Concept of Smart antennas

• In antenna arrays, the main beam is steered via phase

shifters to the directions of interest. These arrays are
called phased arrays or scanning arrays.
• This general approach of phase shifting has been
referred to as electronic beam steering and in this
process the phase of the current at each antenna
element is changed directly.
• Smart antennas have alternatively been called digital
beamformed (DBF) arrays or adaptive arrays (when
adaptive algorithms are employed). The term smart
implies the use of signal processing in order to shape
the beam pattern according to certain conditions
• Adaptive beamforming is a dynamic process which updates the
antenna array’s performance with time by collecting feedback from
the surrounding environment like the signals being propagated,
interfering objects (i.e., buildings, trees, cars), outside
electromagnetic interference (i.e., competing mobile users, radar
jammers), etc. to keep the array in an optimum state.
• For an array to be smart implies sophistication beyond merely
steering the beam to a direction of interest. Smart essentially
means computer control of the antenna performance.
• Smart antennas hold the promise for improved radar systems,
improved system capacities with mobile wireless, and improved
wireless communications through the implementation of space
division multiple access(SDMA).
Smart antenna system
 NEED FOR SMART ANTENNAS
Wireless communication systems, as opposed to their wireline
counterparts, pose some unique challenges :

i. the limited allocated spectrum results in a limit on capacity

ii. the radio propagation environment and the mobility of users give rise to
signal fading and spreading in time, space and frequency

iii. The limited battery life at the mobile device poses power constraints

Smart antennas provide

• high network capacity
• Improved Quality of service.
Wireless systems impairments
• The basic idea on which smart antenna systems
were developed is most often introduced with a
simple intuitive example that correlates their
operation with that of the human auditory
system. A person is able to determine the
Direction of Arrival (DoA) of a sound by
utilizing a three-stage process:
Human auditory system
• One’s ears act as acoustic sensors and receive the
signal.
• Because of the separation between the ears, each ear
receives the signal with a different time delay.
• The human brain, a specialized signal processor, does
a large number of calculations to correlate
information and compute the location of the received
sound.
• The listener among the two persons is capable of
determining the location of the speaker as he moves
about the room because the voice of the speaker
arrives at each acoustic sensor, the ear, at a different
time.
• The human “signal processor,” the brain, computes the
direction of the speaker from the time differences or delays
received by the two ears. Afterward, the brain adds the
strength of the signals from each ear so as to focus on the
sound of the computed direction.
• Utilizing a similar process, the human brain is capable of
distinguishing between multiple Signals that have different
directions of arrival. Thus, if additional speakers join the
conversation, the brain is able to enhance the received signal
from the speaker of interest and tune out unwanted interferers.
Therefore, the listener has the ability to distinguish one
person’s voice, from among many people talking
simultaneously, and concentrate on one conversation at a time.
In this way, any unwanted interference is attenuated.
Conversely, the listener can respond back to the same direction
of the desired speaker by orienting his/her transmitter, his/her
mouth, toward the speaker.
A two-element electrical smart
antenna
• Electrical smart antenna systems work the same
way using two antennas instead of two ears, and
a digital signal processor instead of the brain.
• Thus, based on the time delays due to the
impinging signals onto the antenna elements, the
digital signal processor computes the
direction-of-arrival (DOA) of the signal-of-interest
(SOI), and then it adjusts the excitations (gains
and phases of the signals) to produce a radiation
pattern that focuses on the SOI while tuning out
any interferers or signals-not-of-interest (SNOI).
 SMART ANTENNA CONFIGURATION
• Basically, there are two major configurations of
smart antennas:

• Switched-Beam: A finite number of fixed,

predefined patterns or combining strategies
(sectors).

