+ c − c   ............................................(1)
 V3 
 V1  PT
vol = 1+ c − c     i a ..................................(2 )
 V2  P T a i
1
 P2  n  Pi Ta ................................(3)
vol = 1+ c − c   
 P1  P T a i

where a - Ambient condition ; i = Inside condition

45
❑ A single-acting, single-cylinder reciprocating air compressor has a cylinder
diameter of 200 mm and a stroke of 300 mm. Air enters the cylinder at 1
bar; 27°C. It is then compressed polytropically to 8 bar according to the
law Pv1.3 = constant. If the speed of the compressor is 250 rpm, calculate
the mass of air compressed per minute, and the power required in kW for
driving the compressor.
✓ Solution
Given
A single-acting, single-cylinder reciprocating air compressor
d =200 mm =0.2 m
P1 =1 bar = 100 kPa
L =300 mm=0.3 m
p2 =8 bar
N =250 rpm T1 =27°C =300K
n=1.3
Find
(i) The mass of air compressed, (ii) Power input to compressor.
The swept volume of the cylinder per cycle
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 = 𝑑 𝐿 = × 0.22 × 0.3
4 4
𝑉𝑠 = 9.42 × 10−3 𝑚3

The mass of air, using perfect gas equation

𝑃1 𝑉1 100 × 9.42 × 10−3

𝑚𝑎 = =
𝑅𝑇1 0.287 × 300
𝑚𝑎 = 0.0109 kg/cycle

The mass flow rate of air

𝑚ሶ𝑎 = mass of air x numberሶ of suction/min = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑁
𝑚ሶ𝑎 = 0.0109 × 250 = 2.74 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Temperature of air after compression
1.3−1
𝑃2 1.3
𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑃1
𝑇2 = 484.75 𝐾

The work input to compressor,

𝑛
𝑊= 𝑚𝑎 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑛−1
1.3
𝑊= × 2.74 × 0.287 × 484.75 − 300
1.3 − 1
𝑊 = 629.56 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 10.49 𝑘𝑊
❑ A single-cylinder, double-acting, reciprocating air compressor
receives air at 1 bar; 17°C, compresses it to 6 bar according to
the law PV1.25 = constant. The cylinder diameter is 300 mm. The
average piston speed is 150 m/min at 100 rpm. Calculate the
power required in kW for driving the compressor. Neglect
clearance.
✓ Solution
Given A double-acting, single-cylinder reciprocating air
compressor
d =300 mm =0.3m; p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
p2 =6bar ; N = 100 rpm
T1 =17°C =290K; n = 1.25
k=2; V piston = 150 m/min
• Stroke of piston
𝑉𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 150
𝐿= =
2𝑁 2 × 100
𝐿 = 0.75 𝑚
The swept volume of the cylinder per cycle
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 = 𝑑 𝐿 = × 0.32 × 0.75
4 4
𝑉𝑠 = 0.053 𝑚3
The work input to compressor,
1.3−1
𝑛 𝑃2 1.3
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 −1
𝑛−1 𝑃1
1.3−1
1.3 6 1.3
𝑊= × 100 × 0.053 × −1
1.3 − 1 1
 𝑊 = 11.42 𝑘𝐽

𝑊𝑁𝑘 11.42 × 100 × 2

𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐼𝑃 = =
60 60

𝐼𝑃 = 38.1 kW
❑ A single-stage, double-acting air compressor delivers air at 7 bar.
The pressure and temperature at the end of the suction stroke
are 1 bar and 27°C. It delivers 2m3 of free air per minute when
the compressor is running at 300 rpm. The clearance volume is
5% of the stroke volume. The pressure and temperature of the
ambient air are 1.03 bar and 20°C. The index of compression is
1.3, and index of expansion is 1.35. Calculate (a) Volumetric
efficiency of the compressor, (b) Indicated power of the
compressor, (c) Brake Power, if mechanical efficiency is 80%.
✓ Solution
Given A single-stage, double-acting reciprocating air compressor
P1 =1 bar = 100 kPa P2 = 7 bar= 700 kPa N=300 rpm
T1= 270 C = 300 K Pf = 1.03 bar = 103 kPa Vc = 0.05 Vs
Tf = 200 C = 293 K nc = 1.3 ne = 1.35 𝑉𝑓ሶ = 2𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
Ƞmech = 0.8
Clearance volume; Vc = V3 = 0.05 Vs
The volume V4 after re-expansion of compressed air in clearance
space.
1
𝑃2 𝑛𝑒
𝑉4 = 𝑉3
𝑃1
1
7 1.35
𝑉4 = 0.05 𝑉𝑠 ×
1
𝑉4 = 0.2113 𝑉𝑠
The total volume of cylinder;
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐 = 1.05 𝑉𝑠
Effective swept volume
𝑉1 − 𝑉4 = 1.05 𝑉𝑠 − 0.2113 𝑉𝑠 = 0.8386 𝑉𝑠
Volumetric efficiency
𝑉1 − 𝑉4
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠
 0.8386 𝑉𝑠
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠
𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝒐𝒓 𝟖𝟑. 𝟖𝟔%
From ideal gas equation
𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑃1 𝑉1 −𝑉4
=
𝑇𝑓 𝑇1
Free air delivered per cycle is given as
𝑇𝑓 𝑃1 𝑉1 −𝑉4
𝑉𝑓 =
𝑃𝑓 𝑇1
Thus volume of air inducted per min at suction condition
𝑉𝑓ሶ 𝑃𝑓 𝑇1
𝑉1ሶ − 𝑉4ሶ =
𝑃1 𝑇𝑓
2 × 1.03 × 300
𝑉1ሶ − 𝑉4ሶ =
1 × 293

