PART-A

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT I DC & AC Circuits

DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its limitations, KCL &KVL,
series, parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position theorem, Simple numerical problems.

AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor,
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits, Concept of Impedance,
Active power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept of power factor (Simple Numerical
problems).

DC CIRCUITS:
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −

• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
So, it is important to have some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series
connection, parallel connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons
from a voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric
networks" but the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of
charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coulomb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured
in terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive
terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is
obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge
 (electrons) to flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow
through a pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in
seconds. We can re-write the above
equation a

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
• Active Elements and Passive Elements
• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
• Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
• Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements
Active Elements and Passive Elements
We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
• Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have
 the capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
• Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb
power. That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in
the form of either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their
characteristic to obey the property of linearity.
• Linear Elements are the elements that show
a linear relationship between voltage and current. Examples:
Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
• Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage
and current. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the
direction of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same
impedance in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.
The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. That means the current (–I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we
will get the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect
to terminals A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.

Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
 For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for
hundreds of miles.

R-L-C Parameters

Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing)
voltage. Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The
symbol of resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the above figure.

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly
proportional to the applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of
resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

 So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae
mentioned in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Ψ is the total magnetic flux
• L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol
of inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
 We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If
positive voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they
have linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The
symbol of capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as
 From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as

So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Cu rent Law
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node
is equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements
are connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected
to a node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
• Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.
• M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.
The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is
equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following
example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.

• In the above figure, the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 areentering at node P. So, consider
negative signs for these three currents.
• In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 areleaving from node P. So, consider positive
signs for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand
side represents the sum of leaving currents.
 In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it
enters a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive
sign when it enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop
or mesh is equal to zero.

A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
doesn’t contain any other loops inside it. Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

Where,
• Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
• N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to
the algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help
of the following example.
Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.

In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-
hand side represents the sum of voltage drops. In this example, we considered only one voltage source.
That’s why the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the
 left side contains sum of voltage sources.
In this tutorial, we consider the sign of each element’s voltage as the polarity of the second terminal that
is present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the
polarity of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will
be same.
Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.
• Current Division Principle
• Voltage Division Principle
Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that
flows through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the
node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and
R2. The voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the
resistors R1 and R2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across
that entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
current flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1
and V2 respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be
• Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

• Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

Network Reduction Techniques:
There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and Mesh
analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of series
type or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element. Hence, this
circuit is called as an equivalent circuit.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.

• Series Equivalent Circuit

• Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow
through all these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these
elements are connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those multiple
 resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be
maintained across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2, and R3. All these
elements are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this
principal node (P) is

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of reciprocal of each
resistance of all those multiple resistors.

Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the
equivalent inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the
equivalent capacitance will be
 Example Problems:

1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)

Solution:

To get Req we
combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so their
equivalent resistance is

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms
resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series.
Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:
 In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent
resistance is 4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms

Superposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one source, The total
current or voltage in any element of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of all the currents or voltages
in the same element with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their ideal
internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using Circuit reduction techniques Repeat step 1 for each
of the other independent sources.
2. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?
 Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the
voltage source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is
given by
:

Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage
source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
 AC CIRCUITS:
Single phase EMF generation:
Alternating voltage may be generated

1) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

2) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

The value of voltage generated depends upon

1) No. of turns in the coil 2) field strength 3) speed

Equation of alternating voltage and current

N= No. of turns in a coil

Fm= Maximum flux when coil coincides with X-axis

w= angular speed (rad/sec) = 2pf

At q=wt, F= flux component ^ to the plane =Fm cos wt

According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
dφ d
e=-N =-N φ m C osωt = ω N φ m Sinωt ........ (1 )
dt dt

Now, e is maximum value of Em , when Sinq = Sin 90° = 1.

i.e
Em = ωNFm ..................................................................... (2)
 From Eqn (1) & (2), e = Em Sin t volt

Now, current (i) at any time in the coil is proportional to the induced emf (e) in thecoil. Hence, i
= Im Sin t amp

A.C Voltage:

Waveform
• The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some variable
(such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.
Cycle
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage and
current) is known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.

Period
• The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one cycle is
called its time period “T”.
• It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
period is second.
• Mathematically;
T = 1/f

Frequency
• Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has the
unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
• The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
• It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
• Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T

Amplitude
• The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or
current is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.
• Alternation

• One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span is
180° degree.
 • Phase & Phase difference:

e A = E m A S in ω t
In phase: eB = EmB S in ω t

Out of phase: i) B leads A

eA = emA sinωt
Phase difference is α

eB = emB sin (ωt+α)

E m Sinωt
E m Sin(ωt+  )
Average Value:
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through
rectifiers, then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating
current sine wave.

Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage

If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC current
through rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM
The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by
that Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is
transferred by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current
in first half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In
other words, There are same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows
in the opposite direction, so the average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the
reason that’s why we don’t use average value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is
converted into DC through a rectifier, It can be used for electrochemical works.

We know that the standard equation of alternating current is

i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
 • Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im
• Average value of current on sine wave = IAV
• Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
• The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ
• Angle of half cycle = π radians
• Angle of full cycle = 2π radians

(a) Average value of complete cycle:

Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
(b) Average value of current over a half cycle

In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the
positive values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero
crossing.)
 RMS VALUE:
• The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an
alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit or
resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the
alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time.

• The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then
both AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same
circuit for a specific time period.

For a sinusoidal wave ,

or
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM

• For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:

IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM
• Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.
• We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =
Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
• While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

The Square root of this value is:

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):
 Now,

Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707
PEAK VALUE:
Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum
value of alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half
cycle in a sinusoidal wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM.
Equations of Peak Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS

VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P

VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV
In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum
(peaks) with respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

Peak to Peak Value:

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as Peak to Peak value. It’s expressed as IPP or
 VPP. Equations and formulas for Peak-to-Peak Voltage are as follow:
VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS =
2.828 x VRMS VP-P =2 x
VP
VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV
In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from positive
peak to the negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or maximum value as
shown in fig 8 above.

Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

Form Factor:
The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is
known as

Form Factor.

PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT: Purely Resistive Circuit:

• A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small that
at normal frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance. Ordinary
filament lamps, water resistances etc., are the examples of non-inductive resistances. If the
circuit is purely non-inductive, no reactance emf (i.e., self- induced or back emf) is set up
and whole of the applied voltage is utilized in overcoming the ohmic resistance of the
circuit.
• Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a
sinusoidal voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.
 As already said, when the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is
set up, therefore, applied voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of i R only:

And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident
that in a pure resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as
shown by wave and phasor diagrams in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c) respectively.

Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous
values of applied voltage and current.

Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From
the power curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) it is evident that power
consumed in a pure resistive circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are
always either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the
voltage source constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

Pure Inductive Circuit:

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance.
Practically pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small
resistance. However, a coil of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has
negligible resistance arid is known as a choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced
emf, is induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at
every instant applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.