• Adaptive Array: A theoretically infinite number of

patterns (scenario-based) that are adjusted in real
time according to the spatial changes of SOIs and
SNOIs.
• In the presence of a low level interference, both types
of smart antennas provide significant gains over the
conventional sectorized systems. However, when a
high level interference is present, the interference
rejection capability of the adaptive systems provides
significantly more coverage than either the
conventional or switched beam system
 Adaptation procedure: (a) Calculation of the beamformer
weights [20] and (b) Beam-formed antenna amplitude pattern
to enhance SOI and suppress SNOIs
Coverage patterns for switched beam
and adaptive array antennas
Beam forming lobes and nulls identical user signals
(light line) and co-channel interferers (dark lines)

Switched strategy Adaptive strategy

 Switched-Beam Antennas
A switched-beam system is the simplest smart antenna technique. It forms
multiple fixed beams with heightened sensitivity in particular directions. Such an
antenna system detects signal strength, chooses from one of several
predetermined fixed beams, and switches from one beam to another as the
cellular phone moves throughout the sector.
• The switched-beam, which is based on a basic switching function,
can select the beam that gives the strongest received signal. By
changing the phase differences of the signals used to feed the
antenna elements or received from them, the main beam can be
driven in different directions throughout space.
• Instead of shaping the directional antenna pattern, the
switched-beam systems combine the outputs of multiple
antennas in such a way as to form narrow sectorized (directional)
beams with more spatial selectivity that can be achieved with
conventional,single-element approaches.
• It is defined as the concept of phased array or multibeam
antenna. Such a configuration consists of either a number of fixed
beams with one beam turned on toward the desired signal or a
single beam (formed by phase adjustment only) that is steered
toward the desired signal.
 Butler matrix
• The DOA is first estimated and then different parameters in
the system are adjusted in accordance with the desired
steering angle. In this way the received power is maximized
but with the trade-off of more complicated antenna designs.
• The elements used in these arrays must be connected to the
sources and/or receivers by feed networks. One of the most
widely-known multiple beam forming networks is the Butler
matrix. It is a linear, passive feeding, N × N network with
beam steering capabilities of phased array antennas with N
outputs connected to antenna elements and N inputs or beam
ports. The Butler matrix performs a spatial fast Fourier
transform and provides N orthogonal beams, where N should
be an integer power of 2. These beams are linear
independent combinations of the array element patterns.
• A Butler matrix-fed array can cover a sector of up to 360◦
depending on element patterns and spacing. Each beam can
be used by a dedicated transmitter and/or receiver and the
appropriate beam can be selected using an RF switch. The
only required transmit/receive chain combines alternate
rows of hybrid junctions (or directional couplers) and fixed
phase shifters. A Butler matrix serves two functions:
• distribution of RF signals to radiating antenna elements and
• orthogonal beam forming and beam steering.
By connecting a Butler matrix between an antenna array and
an RF switch, multiple beam-forming can be achieved by
exciting two or more beam ports with RF signals at the same
time. A signal introduced at an input port will produce equal
excitations at all output ports with a progressive phase
between them, resulting in a beam radiated at a certain angle
in space.
A schematic diagram of a 4 ×4 Butler
matrix
8 orthogonal beams formed by an 8 ×8
Butler matrix
• if ports 1Rand 4L are excited at the same time
with RF signals of equal amplitude, and phase,
beams 2R and 3L will radiate simultaneously.
Although multiple beam forming is possible,
there is a limitation. Two adjacent beams
cannot be formed simultaneously as they will
add to produce a single beam
 Adaptive Antenna Approach
• The adaptive antenna systems approach communicates
between a user and a base station in a different way by
adding the dimension of space.
• By adjusting to the RF environment as it changes (or the
spatial origin of signals), adaptive antenna technology can
dynamically alter the signal patterns to optimize the
performance of the wireless system.
• Adaptive array systems provide more degrees of freedom
since they have the ability to adapt in real time the radiation
pattern to the RF signal environment; in other words, they
can direct the main beam toward the pilot signal or SOI while
suppressing the antenna pattern in the direction of the