𝑉1ሶ − 𝑉4ሶ = 2.109 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

 𝑉1ሶ − 𝑉4ሶ
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠 × 𝑁 × 𝑘

𝑉1ሶ − 𝑉4ሶ
𝑉𝑠 =
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 × 𝑁 × 𝑘

2.109
𝑉𝑠 =
0.8386 × 300 × 2

𝑉𝑠 = 0.00419 𝑚3

𝑉1 = 1.05 × 0.00419 = 0.0044 𝑚3

𝑉4 = 0.02113 × 0.00419 = 8.856 × 10−4 𝑚3

Indicated power
𝑛𝑐 −1 𝑛𝑒 −1
𝑛𝑐 𝑃2 𝑛𝑐 𝑛𝑒 𝑃2 𝑛𝑒
𝑊= 𝑃1 𝑉1 −1 − 𝑃1 𝑉4 −1
𝑛𝑐 − 1 𝑃1 𝑛𝑒 − 1 𝑃1
1.3−1 1.35−1
1.3 7 1.3 1.35 7 1.35
𝑊= × 100 × 0.0044 −1 − × 100 × 8.8856 × 10−4 −1
1.3−1 1 1.35−1 1

𝑊 = 1.080 − 0.224 = 0.856 kJ/cycle

The indicated power input to compressor
𝑊𝑁𝑘 0.856 × 300 × 2
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐼𝑃 = =
60 60
𝐼𝑃 = 8.558 kW

𝐼𝑃 8.558
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐵𝑃 = = = 10.7 𝑘𝑊
Ƞmech 0.8
Limitations of Single-stage Compression with high Pressure Ratio

• Usually, the pressure ratio for a single-stage reciprocating air

compressor is limited to 7.
• Greater expansion of clearance air
• Decreases effective suction volume
• Decrease in fresh air induction
• Delivery temperature increases
• Increases specific volume of air
• More compression work is required
• Increases balancing problem
• Heavier flywheel installation
 Multistage Compressor with Intercooler
▪ All the limitations can be reduced to minimum level by compressing the air in
more than one cylinders with intercooling between stages, for the same
pressure ratio.
▪ The compression of air in two or more cylinders in series is called multistage
compression.
▪ Air cooling between stages provides the means to achieving an appreciable
reduction in the compression work and maintaining the air temperature within
safe operating limits.
 Advantages of Multistage Compression
1. The gas can be compressed to a sufficiently high pressure.
2. Cooling of air is more efficient with intercoolers and cylinder wall
surface.
3. compression can be brought to isothermal and power input to the
compressor can be reduced considerably.
4. pressure ratio of each stage is lowered.
5. air leakage past the piston in the cylinder is also reduced.
6. The low pressure ratio in a cylinder improves volumetric efficiency.
7. more uniform torque and better mechanical balance can be achieved.
8. Due to low pressure ratio in stages, the compressor speed could be
higher for same isothermal efficiency.
9. Low working temperature in each stage helps to sustain better
lubrication.
Work Done in Multistage Compressor with Intercooler
• The air at p1 and T1, is first drawn into the first stage or low pressure
(LP) cylinder. It is partially compressed to some intermediate pressure,
p2 and temperature T2, and is then discharged to an intercooler which
ideally cools the air to its initial temperature T1. The cooled air then
enters the second stage or high pressure (HP) cylinder and is
compressed to a delivery pressure p3 and temperature T3.
• The cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents first-stage compression cycle.
• The air is then cooled in an intercooler, if intercooling is complete
(perfect), the air will enter the HP cylinder at the same temperature at
which it enters the LP cylinder.
• The second-stage compression cycle in an HP cylinder is shown by cycle
5—6—7—8—5.
• The line 1-2—9 represents the single-stage compression from initial
pressure p, to delivery pressure p3.
• The shadded area 2—9—6—5-—2 represents the saving in
compression work obtained by intercooling.
Work Done in Multistage Compressor with Intercooler
Condition for Minimum Compression Work:
Optimum Intermediate Pressure
Minimum Compression Work Input for Two-Stage Compression
MODULE 4
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
 Introduction
• Centrifugal compressor is a type of rotary compressor
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
• The centrifugal compressors are dynamic action
compressors.
➢Construction
• The impeller is a radial disc with a series of
radial blades (vanes).
• The impeller rotates inside the casing. The
impeller is usually forged or die casting of
aluminium alloy.
• The centre of the impeller is called the eye. The
eye of the impeller is connected with the drive
shaft.
• The casing of the compressor has a volute
shape.
• A diffuser ring is housed in the radial portion of
the casing.
➢Working
• As the impeller rotates, the air enters radially into the
impeller eye with low velocity V1, at atmospheric
pressure p1;.
• Due to centrifugal action of the impeller, the air comes
radially out and during its movement, it is guided by the
blades within the impeller.
• The high velocity of the impeller increases the
momentum of air, causing rise in static pressure,
temperature and kinetic energy of air.
• The pressure, temperature and velocity of air leaving the
impeller are p2, T2, and V2, respectively.
• The air leaving the outside edge of the impeller enters
into the diffuser ring where its kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy. Thus, the static pressure
of air is further increased. The air is then collected in the
casing and discharged from the compressor. The change
in pressure and velocity of air passing the impeller and
diffuser passage are shown
Velocity Diagram
Euler’s equation or Euler’s work
Work from steady flow energy equation
Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser
 Degree of Reaction
• The degree of reaction is defined as the
ratio of static pressure rise in the
impeller to the total static pressure rise in
the compressor. The pressure rise in the
impeller is equal to change in kinetic
energy of air in the impeller, i.e.,