From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing
through a purely inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by
π/2 as shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) by wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.
Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL i.e.,
XL = ω L If L is in henry and co is in radians per second then XL will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin
(ωt – π/2) Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax
Imax/2 sin 2 ωt
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a
sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely
inductive circuit power absorbed is zero.

Physically the above fact can be explained as below:

During the second quarter of a cycle the current and the magnetic flux of the coil increases and
the coil draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field (the power drawn is
positive and the energy drawn by the coil from the supply source is represented by the area
between the curve p and the time axis). The energy stored in the magnetic field during build up is
given as Wmax = 1/2 L I2max.
In the next quarter the current decreases. The emf of self-induction will, however, tends to oppose its
decrease. The coil acts as a generator of electrical energy, returning the stored energy in the
magnetic field to the supply source (now the power drawn by the coil is negative and the curve p
lies below the time axis). The chain of events repeats itself during the next half cycles. Thus, a
proportion of power is continually exchanged between the field and the inductive circuit and the
power consumed by a purely inductive coil is zero.

Purely Capacitive Circuit:

When a dc voltage is impressed across the plates of a perfect condenser, it will become charged
 to full voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will flow only during the period of
“build up” and will cease to flow as soon as the capacitor has attained the steady voltage of the
source. This implies that for a direct current, a capacitor is a break in the circuit or an infinitely
high resistance.
In Fig. 4.4 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied
voltage increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is
maximum in the beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied
voltage, so there is a phase difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the first
quarter-cycle the current flows in the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is
positive.
In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its
charge, and current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges
into the circuit. Thus, the current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a
maximum value when the applied voltage is zero.

The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the
difference that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current
changes.
In other words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging
of the capacitor. As illustrated in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead
of the voltage, so the current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite
of the inductance current- voltage relationship.
Let an alternating voltage represented by v = Vmax sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of
capacitance C farads.

The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:

q = C Vmax sin ωt

Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may be
obtained by differentiating the above equation:
From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through
 capacitance, it is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 4.4
(b) and (c) by wave and phasor diagrams respectively.

Capacitive Reactance:

1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted
by XC i.e., XC = 1/ω C
If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:

Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero. The same is shown graphically in Fig.
4.4 (b). The energy taken from the supply circuit is stored in the capacitor during the first quarter-
cycle and returned during the next.

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the expression:

This can be realized when it is recalled that no heat is produced and no work is done while current
is flowing through a capacitor. As a matter of fact, in commercial capacitors, there is a slight energy
loss in the dielectric in addition to a minute I2 R loss due to flow of current over the plates having
definite ohmic resistance.
The power curve is a sine wave of double the supply frequency. Although it raises the power factor
from zero to 0.002 or even a little more, but for ordinary purposes the power factor is taken to be
zero. Obviously the phase angle due to dielectric and ohmic losses decreases slightly.
CONCEPT OF REACTANCE, IMPEDANCE, SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE:

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhere electric or
magnetic fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter “X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow,
including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. When
alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere
between 0o and 90o out of phase with the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by
the letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form

Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a real part, Conductance
(G) and imaginary part, Susceptance (B).

(it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive susceptance)

Susceptance (symbolized B) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current (AC)
passes through a capacitance or inductance

Apparent
Power, True
Power, Reactive
Power and
Power Factor:

The product of rms values of current and voltage, VI is called the apparent power and is measured in
volt- amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).
 The true power in an ac circuit is obtained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor and
is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).

The product of apparent power, VI and the sine of the angle between voltage and current, sin ɸ is
called the reactive power. This is also known as wattless power and is expressed in reactive volt-
amperes or kilo-volt amperes reactive (kVA R).

The above relations can easily be followed by referring to the power diagram shown in Fig. 4.7 (a).

Power factor may be defined as:

(i) Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current,
(ii) The ratio of the resistance to impedance, or
(iii) The ratio of true power to apparent power.
The power factor can never be greater than unity. The power factor is expressed either as fraction
or as a percentage. It is usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical
value of power factor to signify whether the current lags behind or leads the voltage.
UNIT II Machines and Measuring Instruments

Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC Generator, (iii)
Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor and (v) Alternator, Applications
 of electrical machines.
Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone bridge.

Machines:

Construction, Principle and working of DC Motor:

A DC motor is an electrical machine that convert direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Parts of a DC Motor
1) Stator (Or) Yoke:
The magnetic frame or the yoke of dc motor made up of cast iron or steel and forms an integral
part of the stator or the static part of the motor. Its main function is to form a protective covering
over the inner sophisticated parts of the motor and provide support to the armature. It also
supports the field system by housing the magnetic poles and field winding of the dc motor.

2)Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder structure made up of silicon Steel laminations that

are laminated and insulated from one another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of

the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part that rotates on its axis in the air gap. It Houses

Armature winding in its slots

2)Poles:
The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner wall of the yoke with screws.
 The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts namely, the pole core and
the pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic pressure and then attached to the yoke. These two
structures are assigned for different purposes, the pole core is of small cross sectional area and its
function is to just hold the pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a relatively
larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the stator and rotor
to reduce the loss due to reluctance. The pole shoe also carries slots for the field windings that
produce the field flux. Field Winding of

Field Coil or Winding

The field winding of dc motor are made with field coils (copper wire) wound over the slots of the pole
shoes in such a manner that when field current flows through it, then adjacent poles have opposite
polarity are produced. The field winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces field flux within
which the rotor armature of the dc motor rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting
Commutator

The commutator of dc motor is a cylindrical structure made up of copper segments stacked together, but
insulated from each other by mica. Its main function as far as the dc motor is concerned is to commute or
relay the supply current from the mains to the armature winding housed over a rotating structure through
the brushes of dc motor.

Brushes

The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or graphite structures, making sliding contact over the
rotating commutator. The brushes are used to relay the current from external circuit to the rotating
commutator form where it flows into the armature winding. So, the commutator and brush unit of the dc
motor is concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically
rotating region or the rotor.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current
carrying conductor.
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can determine the direction of rotation of the motor.
WORKING:

To understand the Working of DC motor, consider the diagram shown below

Using the principle of DC Motor, a simple device can be constructed that demonstrates a dc motor
working. In the set-up, a rectangular coil ABCD made out of a copper wire is placed between two strong
permanent magnets. The coil is placed such that the arms AB and CD are perpendicular to the magnetic
field of the magnet. The ends of the coil come in contact with the two halves P and Q of a split ring that
is attached to an axle. The split ring is insulated such that it has no electrical contact with the axle.

When a battery is connected as shown in the diagram, current enters the coil through the conducting brush
X and flows out of the coil through the conducting brush Y. On its path the current flows from A to B and
changes direction when flowing from C to D. As we already know, the current flowing through the coil
induces a magnetic field. According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, a force acts on the conductor AB pushing
it downwards. Similarly, the current flowing through the coil CD generates a force which acts upward.
The force couple hence generated causes the coil to rotate in the anti-clockwise direction on the axle.