interferers or SNOIs.
 Adaptive array system
• Adaptive array systems can locate and track signals (users and
interferers) and dynamically adjust the antenna pattern to
enhance reception while minimizing interference using signal
processing algorithms.
• After the system down converts the received signals to
baseband and digitizes them, it locates the SOI using the
direction-of-arrival (DOA) algorithm, and it continuously
tracks the SOI and SNOIs by dynamically changing the
complex weights (amplitudes and phases of the antenna
elements).
• Basically, the DOA computes the direction-of-arrival of all the
signals by computing the time delays between the antenna
elements, and afterward, the adaptive algorithm, using a cost
function, computes the appropriate weights that result in an
optimum radiation pattern.
Functional block diagram
 Strategies used
• In adaptive beamforming techniques, two main
strategies are distinguished. The first one is based on
the assumption that part of the desired signal is already
known through the use of a training sequence. This
known signal is then compared with what is received,
and the weights are then adjusted to minimize the Mean
Square Error (MSE) between the known and the
received signals. In this way, the beampattern can be
adjusted to null the interferers. This approach optimizes
the signal-to-interference ratio (SIR), and is applicable to
non-line-of-sight (NLOS) environments [93]. Since the
weights are updated according to the incoming signals,
not only the interference is reduced but the multipath
fading is also mitigated.
In the second one, the directions of arrivals from all
sources transmitting signals to the array antenna are
first identified. The complex weights are then adjusted
to produce a maximum toward the desired angle and
null toward interfering signals. This strategy may turn
out to be deficient in practical scenarios where there
are too many DOAs due to multipaths, and the
algorithms are more likely to fail in properly detecting
them. This is more likely to occur in NLOS
environments where there are many local scatterers
close to the users and the base station, thus resulting
in a wider spread of the angle of arrival
• A number of well-documented algorithms exist for
estimating the DOA; for example, MUSIC, ESPRIT,
or SAGE
Different smart antenna concepts
N element smart antenna
 Functional diagram of an N element smart antenna
• The smart antenna consists of the sensor array, the pattern
forming network, and the adaptive processor:
• I)Sensor Array: The sensor array consists of N sensors
designed to receive (and transmit) signals. The physical
arrangement of the array (linear, circular, etc.) can be chosen
arbitrarily, depending on the required specifications.
However, it places fundamental limitations on the capability
of the smart antenna.
• ii. Patternforming Network: The output of each of the N sensor
elements is fed into the pattern forming network, where the outputs
are processed by linear time-variant (LTV) filters. These filters
determine the directional pattern1 of the smart antenna. The
outputs of the LTV filters are then summed to form the overall
output y(t). The complex weights of the LTV filters are determined by
the adaptive processor.
• iii. Adaptive Processor: The adaptive processor determines the
complex weights of the pattern forming network. The signals and
known system properties used to compute the weights include the
following:
• The signals received by the sensor array, i.e., xn(t), n = 1, 2, . .
. , N.
• The output of the smart antenna, i.e., y(t).
• The spatial structure of the sensor array.
• The temporal structure of the received signal.
• Feedback signals from the mobiles.
• Network topology.
 Main challenges for the mobile device antenna
• small size, built-in, multiband, and coexistence of a
multiradio system and a multiple-input-multiple
output(MIMO) system.
• There have been two major requirements in the antenna
design.
One is that antennas for mobile terminal require small size,
built-in, and multiband operation.
Another is that mobile antennas should pass various
compliances before production, depending on the
functionality of the system, its service areas, and the
quality and quantity of data to be transmitted.
Proximity effects due to materials near the antenna
element, such as circuit components, acoustic components,
camera, and printed circuit board grounding quality, may
degrade antenna performance.
 Phased Array Antennas
The phased array antenna is a multi-element antenna system in
which the radiation pattern can be reinforced in a direction and
suppressed in undesired directions by controlling the phase of
individual elements. The direction of phased array radiation can be
electronically steered avoiding the need for any mechanical rotation
Antenna beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal
emitted from each radiating element to provide
constructive/destructive interference to steer the beams in the
desired direction. Thus, in the phased array, the main beam of the
array is steered by applying a progressive phase shift across the
array aperture by exciting all the antenna elements simultaneously
 Applications of Phased array RADAR
Phased array antennas are becoming popular for
various applications such as
Automotive driver assist systems,
satellite communications,
Advanced radar
Automotive collision avoidance radar
microwave imaging to detect Tumours
 Phased Array Types
• Passive and active.
• Passive arrays use a central transmitter and
receiver but have phase shift capability at each
radiating element or subarray.
• In active arrays, the high-power generation for
transmit and low-noise amplification on receive
are distributed as well as the phase control at
each radiating element. Active arrays provide
added system capability and reliability but not
received attention due to complexity.
Passive Phased Arrays
 Working
• A centralized high-power transmitter, which generally
consists of microwave tubes such as traveling-wave
tubes or crossed-field amplifier tube (CFA or
amplitron), provides the power to the radiating
antenna elements through a BFN.
• High-power ferrite or diode phase shifters are
controlled at each radiating element to electronically
steer the beam to the desired direction.
• In the receive mode, the outputs of the antenna
elements and phase shifters are combined using a low
power BFN.
• In the receive mode, LNAs are used to amplify the
signal at the output of the beamformers.
 Continued…
• Passive array systems have some inherent performance
limitations and inefficiencies.
• For instance, the transmit beamformer typically has
significant
• losses, and the transmitter must generate a large amount of
power to overcome these losses. Because of losses, a
significant portion of the RF power generated by the
transmitter is dissipated as heat before being radiated.
• A high-power centralized transmitter generally employs a
microwave tube. These tubes operate at lower duty factors
and have limited waveform flexibility. High receive feed
network losses, particularly when low sidelobes are required,
significantly degrade receive sensitivity.
Active Phased Array antenna
TRMs are main elements in any active phased array
radar system.
RF transmit power and received low-noise
amplification in an active phased array are distributed
at the aperture, which reduces the effect of losses in
the transmit/receive (T/R) BFNs. Adequate transmit
gain in the TRM allows a low RF input power to the
antenna. In the receive mode, a high-gain LNA reduces
the noise contribution from secondary stages of the
TRMs and beamformers.
By reducing the impact of transmit and receive feed
network losses, large active phased array antennas
provide increased radar sensitivity in the range of 8–12
dB compared to passive arrays.
• In addition, TRMs provide wider bandwidth and higher
average transmit power as compared to passive phased
arrays. The operating frequency, bandwidth, waveform
parameters, and array performance requirements will
vary depending on the applications served by the radar.
• The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) and
antenna beamwidth determine the total number of
antenna elements and the required TRM output power.
The sidelobe levels determine the amplitude and phase
characteristics of the TRMs and feed network. The
phase noise, reliability, stability, and maintainability
requirements all influence the array architecture as well
as the characteristics of the TRMs and power supplies.
Active Phased Array Radar System
 Key Active/Passive Design Differences
• Passive
Beamformer – Antenna driven by single large
Receiver
transmitter amplifier (HPA)
Passive

LNA
– First receive LNA after beam is
formed
HP – Large signal loss between
A radiating element and
transmitter/LNA
Transmitter – Antenna connects to transmitter
and receiver
Exciter

LNA
Transmit/Receive losses
T/R module

HPA
LNA
• Active
Beamformer

Receiver – T/R module behind each radiating

Active

element
– Transmitter distributed through
antenna in many small HPAs
Exciter – First LNA distributed through
antenna in many small LNAs
– Small signal loss between HPA/LNA
and radiating element
Transmit/Receive losses – Antenna is transmitter and receiver

Active Antenna is HPA and LNA –

Passive Antenna Connects to HPA and LNA
 Hybrid Phased Arrays
• A hybrid phased array combines features of
both passive and active phased arrays.
• A central transmitter feeds the array as in a
conventional passive phased array, but
an LNA is placed at each element in front of
the phase shifters to improve the overall
system noise figure. A limiter may be required in
front of the LNA for protection, as in an active
phased array.