• The first term above equation indicates the

pressure rise in the impeller due to
diffusion action, and the second term
represents the pressure rise in the
compressor due to centrifugal action of
the impeller.
• Total pressure rise in the compressor is
equal to work input to the compressor.
 Losses and Efficiency of Centrifugal Compressor
The following losses occur in a centrifugal compressor, when air flows through the impeller:
• 1. Friction between moving air layers and impeller blades and friction between air layers
moving with relative velocities,
• 2. Shock at entry, and
• 3. Turbulence caused in air.
❑These losses cause an increase in enthalpy of air without increasing the pressure of air.
Therefore, the actual temperature of air coming out of the compressor is more than the
temperature of air at the inlet.
• The actual work input for the same pressure ratio is more due to irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiency
Slip and Slip Factor
 Work factor or power input factor
• Work factor or power input factor is defined as ratio of actual work input to Euler work
input.
 Pressure coefficient
• Pressure coefficient is defined as the ratio of isentropic work to Euler work.
 Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Compressor Performance
• There are usually three types of impeller blade shapes used
in a centrifugal compressor. These are based on air outlet
angle.
1. Backward curved blades (< 90°) 2. Radial blades (= 90°)
3. Forward curved blades (> 90°)
▪ The centrifugal action on the curved vanes creates bending
moment and induces bending stresses.
▪ The radial vane is the compromise between backward and
forward curved vanes.
▪ Therefore, the radial vane impeller is most commonly used
in a centrifugal compressor due to the following reasons:
1. Radial-vane geometry is simple, thus vanes can be
manufactures easily. 2. Radial vanes have lowest bending stress
for given diameter and speed as compared to forward and
backward curved vanes. 3. Radial vanes have a constant
pressure head in the impeller as well as in the diffuser. 4. A
radial-vane impeller has good efficiency and high pressure
head.
 Diffuser System
• In a centrifugal compressor, the diffuser converts kinetic
energy of air into static pressure head.
• the diffuser contributes about one half of the overall static
pressure rise.
• A diffuser consists of curved vanes, which are used to
minimize the whirl of high speed air with smallest
possible flow path and diameter.
• The number of diffuser passages are less than the
impeller passages for more uniform and smooth flow.
• The clearance provided between the impeller and diffuser
rings acts as a vaneless diffuser and it functions to 1.
smooth out velocity variation between the impeller tip
and diffuser vanes 2. reduce circumferential pressure
gradient at the impeller tip 3. reduce the velocity at the
entry of vanes
 Choking
• Choking: At constant impeller speed, the
decrease in pressure ratio leads to an
increase in mass-flow rate and hence the
density of compressed air is decreased.
Consequently, the radial velocity of air
increases, which increases the absolute
velocity of air at impeller exit and incidence
angle at diffuser vane tip. The slope of the
characteristic curve decreases and finally the
point A is reached as shown.
• The mass-flow rate of fluid cannot be
increased beyond the point A. This point is
called choking state.
 Surging
• Surging: Consider a compressor is running at constant speed and
the full valve is open on delivery side at a pressure ratio located by
the point B on the characteristic curve shown. If any resistance is
placed in the delivery path of a compressor, or by partial closing of
the valve, the mass-flow rate decreases with increase in pressure
ratio, and the operating point will shift towards left on
characteristic curve, say at the point C from the point B.
• If resistance is further increased in the delivery path, the mass-flow
rate of air through the compressor decreases and the compressor
operating point will shift toward left till it reaches the point D, the
operating point for maximum pressure ratio.
• If resistance is further increased, the mass-flow rate will decrease
and reach the zone D—EF on the curve, with decrease in pressure
ratio also. In this situation, the pressure in downstream line will be
more than the pressure of air at the actual delivery of the
compressor. This situation leads to a stop of fluid flow and
sometimes, flow of fluid in reverse direction.
• Within a short interval of time, the pressure is built up within the compressor due to accumulation of mass;
and the compressor may again start to deliver the fluid. If downstream conditions remain unchanged then
fluid flow will again break down, as pressure of delivered air is subsidized and the cycle will be repeated with
high frequency. This situation of instability is known as surging or pumping.
• Surging in the line causes unstable compressor operation.
• Surging occurs when the operating points of the compressor get into the unstable area of the operating curve.
• During surging, the compressor shows cyclic flow and back-flow of the compressed air resulting into high
vibrations, pressure shocks and over heating.
• The breakdown of flow due to persistent surging may lead to heavy damages.
• Effect of Surging Consequences of surging can include 1. Rapid flow and pressure oscillations causing
process instabilities 2. Rising temperatures inside the compressor 3. Tripping of the compressor 4.
• Mechanical damage:
❖-Radial bearing load during the initial phase of surging
❖-Thrust bearing load due to loading and unloading
❖-Seal rubbing
❖-Stationary and rotating part contact, if thrust bearing is overloaded
❑In a centrifugal pressure compressor, ratio the air enters at 27°C and leaves at 105°C. The
air is compressed through a pressure ratio of 2. Calculate the isentropic efficiency and
power required by the compressor, if 30 kg of air is compressed per minute. Take Cp = 1.00
kJ/kg-K and Cv = 0.716 kJ/kg-K.
• Solution
Given
A centrifugal compressor with
𝑚ሶ = 30 kg/min = 0.5 kg/s
𝑃2
= 2.0
𝑃1
T1 = 27°C = 300K
T2 = 105°C =378K
CP = 1.00 kJ/kg-K
CV = 0.716 kJ/kg-K
Find: (i) Isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
(ii) Power required to run the compressor.
 𝐶𝑃 1
𝛾= = = 1.4
𝐶𝑉 0.716
The temperature of air after isentropic compression
𝛾−1
𝑃2 𝛾
𝑇2𝑠 = 𝑇1
𝑃1
1.4−1
2 1.4
𝑇2𝑠 = 300 ×
1
𝑇2𝑠 =365.7 K
Isentropic efficiency is given by;
𝑇2𝑠 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 =
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
365.7 − 300
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 = = 0.8423 = 84.23%
378 − 300
The power input for compression
𝑃 = 𝑚𝐶 ሶ 𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 0.5 × 1 × 378 − 300 = 39𝑘𝑊
❑An aircraft engine is fitted with a single-sided centrifugal compressor. The aircraft flies
with a speed of 900 km/h at an altitude, where the pressure is 0.23 bar and temperature is
217 K. The inlet duct of the impeller eye contains fixed vanes, which gives the air pre
whirl of 25° at all radii. The inner and outer diameter of the eye are 180 and 330 mm,
respectively. The diameter of the impeller tip is 540 mm and rotational speed is 15000
rpm. Estimate the stagnation pressure at compressor outlet when the mass flow rate is 210
kg/ minute. Neglect losses in inlet duct and fixed vanes, and assume that the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 80%. Take slip factor as 0.9 and power input factor as 1.04.
▪ Solution
Given
N=15000rpm Dh=150 mm D1=330 mm D2=540 mm P1=0.23 bar
𝑣𝑤2
T1=217 K V1= 900 km/h ∅𝑠 = = 0.9 ∅𝑤 = 1.04
𝑢2