The same cycle repeats when the point Q on the split ring comes in contact with conducting brush X. The
split ring used here is called a commutator. It acts as a switch that reverses the flow of current in the DC
motor. In practical DC motors, the commutator is connected to a set of coils that increases the force acting
the armature receives thereby greatly increasing the speed and power of the motor.
Applications of a DC Motor

The application of a DC motor depends on the requirement of the electrical equipment and the
characteristics of the DC motor. Here is a list of the fields where the motors discussed above are used:
DC series motor

o Cranes
o Lifts and elevators
o Winching systems
o Hair driers
o Power tools

DC shunt motor

o Windscreen wiper drives

o Drills
o Conveyers
o Fans
o Centrifugal pumps
o Blowers

Compound DC motor

o Conveyers
o Stamping machines
o Compressors
o Heavy planners
o Rolling mills
o Presses

Permanent magnet DC motors

o Toys
o Starter motors
o Disc drivers
o Wheels chairs

DC GENERATOR

Construction is same as Dc Motor

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
A DC generator operates on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. According to
Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor is placed in a fluctuating magnetic field (or when a conductor is
moved in a magnetic field) an EMF is induced in the conductor.

WORKING OF DC GENERATOR:
Figure 2 shows a greatly simplified view of a DC generator. It consists of a single loop of wire that rotates
in a magnetic field. Keep in mind that practical DC have many turns wrapped on an iron core.
For simplicity, a permanent magnet is shown for the field. Notice that each end of the loop is connected
to a split-ring arrangement. This conductive metal ring is called a commutator; it is a rotary electrical
switch that periodically changes the direction of current from the rotor to the external circuit.
As the wire loop rotates in the magnetic field, the split commutator ring also rotates. Each half of the split
ring rubs against the fixed contacts, called brushes, which are carbon blocks that press against the rotor
of a motor or generator to make an electrical connection between the fixed part and the rotating part. The
brushes connect the rotating wire to the external circuit.
Driven by an external mechanical force, the loop of wire rotates through the magnetic field and cuts
through the flux lines at varying angles, as illustrated in Figure 3. At position A in its rotation, the loop
is effectively moving parallel with the magnetic field. Therefore, at this instant, the rate at which it is
cutting through the magnetic flux lines is zero.
As the loop moves from position A to position B, it cuts through the flux lines at an increasing rate.
At position B, it is effectively moving perpendicular to the magnetic field and is thus cutting through a
maximum number of lines.
As the loop rotates from position B to position C, the rate at which it cuts the flux lines decreases to a
minimum (zero) at C.
From position C to position D, the rate at which the loop cuts the flux lines increases to a maximum at D
and then to a minimum again at A.

Figure 2 Basic DC Generator

As you know, when a wire cuts magnetic field lines, a voltage is induced. The amount of induced voltage
is proportional to the number of loops (turns) in the wire and the rate at which it is moving with respect
to the magnetic field.
The angle at which the wire moves with respect to the magnetic flux lines determines the amount of
induced voltage because the rate at which the wire cuts through the flux lines depends on the angle of
motion.
 Figure 3 End View of Loop Cutting Through the Magnetic Field
Figure 4 illustrates how a voltage is induced in the external circuit as a single loop of wire rotates in the
magnetic field.
Assume that the loop starts in the instantaneous vertical position (position A), so the induced voltage is
zero.
As the loop rotates, the induced voltage builds up to a maximum at position B, as shown in the figure.
Then, as the loop continues from B to C, the voltage decreases to zero at C where it is back to zero.

Figure 4 Basic Operation of a DC Generator

During the second half of the revolution, the brushes switch to opposite commutator sections, so the
polarity of the voltage remains the same across the output. Thus, as the loop rotates from position C to D
and then back to A, the voltage increases from zero at C to a maximum at D, and back to zero at A.
Figure 5 shows how the induced voltage varies as a single wire loop in a DC generator goes through
several rotations (three in this case). This voltage is DC because the polarity does not change. However,
the voltage is pulsating between zero and its maximum value.

Figure
5 Induced
Voltage over Three Rotations of the Loop

Figure 6 shows how extra loops produce extra segments of voltage that smooth out the ripple and raise
the average voltage rating.
Each additional loop added to the generator ensures that the DC voltage level remains close to the peak
voltage. Capacitors can also be used as filters to help smooth out the pulsing DC ripple.

Figure 6 Induced Voltage for a Two-Loop Generator. The second loop doubles the number of segments,
which causes less variation in the induced voltage going from peak to zero.

Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators

 1. They are used for general lighting.
2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators.
1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.
2. This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder
in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.
3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators
1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for lighting, power supply
purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage property. They
are mainly made over compounded.
2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges,
the flat compounded generators are generally used.
4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization
armature reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant current
is required.
 TRANSFORMER
Introduction
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always
work at the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion
device. It is commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can change the
magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This useful property of
transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct
currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating
current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in construction, thus requiring
very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%.

Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists
of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core as
shown in Fig 1. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary)
and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage
V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f.
E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current
I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Constructional Details
 Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are
placed on the core, and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called

(a) Core type

(b) Shell type.

Core-type and Shell-type Construction

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric
cylindrical coils placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as the
high- voltage (HV) winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The LV
winding is placed next to the core for economy in insulation cost. Figure 2.1(a) shows the cross-
section of the arrangement. In the shell type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
wound over the central limb of a three-limb core as shown in Figure 2.1(b). The HV and LV
windings are split into a number of sections, and the sections are interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the
sections of the HV and LV windings are placed alternately.

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This helps in reducing
the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in construction of the transformer. The steel used
for core is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low
hysteresis loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel.
Conductor material used for windings is mostly copper. However, for small distribution transformer
aluminum is also sometimes used. The conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using
various insulating materials depending upon the voltage.
Insulating Oil
In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed in insulating oil.
The insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation from moisture and transfers the
heat produced in core and windings to the atmosphere.
The transformer oil should possess the following qualities:
 (a) High dielectric strength,
(b) Low viscosity and high purity,
(c) High flash point, and
(d) Free from sludge.
Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Tank and Conservator
The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating oil. In large
transformers small expansion tank is also connected with main tank is known as conservator.
Conservator provides space when insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is
provided with tubes on the outside, to permits circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some
additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are connected with main tank. Buchholz relay
is placed between main tank and conservator. It protect the transformer under extreme heating of
transformer winding. Breather protects the insulating oil from moisture when the cool transformer
sucks air inside. The silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air enters the tank. Some other
necessary parts are connected with main tank like, Bushings, Cable Boxes, Temperature gauge, Oil
gauge, Tapings, etc.
Principle of Operation
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is set up in the core.
This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and E2 is
termed as secondary e.m.f.

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up
 transformer. If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1(or V2< V1) and we get a
step-down transformer.
If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2
to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to
another with a change in voltage level.
The following points may be noted carefully
(a) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(b) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
(c) The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(d) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(e) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary
power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency

Three Phase Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor is one of the A.C. motors, which is widely used for various
purposes in industry. These motors never run at a Synchronous speed but a little less than the
synchronous speed. The speed of these motors depends upon the supply frequency.

These motors are preferred in industry because they have low price, simple & rugged
construction, can be manufactured with characteristics to suit the industrial requirement.

These motors differ from other types of motor, in that there is no electrical connection
between the rotor & supply. The required voltage & current are induced by Electromagnetic
Induction from the stator winding that is why, the name given is Induction motor.
Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor
It can be better understood if we see the construction of three phase induction motor which
has two major parts :

1. Stationary part, known as Stator

2. Rotating part, known as Rotor.
1. Stator
It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts :

Frame or Yoke
It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function of the frame is to
support the stator core & stator winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection &
mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the three phase induction motor.

Stator core
The main function of stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy
current loss, the stator core is laminated. The core is made up of thin silicon steel
laminations. These are insulated from each other by varnish, the slots are cut on inner
periphery of core stampings. The stator windings are placed in these slots.
Stator windings
Stator winding is made up of super enamelled copper wire. Three phase windings are placed in the stator
core slots & six terminals are brought out. They may be star connected or may be delta connected. The
windings are connected in star at starting.

2. Rotor
It is a rotating part of the motor. It is mounted on the shaft. It consists of hollow laminated
core having slots on its outer periphery. The windings placed in these slots (rotor winding)
may be one of the following two types :

1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
1. Squirrel cage rotor
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor
conductors. The squirrel cage rotor consists of a aluminium, brass or copper bars. These
aluminium, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors & are placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper, or
aluminum rings called the end rings. To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors
are braced to the end ring & hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage &
hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor

The wound rotor consists a slotted armature. Insulated conductors are put in the slots &
connected to form a three phase double layer distributed winding similar to the stator
winding. The rotor windings are connected in star.
The open end of the start circuit are brought outside the rotor and connected to the insulated
slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes testing on them. The brushes
are connected to three phase variable resistors connected in star. The purpose of slip rings &
brushes is to provide a means for connecting external resistors in the circuit.

Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When
a three-phase supply is given to three-phase winding of the motor, a magnetic field is
produced which rotates at synchronous speed. The rotating flux passes through the air gap
and cuts the rotor conductors which are at rest. The rotor winding is short circuited,
therefore, the current will flow in the rotor winding due to induced emf & a magnetic field is
setup.

Now these two magnetic field interact, a torque is produced. According to Lenz’s law under
the influence of this torque, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the
rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the rotor will be always less than the speed of the field. The emf in the rotor is
induced by the law of Electromagnetic induction, therefore, this motor is called induction
motor.
ALTERNATOR
An alternator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form
is alternating current AC. It is also known as a synchronous generator or AC generator (there are other
types of AC generators). It generates a specific voltage at a specific frequency.
•
Construction of Synchronous Generator
The alternator is made of a stationary armature winding and a rotating magnetic field. The field windings
are placed in the rotor while the armature windings are placed in the stator.
The rotor field windings are connected to an external DC supply with the help of slip rings and brushes.
A prime mover rotates the rotor. The rotating rotor generates changing magnetic field. This varying field
generates emf in the armature windings and supplies it to the load or circuit through its terminals.

Components of Alternator or AC Generator

The alternator is made of different stationary and moving components each serving its own purpose. The
components of the alternator are given below
Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. It is made in a cylindrical shape that has copper windings
also known as field winding. The field windings are electromagnets that generate the necessary rotating
magnetic field when rotated. Rotor has a shaft that is rotated using a drive belt pulley system. The source
that rotates the rotor is called a prime mover. It can be anything such as an engine, water turbine, wind
turbine, etc.
There are two types of rotors used in alternators or synchronous generators.
• Salient Pole Type
 • Cylindrical Pole Type
Salient Pole Type: it is a type of rotor that has a large number of protruding or projecting poles mounted
on a core made of magnetic laminated steel or cast iron. The term salient refers to protruding or projecting
as shown in the figure below.

The salient poles are made of laminated steel or iron cast of good magnetic properties to reduce the Eddy
current losses. The pole shoes have multiple slots for damper winding that helps in preventing haunting.
The field coils are wounded across the poles and then connected in series. The field coil is energized by
connecting its ends to a separate DC source through a pair of slip rings. The slip ring and brushes are
mounted on the shaft of the rotor.
The salient pole rotor has a large diameter and small axial length. They are used in low and medium-speed
alternators such as in hydropower stations. They are not suitable for high speed due to the increased
windage loss at high speed due to their design (salient poles). Its design does not have enough mechanical
strength to handle high speed.
Cylindrical Type: such type of rotor has very few 2 or 4 poles. It is made up of a laminated steel cylinder.
The cylindrical rotor has slots for field winding that is connected in series. The poles are left unslotted as
shown in the figure below. Since the poles are not protruding out of the core, it is also known as a non-
salient pole or round rotor. it has very few and non-salient poles, therefore its rotor diameter size is small
while its axial length is longer than the salient pole rotor.
The cylindrical design provides mechanical strength, robustness and uniform distribution of magnetic flux.
It has lower windage loss. Therefore it is suitable for high-speed, noise-less operation. They are designed
for high-speed alternators such as in thermal power stations
Stator
A stator is the stationary part of an electrical machine. In an alternator, it is used for holding the armature
winding that generates the induced emf. The core itself is made of laminated steel or cast iron of good
magnetic quality to reduce Eddy current losses. The rotor that carries the field windings rotates inside the
stator without physically touching it.
Yoke
The yoke is the outermost part of the alternator that is used to provide mechanical support and protect the
inner parts from environmental conditions that can damage it.
Slip Ring and Brushes
A slip ring is a component that transfers electrical power between stationary and rotating parts of a
machine. In an alternator, it is used to transfer DC power to the rotor field windings from a DC battery
using brushes that slide over the slip ring. It is made of concentric discs placed on the shaft of the rotor.
As it supplies DC, the alternator only requires two slip rings.
The DC current flow through the field winding generating the magnetic field that varies with the rotation
of the rotor.
Working of Alternator
An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction just like in other AC generators. It states that whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field,
an EMF (electromotive force) or current is induced in the conductor which can be found using the EMF
equation of an alternator. In other words, a conductor placed in a varying magnetic field also experiences
EMF and it is used in alternators.
The direction of the induced current is determined by Fleming’s right-hand rule. If we arrange the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of the right hand, the thumb direction of motion, the forefinger represents
induced current and the middle finger represents the direction of magnetic field lines. Therefore, they are
all mutually perpendicular.

The conductor is formed into a coil of multiple turns called armature winding. In the alternator, the
armature is stationary. Therefore, it is placed inside the stator. The field windings are used for generating
a magnetic field. Since the field is moving, field windings are placed inside the rotor. The field windings
are energized through slip rings to form an electromagnet having north and south poles.
The rotor rotates with the help of a prime mover. The magnetic field poles also rotate at the same speed
as the rotor. Thus the varying magnetic flux cuts the armature winding inducing current in the windings.
The induced EMF depends on the alignment of the magnetic field and armature winding. It is maximum
when the armature winding and the magnetic field lines are perpendicular and it is zero when it is in the
same alignment. As the magnetic field rotates, the output swings between zero and maximum as in
alternating current AC.
The stator has separate armature windings for each phase placed at exactly 120° displacement. Therefore
the induced EMF is 120° apart as in a 3-phase alternating current as shown below.