• To find Stagnation pressure at compressor outlet.

The velocity of air with reference to aircraft
900 × 1000
𝑣1 = = 250 𝑚/𝑠
3600
Stagnation temperature at the inlet of compressor
𝑣1 2
𝑇01 = 𝑇1 +
2𝐶𝑝
2502
𝑇01 = 217 + = 248.1 𝐾
2 × 1005

The stagnation pressure at compressor inlet

𝛾
𝑇01 𝛾−1
𝑃01 = 𝑃1
𝑇1
1.4
248.1 1.4−1
𝑃01 = 0.23 × = 0.3675 𝑏𝑎𝑟
217
The blade velocity at exit is given by
𝜋𝐷2 𝑁 𝜋 × 0.54 × 15000
𝑢2 = = = 424.11 𝑚/𝑠
60 60
The whirl velocity at exit
𝑣𝑤2 = ∅𝑠 × 𝑢2 = 0.9 × 424.11 = 381.7 𝑚/𝑠

The power input factor is given as

𝐶𝑝 𝑇02 − 𝑇01
∅𝑤 =
𝑢2 𝑣𝑤2
The stagnation temperature at exit
∅𝑤 𝑢2 𝑣𝑤2
𝑇02 = + 𝑇01
𝐶𝑝
1.04 × 424.11 × 381.7
𝑇02 = + 248.1 = 415.62 𝐾
1005
The isentropic efficiency in terms of stagnation temperatures may be given as
𝑇02𝑠 − 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 =
𝑇02 − 𝑇01
Isentropic stagnation temperature at exit is given by
𝑇02𝑠 = 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑇02 − 𝑇01 + 𝑇01
𝑇02𝑠 = 0.8 415.62 − 248.1 + 248.1 = 382.11𝐾
Stagnation pressure after compression
𝛾
𝑇02𝑠 𝛾−1
𝑃02 = 𝑃01
𝑇01
1.4
382.11 1.4−1
𝑃02 = 0.3675 ×
248.1
𝑃02 =1.667 bar
❑A centrifugal compressor running at 1440 rpm, handles air at 101 kPa and 20°C and
compresses it to a pressure of 6 bar isentropically. The inner and outer diameters of the
impeller are 14 cm and 28 cm, respectively. The width of the blade at the inlet is 2.5 cm.
The blade angles are 16° and 40° at entry and exit. Calculate mass-flow rate of air, degree
of reaction, power input and width of blades at outlet.
▪ Solution
Given
A centrifugal compressor with
N = 1440 rpm D1=14 cm D2=28 cm p1 = 101 kPa p2 = 6 bar = 600kPa
T1 = 200 = 293 K B1=2.5 cm 𝜃 = 160 ∅ = 400