The frequency of the induced EMF depends on the speed as well as the number of poles. It is given by
f = NP/120
Where
• f = frequency of induced EMF
• N = rotor speed in RPM
• P = number of poles
•
Applications of Alternator
An alternator is mainly used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy in various
applications such as:
• In automobiles
• In locomotives
• Power generation plants
• In Marine and navy boats
• Radiofrequency transmission
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument
One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC instrument.

Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is provided
in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig. 1.7). Coils are wound on
the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is supported with jeweled
bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of themoving coils
are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving coil and spring
2.

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.

Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the current
carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces a torque and
the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the pointer
moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in theopposite
direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite direction.
 Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous deflection.
Therefore, this instrument cannot be used in A.C.

Torque developed by PMMC

Let Td =deflecting torque

TC = controlling torque
 = angle of deflection
K=spring constant
b=width of the coil
l=height of the coil or length of coil

N=No. of turns
I=current
B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
F = BIL sin 
When  = 90
For N turns, F = NBIL
Torque produced Td = F ⊥r distance

Td = NBIL b = BINA

Td = BANI

Td  I
Advantages
✓ Torque/weight is high
✓ Power consumption is less
✓ Scale is uniform
✓ Damping is very effective
✓ Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
✓ Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
✓ Use only for D.C.
✓ Cost is high
✓ Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present
 Moving Iron (MI) instruments
One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil .The pointer
and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled bearing. Here air
friction damping is used.

Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through the
fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force
is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle, the
spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction depends
on the current flowing through the coil.

Torque developed by M.I

Let ‘ ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is ‘ + d ’
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’. The current change by ‘di’ is dt seconds.
Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’ volt.
d di dL
e = (Li) = L + i (1.22)
dt dt dt
Multiplying by ‘idt’ in equation (1.22)
di dL
e  idt = L  idt + i  idt (1.23)
dt dt

e  idt = Lidi + i2dL (1.24)

Eqn (1.24) gives the energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in the inductance.
Remaining energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.
Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored
1 1
= (L + dL)(i + di)2 − Li2
2 2
1
= {(L + dL)(i2 + di2 + 2idi) − Li2}
2
1
= {(L + dL)(i2 + 2idi) − Li2}
2
1 2
= {Li + 2Lidi + i2dL + 2ididL − Li2}
2
1
= {2Lidi + i2dL}
2
1
= Lidi + i2dL (1.25)
2
Mechanical work to move the pointer by d
= Td d (1.26)
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied=Increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done.
Input energy= Energy stored + Mechanical energy
1
Lidi + i2dL = Lidi + i2dL + Td d (1.27)
2
1 2
i dL = Td d (1.28)
2

1 2 dL
T= i (1.29)
d
2 d
At steady state condition Td = TC
1 2 dL
i = K
2 (1.30)
d

 = 1 i2 dL (1.31)
2K d
  i2 (1.32)
When the instruments measure AC,   i2rms
Scale of the instrument is non uniform.
 Advantages
✓ MI can be used in AC and DC
✓ It is cheap
✓ Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
✓ Simple construction
✓ Less friction error.
Disadvantages
✓ It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
✓ Scale is not uniform
✓ It consumed more power
✓ Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it (Fig. 1.12).
The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in supported
with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by
it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since they are kept
in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting
torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle
will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
 Fig. 1.12
Wheatstone Bridge
For measuring accurately any electrical resistance Wheatstone bridge is widely used.
There are two known resistors, one variable resistor and one unknown resistor
connected in bridge form as shown below. By adjusting the variable resistor the
current through the Galvanometer is made zero. When the current through the
galvanometer becomes zero, the ratio of two known resistors is exactly equal to the
ratio of adjusted value of variable resistance and the value of unknown resistance. In
this way the value of unknown electrical resistance can easily be measured by using a
Wheatstone Bridge.
 Wheatstone Bridge Theory
The general arrangement of Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure below.
It is a four arms bridge circuit where arm AB, BC, CD and AD are consisting of
electrical resistances P, Q, S and R respectively.

Among these resistances P and Q are known fixed electrical resistances and these two
arms are referred as ratio arms. An accurate and sensitive Galvanometer is connected
between the terminals B and D through a switch S2.

The voltage source of this Wheatstone bridge is connected to the terminals A and C
via a switch S1 as shown. A variable resistor S is connected between point C and D.
The potential at point D can be varied by adjusting the value of variable resistor.
Suppose current I1 and current I2 are flowing through the paths ABC and ADC
respectively.

If we vary the electrical resistance value of arm CD the value of current I2 will also be
varied as the voltage across A and C is fixed. If we continue to adjust the variable
resistance one situation may comes when voltage drop across the resistor S that is I2.
S is becomes exactly equal to voltage drop across resistor Q that is I1.Q. Thus the
potential at point B becomes equal to the potential at point D hence potential
difference between these two points is zero hence current through galvanometer is nil.
Then the deflection in the galvanometer is nil when the switch S2 is closed.
Now, from Wheatstone bridge circuit

and

Now potential of point B in respect of point C is nothing but the voltage drop across
the resistor Q and this is

Again potential of point D in respect of point C is nothing but the voltage drop across
the resistor S and this is

Equating, equations (i) and (ii) we get,

Here in the above equation, the value of S and P⁄Q are known, so value of R can
easily be determined.

The electrical resistances P and Q of the Wheatstone bridge are made of definite
ratio such as 1:1; 10:1 or 100:1 known as ratio arms and S the rheostat arm is made
continuously variable from 1 to 1,000 Ω or from 1 to 10,000 Ω.

UNIT III

Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; Layout and operation of
various Power Generation systems: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & Wind power generation.

Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops, Printers,
etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity tariff, calculation
of electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits
and demerits. Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to
avoid shock.

ENERGY RESOURCES:

There are two types of sources of energy classified by their popularity and use,
 • Conventional Sources of Energy
• Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Non-conventional

The resources which have been in use for a The resources which are yet in the process
long time. of development over the past few years.

These resources are exhaustible. These resources are inexhaustible.

These resources cause pollution as they

These resources are usually pollution-free.
emit smoke and ash.

These resources are very expensive to be These resources are less expensive due to
maintained, stored and transmitted. local use and can easily be maintained.

Examples- coal, natural gas, petroleum, and Examples- solar, biomass, wind, biogas,
water power. tidal, geothermal.

HYDEL POWER PLANT

Layout of Hydroelectric power plant

Fig. shows the schematic representation of a Hydroelectric power plant.

The main components are

• Water reservoir
• Dam
• Spillway
• Gate
• Pressure tunnel
• Surge tank
• Penstock
• Water turbine
• Draft tube
• Tail race level
• Powerhouse

Water reservoir:
In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during the rainy season is stored
behind a dam. Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams. Continuous availability of
water is a basic necessity for a hydroelectric power plant. The level of the water surface in the
reservoir is called the Headwater level. The water head available for power generation depends
on the reservoir height.

Dam:
the purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the out going flow of water. The dam
helps to store all the incoming water. It also helps to increase the head of the water. In order to
generate a required quantity of power, it is necessary that a sufficient head is available.

Spillway:
Excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam construction. Also, in order to
avoid the overflow of water out of the dam especially during rainy seasons spillways are
provided. This prevents the rise of the water level in the dam. Spillways are passages that allow
the excess water to flow to a different storage area away from the dam.

Gate:
A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.
Pressure tunnel:
It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank:
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden
changes in pressure. There may a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock pipe due to sudden
backflow of water, as the load on the turbine is reduced. This sudden rise of pressure in the
penstock pipe is known as water hammer.

Penstock:
Penstock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine. Penstock pipes are
made up of steel or reinforced concrete. The turbine is installed at a lower level from the dam.
Penstock is provided with a gate valve at the inlet to completely close the water supply.
It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine. Water turbine or hydraulic
turbine (Prime mover): The hydraulic turbine converts the energy of water into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy (rotation) available on the turbine shaft is coupled to the shaft of
an electric generator and electricity is produced. The water after performing the work on the
turbine blade is discharged through the draft tube.

The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine.

Draft tube:
Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts the kinetic energy available in the
water into pressure energy in the diverging portion. Thus, it maintains a pressure of just above
the atmospheric at the end of the draft tube to move the water into a tailrace. Water from the
tailrace is released for irrigation purposes.

Tailrace level:
Tailrace is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river or canal. The
water held in the tailrace is called the Tailrace water level.

Power House:
The powerhouse accommodates the water turbine, generator, transformer, and control room. As
the water rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is coupled to the electric
generator. The generator has a rotating electromagnet called a rotor and a stationary part called a
stator. The rotor creates a magnetic field that produces an electric charge in the stator. The
charge is transmitted as electricity. The step-up transformer increases the voltage of the current
coming from the stator. The electricity is distributed through power lines.
 Classification of Hydroelectric power plant
Hydroelectric power plants are usually classified according to the available of head of water
• High head power plants
• Medium head power plants
• Low head power plants

High head power plants: When the operating head of water exceeds 70 meters, the plant is
known as High head power plant. Pelton wheel turbine is the prime mover used.

Medium head power plants: When the water ranges from 15 to 70 meters, then the power plant
is known as a medium head power plant. It uses Francis Turbine.

Low head power plants: When the head is less than 15 meters, the plant is named as Low head
power plant. It uses Francis or Kaplan turbine as the prime mover

.
Working principle
Hydroelectric power plant (Hydel plant) utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam built
across the river. The potential energy of the stored water is converted into kinetic energy by first
passing it through the penstock pipe. The kinetic energy of the water is then converted into
mechanical energy in a water turbine. The turbine is coupled to the electric generator. The
mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine is converted into electrical energy by means
of the generator.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

In a Nuclear power plant, heat energy is generated by a nuclear reaction called as Nuclear
fission. Nuclear fission of heavy elements such as Uranium or Thorium is carried out in a
special apparatus called as a Nuclear reactor. A large amount of heat energy is generated
due to nuclear fission. Rest parts of a nuclear power plant are very similar to
conventional Thermal power plants.
.
Layout of a nuclear power station.

Basic Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear fission
is radioactive, the reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms
is called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission is
done by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei of heavy element. As the nuclei break
up, it releases energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms.
Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A
nuclear reactor consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round
fuel pallets (uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are
inserted into reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be
graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator slows down the neutrons before they bombard on
the fuel rods.

Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -

1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

This type of reactor uses regular water as coolant. The coolant (water) is kept at very
high pressure so that it does not boil. The heated water is transferred through heat
exchanger where water from secondary coolant loop is converted into steam. Thus
the secondary loop is completely free from radioactive stuff. In a PWR, the coolant
water itself acts as a moderator. Due to these advantages, pressurised water reactors
are most commonly used.
 2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) –

In this type of reactor only one coolant loop is present. The water is allowed to boil
in the reactor. The steam is generated as it heads out of the reactor and then flows
through the steam turbine. One major disadvantage of a BWR is that, the coolant
water comes in direct contact with fuel rods as well as the turbine. So, there is a
possibility that radioactive material could be placed on the turbine.

Heat Exchanger
In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water). Thus
water from the secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary system
are closed loop, and they are never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat exchanger helps
in keeping secondary system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is absent in boiling water
reactors.

Steam Turbine
Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam. As
the steam is passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it
expands in volume. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.
Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy. Electrical
output of the alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over distances.

Condenser
The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into water
in a condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.

Working of A Nuclear Power Plant

Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear fission
reaction in a nuclear reactor. Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced which is
transferred to the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated
coolant is made to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted into high-
temperature steam. The generated steam is then allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam,
after doing its work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the heat exchanger. The
steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which generates electricity. The generated electrical
voltage is then stepped up using a transformer for the purpose of long-distance transmission
 Solar Power Plant Layout and Components

Following are the components of solar power plants:

1. Solar panels
2. Solar cells
3. Battery
4. D.C. to A.C. Converter (Inverter)
1 Solar Panels

It serves as the solar power plant’s brain. Solar panels are made up of many solar cells. In one
panel, we have about 35 solar cells. Each solar cell produces a very small amount of energy, but
when 35 of them are combined, we have enough energy to fully charge a 12-volt battery.

2 Solar Cells: It serves as the solar power plant’s core. In order to generate energy, a silicon
semiconductor is used, which is made up of p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors.

semiconductors.

3.Battery:

During the day, batteries are used to produce power and store the excess energy generated during
the day, so they can be used at night to supply the energy needed.

4 D.C. to A.C. Converter (Inverter)

Solar panels generate direct current (D.C.), which must be changed into alternating current
(A.C.) before it can be delivered to homes or the power grid.
Solar Power Plant Diagram

Working of Solar Power Plant

Numerous photons hit the silicon’s p-type region as sunlight passes over solar cells. After
absorbing photon energy, an electron and hole pair will separate. A p-n junction’s electric field
causes the electron to move from a p-type region to an n-type region.

To strengthen this electric field, the diode is further reverse biased. Therefore, this current begins
to flow in the circuit for each solar cell. A significant output is obtained by combining the
current flowing through each solar cell in a solar panel.

Solar power plants use a lot of solar panels interconnected to produce a lot of voltage. The
lithium-ion batteries store the electrical energy generated by the solar panel’s combined work so
that they can be used at night when there is no sunlight.