To find
(i) Mass flow rate of air,
(ii) Power input to the compressor,
(iii) Degree of reaction, and
(iv) Width of blade at outlet.
 𝜋𝐷1 𝑁
𝑢1 =
60

𝜋 × 0.14 × 1440
= = 10.56 𝑚/𝑠
60

The linear velocity of impeller at the outlet

𝜋𝐷2 𝑁
𝑢2 =
60

𝜋 × 0.28 × 1440
= = 21.12 𝑚/𝑠
60

𝑉𝑓1
tan 𝜃 =
𝑢1

𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑢1 × tan 𝜃 = 10.56 × tan 16 = 3 𝑚/𝑠

 𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑉𝑓2 × cot ∅

𝑣𝑤2 = 21.12 − 3 × cot 40 = 17.5 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑟1 = 𝑢1 2 + 𝑣𝑓1 2 = 11 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑟2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑣𝑤2 2 + 𝑣𝑓1 2 = 4.7 𝑚/𝑠

Work input per kg of air

𝑤 = 𝑣𝑤2 𝑢2
𝑤 = 17.5 × 21.12 = 396.6 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
(i) Mass-flow rate of air
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣𝑓1 = 𝜌1 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 𝑣𝑓1
Density of air
𝑝1 101 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 1.201 3
𝑅𝑇1 0.287 × 293 𝑚
𝑚ሶ = 1.201 × 𝜋 × 0.14 × 0.025 × 3 = 0.0396 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

(ii) Power input to run the compressor

𝑃 = 𝑚𝑤
ሶ = 0.0396 × 369.6 = 14.61 𝑊
(iii) Degree of reaction
𝑣𝑤2
𝑅𝑑 = 1 −
2𝑢2
𝑅𝑑 = 0.5872 = 58.72%
(iv) Flow velocity at outlet
𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑓1 = 3 𝑚/𝑠
𝛾−1
𝑃2 𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑃1
1.4−1
600 1.4
𝑇2 = 293 ×
101
𝑇2 = 487.48 K

𝑝2 600 𝑘𝑔
𝜌2 = = = 4.288 3
𝑅𝑇2 0.287 × 487.48 𝑚
Width of blade at outlet
𝑚ሶ
𝐵2 =
𝜌2 𝜋𝐷2 𝑣𝑓2
0.0396
𝐵2 = = 0.0035 𝑚 = 3.5 𝑐𝑚
4.288 × 𝜋 × 0.28 × 3
MODULE 4
AXIAL COMPRESSOR

1
 AXIAL COMPRESSOR
❑Axial compressors are aerofoil (blade) based rotary compressors.
❑ The gas flows parallel to the axis of rotation in axial flow compressors and gas is
continuously compressed.
❑The several rows of aerofoil blades are used to achieve large pressure rise in the
compressor.
• The axial compressors are generally multi-stage machines; each stage can give a pressure
ratio of 1.2 to 1.3.
➢Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbine plants and small power stations.
➢They are also used in industrial applications such as blast-furnace air, large-volume air-
separation plants, and propane dehydrogenation.
➢Axial compressors are also used for supercharging.
➢They are also used to boost the power of automotive reciprocating engines by compressing
the intake air.
2
 Construction
• An axial air compressor consists of a large number of rotating blade rows, fixed on a
rotating drum, and stator (fixed) blade rows fixed on the casing of the compressor.
• A pair of rotating and stationary blades is called a stage.
• The moving blades act as a series of fans and the fixed blades act as guide vanes and
diffuser.
• The moving blades are imparting energy into the fluid, and the fixed blades convert a part
of kinetic energy of the fluid into pressure energy through diffusion process and then
guide and redirect the fluid onto the next stage of moving blades without shock.
• The blades are made in aerofoil section to reduce the losses caused by shocks, turbulence
and boundary separation.
• The annular area for air flow is gradually reduced from the inlet to the outlet of the
compressor.

3
4
 Working
• The work input to a rotor shaft is
transferred by moving blades to air, thus
accelerating the air flow.
• The spaces between moving blades and
casing form the diffuser passages, and thus
the velocity of air decreases as air passes
through them and results into increase in
pressure and enthalpy.
• The air is then further diffused in stator
blades which are also arranged to form
diffuser passages.
• The fixed blades also guide the air to flow
at an angle for smooth entry of next row of
moving blades.
5
Velocity Triangles for Axial Flow Compressor
❑ The blade velocity remains
same at inlet and outlet
❑ 𝑢1 = 𝑢2

➢ Flow velocity also remains

constant
➢ 𝑣𝑓1 = 𝑣𝑓2

• Relative velocity at outlet is

less than that at inlet
• 𝑣𝑟2 < 𝑣𝑟1

❖ 𝛼, 𝛽 = 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
❖ 𝜃, ∅ = 𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
6
The work input per stage per kg of air
𝒘 = 𝒖 𝒗𝒘𝟐 − 𝒗𝒘𝟏
𝒘 = 𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟎𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎𝟏
Power required to drive the compressor
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑤ሶ = 𝑚𝑢 ሶ 𝑣𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑤1
From inlet and outlet velocity triangles, we get
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅
𝑣𝑤1 = 𝑣𝑓1 tan 𝛼
𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑣𝑓2 tan 𝛽
𝑣𝑓1 = 𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑓
Therefore, work input to axial flow compressor
𝒘 = 𝒖 𝒗𝒇 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶

7
 Degree of Reaction
• the degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of
static pressure rise in rotor to the total static
pressure rise in the compressor.
Pressure rise in rotor blade
• 𝑅𝑑 =
Pressure rise in compressor
𝑣𝑟1 2 − 𝑣𝑟2 2
• 𝑅𝑑 = 2
𝑢 𝑣𝑤2 −𝑣𝑤1
𝑣𝑟1 2 − 𝑣𝑟2 2
• 𝑅𝑑 =
2𝑢 𝑣𝑤2 −𝑣𝑤1

• From the inlet velocity triangle

• 𝑣𝑟1 2 = 𝑣𝑓1 2 + 𝑣𝑓1 2 × tan 𝜃 2

• From the outlet velocity triangle

• 𝑣𝑟2 2 = 𝑣𝑓2 2 + 𝑣𝑓2 2 × tan ∅ 2

8
 𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑣𝑓2 tan 𝛽
𝑣𝑤1 = 𝑣𝑓1 tan 𝛼
𝑣𝑓 2 ( tan 𝜃 2 − tan ∅ 2 )
𝑅𝑑 =
2𝑢𝑣𝑓 tan 𝛽 − tan 𝛼
❑From symmetry of velocity triangles,
𝛽 = 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = ∅
❑Usually, the degree of reaction in axial flow
compressor is taken 50%, i.e., 𝑅𝑑 = 0.5
1 𝑣𝑓 tan 𝜃 + tan ∅
∴ =
2 2𝑢

𝒖
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅
𝒗𝒇
With 50% reaction blading, the axial compressor has
symmetrical blades and losses in the compressor are
drastically reduced.
9
EXAMPLE FOR symmetrical blades

10
 Polytropic Efficiency
❑The polytropic efficiency is the
isentropic efficiency of one stage of a
multistage, axial flow air compressor.
❑The stage efficiency remains constant
for all stages of the compressor.

𝛾−1 𝑛
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =
𝛾 𝑛−1

𝑝02
𝛾−1 𝑙𝑛
𝑝01
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =
𝛾 𝑇
𝑙𝑛 02
𝑇01

11
12
• Work Coefficient It is defined as the ratio of actual work input to kinetic energy
corresponding to mean peripheral velocity. It is also called head coefficient and designated
as 𝜙ℎ

13
14
 Losses in Axial-Flow Compressor
1. Profile Losses The blade geometry of an axial compressor is two dimensional. The air
flow along the profile of blade experiences skin friction. Further, the different streams of
air are mixed after passing on blades. These losses lead to pressure loss of compressed
air.

2. Annulus Losses When air flows through the annulus passage of the compressor, it
experiences growth of boundary layer and skin friction. Therefore, there is loss of
pressure of compressed air.

3. Secondary Losses In an axial-flow air compressor, the certain secondary flows are
generated by combined effect of curvature of blade and growth of boundary layer in the
annulus. The air is deflected by curvature of blades and bends in pipe, etc. It causes loss
in pressure of compressed air.
15
 Surging
• Surging is defined as a self-oscillation of the discharge
pressure and flow rate, including a flow reversal.
• Every centrifugal or axial compressor has a
characteristic combination of maximum head and
minimum flow.
• Beyond this point, surging will occur.
• During surging, a flow reversal is often accompanied by
a pressure drop.
• Surging is caused when mass-flow rate of fluid is
reduced to a value which is less than the predetermined
value.
• Thus, the flow becomes unsteady, periodic reversal.
• The surging state (from M to U on characteristic curve)
is dangerous for operation of a compressor of axial flow
compressor also.

16
 Choking
• When the velocity of fluid in the compressor
reaches sonic velocity, the mass-flow rate through
the compressor reaches a maximum value. This
situation is called choking.
• At choking condition, the pressure ratio in the
compressor becomes unity, ie., there is no
compression.
• Choking means constant mass flow irrespective of
pressure ratio.
• The choking occurs at the point C.
• In region M to C on the curve, the flow is stable.
Decrease in mass flow rate will result into
increased pressure rise.