Types of Solar Power Plant

Following are the two types of large-scale solar power plants:

1. Photovoltaic power plants

2. Concentrated solar power plants (CSP) or Solar thermal power plants.
1. Solar Photovoltaic Power Plants

The process of converting light (photons) into electricity (voltage) is known as the solar
photovoltaic (PV) effect. Photovoltaic solar energy cells convert sunlight into solar energy
(electricity).
They use a thin layer of semiconducting material, usually silicon, or silicon alloys encased
between a sheet of glass and a polymer resin. When exposed to sunlight, the particles of solar
energy known as photons strike the surface of a photovoltaic cell, and the semiconducting
material exhibits a property known as the photovoltaic effect.

This causes them to absorb the photons and release electrons, and an electron in the
semiconducting material becomes energized. These electrons are then flowing through the
material generating direct current. These are also used for residential needs on a smaller scale.

2 Concentrated Solar Power Plants or Solar Thermal Power Plants

Concentrated Solar Power Plants (CSP) do not convert sunlight directly into electricity. Instead,
they use mirrors, lenses, and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
It is then used as the heated source, similar to a conventional power station

There are a few types of CSP power stations but all use the same principle of heating the
working fluid by direct sunlight.

The concentrated solar power plant or solar thermal power plant generates heat and electricity by
concentrating the sun’s energy. That, in turn, builds steam that helps to feed
a turbine and generator to produce electricity.

WIND FARM POWER PLANT

When a number a wind turbines are installed on a land it is said to be a wind farm. All
the electricity generated from each and individual tower is supplied to electrical
substation through transmission network.

Offshore plant has got good air current all along the year. It’s only drawback is that the
cost of construction, installation and difficulty faced in maintenance of the plant.

Onshore wind power plant location need a lot more research and investment of time to
find the right location, first of all the speed, temperature and wind current direction
sensors are installed all around the area taken into consideration.

There must not be any obstacles in the passage of the wind, so avoid the turbulence in air
current reaching the blades. Therefore, onshore plant should not be installed in a valley.
Best location for onshore plant is top of the hill, where we can get almost streamline flow
of air without any turbulence or an open land. If there is any obstacle in the flow of air
even in front of an open land then it should be as far as twice length of the tower, then it
would not affect the power generated by a tower.
As wind power plant have variable power production due to variation in wind speed all
along the day, they have to work out a backup electricity plan so as to maintain a
consistent power supply.

Principle of Wind Turbine

All the wind turbines used today are horizontal axis machine with 3 bladed rotors
spinning in a vertical plane. Wind energy is used to rotate these blades, which are
mounted at a height of almost 40 meters. Thus, converting kinetic energy of the wind
into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is then converted to electrical energy
using generator.

Main Parts of Wind Turbine

It’s a horizontal axis machine with 2-3 rotor blades that spins in a vertical plane, these
blades are mounted on a hub and this hub is connected to a box called nacelle.

1. Nacelle–

It is named after the furring of an aircraft engine. It is a fable glass tube that contains the
gearbox, brakes and a generator. However for turbines generating up to 2MW/unit high
voltage transformer is also placed in nacelle itself. Also, it has got direction and speed
sensors mounted as back as possible on nacelle to prevent them from the dirt coming
from blades.

2. Gearbox-

A shaft connected to the hub directly goes into the gearbox and it increases its rpm to the
required level. It is the heaviest part in the nacelle.

3. Brakes–

Brakes are used when wind is blowing above critical level to same turbine from damage.
Brakes is mounted just behind the gearbox.

4. Generator-

It converts the energy of fast rotating shaft into electrical energy, and finally the high
voltage transformer converts it to high voltage to be ready to go in transmission lines.

5. Tower-

It’s the cylindrical structure on which nacelle is mounted. For a sub megawatt turbine
generating up to 400-600 watts of power its height may vary from 25m to 45 meter.
However, the diameter of this cylinder reduces as we go up the tower. The transmission
cable from generator comes down inside this tower to the high voltage transformer.
Tower also has a ladder inside it with wooden platforms at different heights. The
platform connected to the nacelle is called the yaw platform.

6. Yaw Platform-

It is a steel platform at the top of the tower and helps the nacelle to yaw in the direction
of the wind. It has also got brakes in some high-end wind turbines to maintain the
direction of the nacelle.
Working of Wind Power Plant

Blades of the wind turbine work as an air foil of different cross-sections all along the
length. When fluid (air) moves over this air foil it generates a lift force thus making the
blade to rotate at its axis. The generator is also connected to the rotor shaft starts rotating
and produces electricity.

Now, we all know that rotating blades can get us electricity. But the wind speed keeps on
changing with time so we get a fluctuation in power. To overcome this, threshold
velocity is decided at which turbine will start rotating, below that brakes are used to
prevent the blades from rotating. And for high wind velocity brakes are applied to
prevent turbine from damage.

Motors and sensors are used to rotate the blades about their axis so that they can adjust
according to the varying direction of wind. And to extract maximum power out of wind.
Blades are also rotated to stop the turbine from rotating, means they are oriented in such
a way that no lift will be generated even with the blowing wind.

In a wind power plant, turbines are required to be interconnected to get the best out of
them. They are connected to each other by a medium voltage power collection system
usually around 35.5 kV along with a communication network, that helps them to
communicate.

Electricity bill:
Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops,Printers, etc.:

01. The power rating of the Freeze is 150 watts.

02. The power rating of the Electric Drill is 900 to 1000 watts.
03. The power rating of the LCD TV is 125 to 200 watts.
04. The power rating of the Laptop is 20 to 50 watts.
05. The power rating of the Tablet (Charge) is 10 watts.
06. The power rating of the Smart Phone (charge) is 2.5 to 5 watts.
07. The power rating of the Immersion Heater is 3000 watts.
08. The power rating of the Vacuum Cleaner is 500 to 1200 watts.
09. The power rating of the Deep fryer is 1200 watts.
10. The power rating of the Kettle is 2200 to 3000 watts.
12. The power rating of the Microwave is 600 to 1500 watts.
13. The power rating of the Oven is 2000 to 2200 watts.
14. The power rating of the Fridge-Freezer is 200 to 400 watts.
15. The power rating of the Hairdryer is 1000 watts.
16. The power rating of the Plasma TV is 280 to 450 watts.
17. The power rating of the Desktop Computer is 80 to 150 watts.
18. The power rating of the Broadband Router is 7 to 10 watts.
19. The power rating of the Electric Fire is 2000 to 3000 watts.
20. The power rating of the Washing Machine is 1200 to 3000 watts.
21. The power rating of the Iron is 1000 to 1800 watts.
22. The power rating of the Toaster is 800 to 1500 watts.
23. The power rating of the Microwave is 600 to 1500 watts.

UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY:

The unit of electric power is watt, and hence unit of electrical energy is watt – second since
energy is the product of power and time. The watt – seconds is referred as joules. One joule
means the work required to be done for transferring one-ampere current in one second from one
point to another point of potential difference one volt. So, one-joule electrical energy equals to
the product of one volt, one ampere and one second.

Joule which equals to one watt – second is a very small unit of energy, and it is very difficult to
measure a practically consumed electrical energy by this unit.
 Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy

To resolve this problem of measuring practically consumed electrical energy, a commercial unit
of electrical energy comes into the picture. The commercial unit of electrical energy is a bigger
unit of electrical energy. This is watt-hour.