17
 Stalling
• A compressor Stalling is a situation of abnormal air
flow resulting from a reduction in the lift coefficient
generated by an airfoil within the compressor.
• The stalling is the separation of flow from blade
surface at low flow rates.
• At the large value of incidence, the flow separation
occurs at suction side of the blade, which is referred
as positive stalling.
• Negative stalling is due to separation of flow
occurring on the delivery side of the blade due to
large value of negative incidence.
• Compressor stalls hamper the compressor
performance, which can differ in severity from a
momentary compression loss to a complete loss of
compression.
18
CENTRIFUGAL VS AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

19
❑An axial-flow compressor draws air at 20°C and delivers it at 50°C. Assuming 50%
reaction, calculate the velocity of flow, if blade velocity is 100 m/s, work factor is
0.85.Take Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K, Assume 𝛼 = 10°, and 𝜃= 40°. Find the number of stages.
✓Solution
Given
An axial-flow air compressor with 𝛽 = 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = ∅
Rd = 0.5
T1 = 200C= 293 K
T2 = 500C = 323 K
𝛼 = 10°, and 𝜃= 40°.
u=100 m/s
Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K
∅ℎ = 0.85

20
The blade velocity and flow velocity are related as
𝑢
= tan 𝜃 + tan ∅
𝑣𝑓
100
= tan 40 + tan 10
𝑣𝑓
𝒗𝒇 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
𝑣𝑤1 = 𝑣𝑓1 tan 𝛼
𝑣𝑤1 = 98.48 × tan 10 = 17.36 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑣𝑓2 tan 𝛽
𝑣𝑤2 = 98.48 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 40 = 82.63 𝑚/𝑠

The work input per stage per kg of air

𝑤 = 𝑢 𝑣𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑤1 ∅ℎ
𝑤 = 100 × 82.63 − 17.36 × 0.85
𝒘 = 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝑱/𝒌𝒈
21
Theoretical work required for a compressor
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑤 = 1005 × 323 − 293
𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑱/𝒌𝒈
Number of stages
Theoretical work 30150
= = = 5.43 ≈ 𝟔 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔
Work input per stage 5548.33

22
❑In an axial flow compressor, overall stagnation pressure ratio achieved is 4 and overall
stagnation isentropic efficiency is 85%. The inlet stagnation pressure and temperature are 1
bar and 300 K, respectively. The mean blade velocity is 180 m/s. The degree of reaction is
50% at mean radius with relative air angles of 12° and 32° at rotor inlet and outlet,
respectively. The work done factor is 0.9. Calculate (a) Stagnation polytropic efficiency, (b)
Inlet temperature and pressure, (c) Number of stages, (d) Blade height in first stage, if ratio
of hub-to-tip diameter is 0.42, mass-flow rate is 19.5 kg/s.
✓Solution
Given
An axial-flow air compressor with 𝛽 = 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = ∅
Rd = 0.5 T01 = 300 K 𝛼 = 12°, and 𝛽= 32°.
u=180 m/s Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K ∅ℎ = 0.9
P01=100k Pa
m = 19.5 kg/s 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 = 0.85
𝑟ℎ = 0.42 𝑟1
23
 𝛾−1
𝑃02 𝛾
𝑇02𝑠 = 𝑇01
𝑃01
1.4 −1
𝑇02𝑠 = 300 × 4 1.4

𝑇02𝑠 =445.8 K
The isentropic efficiency is given by
𝑇02𝑠 − 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 =
𝑇02 − 𝑇01
Final stagnation temperature of air
𝑇02𝑠 − 𝑇01
𝑇02 = + 𝑇01
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛

445.8 − 300
𝑇02 = + 300
0.85
𝑇02 = 471.52 𝐾
24
 𝑝02
𝛾−1 𝑙𝑛
𝑝01
The stagnation polytropic efficiency, 𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =
𝛾 𝑇
𝑙𝑛 02
𝑇01
1.4 − 1 𝑙𝑛 4
𝜂𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =
1.4 471.52
𝑙𝑛
300
𝜼𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝟗%
𝑢
For 50% reaction & symmetrical blades, = tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
𝑣𝑓
𝑢
= tan 12 + tan 32 = 0.8374
𝑣𝑓
180
𝑣𝑓 = = 214.95 𝑚/𝑠
0.8374
Inlet air velocity
𝑣𝑓 214.95
𝑣1 = = = 219.75 𝑚/𝑠
cos 𝛼 cos 12
Whirl velocity at inlet;
𝑣𝑤1 = 𝑣𝑓 tan 𝛼 = 214.95 × tan 12
𝑣𝑤1 = 45.69 m/s
25
 𝑣𝑤2 = 𝑣𝑓 tan 𝛽 = 214.95 × tan 32
𝑣𝑤2 =134.31 m/s
Work input per kg of air per stage
𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑢 𝑣𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑤1 ∅ℎ
𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 180 × 134.31 − 45.69 0.9
𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =14357.46 J/kg
The static temperature at inlet
𝑉1 2
𝑇1 = 𝑇01 −
2𝐶𝑝

219.75 2
𝑇1 = 300 −
2 × 1005

𝑻𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝑲
26
Inlet pressure can be expressed as
𝛾
𝑇1 𝛾−1
𝑃1 = 𝑃01 ×
𝑇01
1.4
276 1.4−1
𝑃1 = 1 ×
300
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝒃𝒂𝒓
(iii) Number of stages
Total work input to compressor per kg of air in all stages;
𝑤𝑇 = 𝐶𝑝 × 𝑇02 − 𝑇01
𝑤𝑇 = 1005 × 471.52 − 300
𝑤𝑇 = 172385 𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑤𝑇 172385
No. of stages = = ≈ 𝟏𝟐
𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 14356.44
27
(iv) Blade height in first stage
Density of air entering the first stage
𝑝1 0.746 × 100
𝜌= = = 0.9425 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇1 0.287 × 276
The mass-flow rate is given by
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 𝑣𝑓 = 𝜌𝜋 𝑟1 2 − 𝑟ℎ 2 𝑣𝑓
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝜋 𝑟1 2 − (0.42 × 𝑟1 )2 𝑣𝑓
19.5 = 0.9425 × 𝜋 × 𝑟1 2 − (0.42 × 𝑟1 )2 × 214.95
𝑟1 2 = 0.03720
𝑟1 = 0.1928 𝑚
𝑟ℎ = 042 𝑟1 = 0.081 𝑚
Height of blade in first stage
𝑟1 − 𝑟ℎ = 0.1928 − 0.081 = 0.1118 𝑚
𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝒄𝒎
28
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPE
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
 Roots blower compressor
Construction
• Roots blower compressor consist of two rotors with lobes.
• An air tight casing contains these rotating lobes.
• The shape of the lobes is cycloid or involute.
• There is an inlet and outlet port.
• A receiver is connected to the outlet port. Receiver is a
storage tank which stores the compressed air from the
compressor.
Working
• Air from atmosphere enters the compressor through inlet
port
• At first when lobes rotates, this air is trapped between the
left hand lobe and the casing. This trapped air is delivered
to the receiver as the lobe further rotates. Thus more and
more air flows into the receiver which increases the
pressure
• The same process continues with the right hand
lobe and the process continues
2
Back flow of air
• When the rotating lobe uncovers the exit port, the high
pressure air from the receiver flows back into the casing.
This flow of air reduces the pressure inside the receiver
• This high pressure air which enters the casing mixed
up with the fresh air trapped inside the casing
• This mixing of air increases the pressure of air trapped
inside the casing at constant volume
• Finally the high pressure mixed air from the
compressor flows to the receiver
• The back flow process continues till the mixture of air
inside the casing and the air inside the receiver attains
equal pressure
• This process happens 4 times per revolution of the driving
shaft

3
4
5
 VANE-TYPE COMPRESSOR
Construction
✓It consists of an air-tight circular casing, in
which a drum rotates about an eccentric
centre of casing.
✓The drum consists of a set of spring-loaded
vanes.
✓The slots are cut in the drum to
accommodate the vanes.
✓During the rotation of the drum, the vanes
remain in contact with the casing.
✓Size of inlet passage is larger than the size
of outlet in the compressor.

6
Working
✓As the drum rotates, the volume of air V1 at
atmospheric pressure p1 is trapped between the
vanes, drum and casing.
✓First the compression begins due to decreasing
volume between the drum and casing. The volume
is reduced to V2 and pressure increases to p2.
✓Secondly, the air is compressed due to back flow
of compressed air in the receiver. Then the air is
compressed at constant volume to a pressure p3.
✓The first part of compression follows adiabatic
compression process and the second part follows
constant volume process.

7
❑ The vane-type compressor requires less
work input compared to roots blower for
same capacity and pressure ratio.
❑ Vane-type supercharging of IC engines and
supply of air to cupola.
❑ These are portable compressors used for
construction purpose.

8
 LYSHOLM COMPRESSOR—A SCREW COMPRESSOR
• The screw compressors are most commonly used
rotary air compressor.
❑Construction
• Screw compressors are equipped with two meshing
helical grooved rotors housed within a cylindrical
casing equipped with inlet and discharge ports.
• Main rotor is made with four lobes along the length
of the rotor that meshes with similarly formed
correspondingly helical flute on the auxiliary rotor.
• In the course of rotation, main and auxiliary rotors
generate a V-shaped space for the air drawn in,
which becomes smaller and smaller right up to the
end, between the rotor lobes and the cylinder walls.

9
❑Working
❑As rotors rotate, the air is drawn through the inlet port to fill the space between the main
lobe and auxiliary flute.
❑As rotors continue to rotate, the air is moved past the suction port and sealed in the
interlobe space.
❑ The trapped air is moved axially and radially and is compressed by direct volume
reduction as enmeshing of lobes of compressor progressively reduces the space occupied
by the gas with increase in pressure.
❑Simultaneously, with this process, the oil is injected into the system. The oil seals the
internal clearances and it absorbs the heat energy generated during compression.
❑The compression of air continues until the interlobe space communicates with discharge
port in the casing.
❑The compressed air leaves the casing through the discharge port.

10