Another bigger unit of electrical energy is kilowatt-hours or kWh. This equals to 1000 X one
watt-hour.

TWO PART ELECTRICITY TARIFF

Tariff: Electricity tariff is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer.
Two-part tariff –

In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts. The first one is the fixed charge and
the second is the running charge. The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the
second charge depends on the energy consumption by the Consumer load.

The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

To calculate your electricity bill, you can follow these steps:

1. Subtract the current meter reading from the previous month’s reading to find the energy
consumption.
2. Multiply the units consumed by the per-unit charges based on the applicable slabs
3. Add any fixed charges, taxes, and duties to the total amount calculated
Andhra Pradesh Electricity Bill Calculator 2023-2024:
As per the latest tariff order from the price is ₹ 1.9 per units for the first 30 units. ₹3 for the next
45 units, ₹4.5 per units for the next 50 units which is from 75 to 125 units. For next 100 units the
consumer shall pay ₹6, ₹ 8.75 for the next 175 units from 225 to 400 units and the ₹9.75 for
remaining consumption.

Also along with that consumer shall pay ₹10 per kW per month based on the consumption.
Tariff Table:

Range Per Unit Fixed Charges/kW/Month

0-30 1.9 10

31-75 3 10

76-125 4.5 10

126-225 6 10

226-400 8.75 10

>400 9.75 10

Customer charges – Domestic Per Month

0-30 25

31-75 30

76-125 45

126-225 50

226-400 55

>400 55
Bill Calculation:

UNIT CONSUMED = CURRENT MONTH UNIT( KWH) – PREVIOUS MONTH

UNIT(KWH)
= 500 -210 = 290 unit(monthly consumption)

let us calculate the electricity bill for the 290 units.

Current Bill Calculation for 290 units

Tariff Range Per unit(₹) Our Consumption Bill

0-30 1.9 30 57

31-75 3 45 135

76-125 4.5 50 225

126-225 6 100 600

226-400 8.75 65 568.75

Bill Amount 1585.75

Fixed Cost 10

Customer charges 55

Duty 17.4

Total 1668.15

The consumer shall pay 1668.15 as electricity bill based on the current tariff.
 Equipment Safety Measures:

Electrical Fuse

An Electrical Fuse is a safety device to limit the current in an electric circuit.

The fuse comprises a highly selected metal conductor, and the cartridge holds the fuse.
The fuse’s primary purpose is to allow the normal current flow and break the circuit
when there is a high-magnitude current.

It protects electrical appliances from overloads and short circuits. It protects high
voltage up to 400 kV and low voltage up to 66 kV.

Symbols of Electrical Fuse

The major symbols of Electrical Fuse are listed below

Electrical Fuse Diagram

We can replace the fuse in an electric circuit using a new fuse with the same power
rating. A new fuse can be constructed using elements like copper, zinc, silver and
Aluminium., The parts of the electrical fuse diagram are the brass end cap, the fusing
element and the filling powder.

The fuse end cap provides the electrical connection between a fuse and an electric
conductor.

The fuse element is the part that melts due to excessive current flow in the circuit. The
fuse element is made up of materials that have a low melting point and low ohmic
losses like tin, lead, and zinc.

Filling powder fills the internal space of the fuse body. The filling powder materials used
in fuse are quartz, Plaster of Paris, dust, marble, and chalk.
 Electrical Fuse Working Principle

An electric fuse’s working principle is based on the heating effect of the current. In
normal conditions, the current passes through the fuse. The heat developed In the fuse
gets dissipated, and the temperature becomes below the melting point.

The thickness of the fuse wire varies depending on the amount of current flowing
through it. Electric fuse wire is made up of alloy of tin and lead. When an electric short
circuit occurs, the current passes through the fuse. Hence, the fuse melts and
breaks. Remember that in electrical wiring, fuse should be attached to the live wire.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrical Fuse

Here are the main advantages and disadvantages of electrical fuses:

Advantages of Electrical Fuse

o Protect circuits and wiring

o Simple and reliable
o Low cost
o Easy to replace
o Fuses come in a wide range of current and time ratings to match the requirements of
different circuits

Disadvantages of Electrical Fuse

o Manual intervention is required as there is no automatic reset.

o Components can still be damaged in the short time before the fuse interrupts excessive
current
o Fuses completely interrupt power to the circuit when they blow, disrupting the operation
of connected devices.
o A single fuse protects an entire circuit. If it fails for any reason, the whole circuit loses
power
Miniature Circuit Breaker

Construction of MCB
An MCB embodies a complete enclosure in a molded insulating material. This provides
mechanically strong and insulated housing.
The switching system consists of a fixed and a moving contact to which incoming and
outgoing wires are connected. The metal or current carrying parts are made up of electrolytic
copper or silver alloy depending on the rating of the circuit breaker.

As the contacts are separated in the event of an overload or short circuit situation, an electric arc
is formed. All modern MCBs are designed to handle arc interruption processes where arc energy
extraction and its cooling are provided by metallic arc splitter plates.
These plates are held in a proper position by an insulating material. Also, arc runner is provided
to force the arc that is produced between the main contacts.
The operating mechanism consists of both magnetic tripping and thermal tripping arrangements.
The magnetic tripping arrangement essentially consists of a composite magnetic system that has
a spring loaded dashpot with a magnetic slug in a silicon fluid, and a normal magnetic trip. A
current carrying coil in the trip arrangement moves the slug against spring towards a fixed pole
piece. So the magnetic pull is developed on the trip lever when there is a sufficient magnetic field
produced by the coil.
In case of short circuits or heavy overloads, strong magnetic field produced by the coils (Solenoid)
is sufficient to attract the armature of the trip lever irrespective of the position of the slug in the
dashpot.

The thermal tripping arrangement consists of a bimetallic strip around which a heater coil is wound
to create heat depending on the flow of current.
The heater design can be either direct where current is passed through a bimetal strip which affects
part of electric circuit or indirect where a coil of current carrying conductor is wound around the
bimetallic strip. The deflection of a bimetallic strip activates the tripping mechanism in case of
certain overload conditions.
The bimetal strips are made up of two different metals, usually brass and steel. These metals are
riveted and welded along their length. These are so designed such that they will not heat the strip
to the tripping point for normal currents, but if the current is increased beyond rated value, the
strip is warmed, bent and trips the latch. Bimetallic strips are chosen to provide particular time
delays under certain overloads.

Working & Operation of MCB

Under normal working conditions, MCB operates as a switch (manual one) to make the circuit
ON or OFF. Under overload or short circuit condition, it automatically operates or trips so that
current interruption takes place in the load circuit.
The visual indication of this trip can be observed by automatic movement of the operating knob
to OFF position. This automatic operation MCB can be obtained in two ways as we have seen in
MCB construction; those are magnetic tripping and thermal tripping.
Under overload conditions, the current through the bimetal causes it to raise the temperature of it.
The heat generated within the bimetal itself is enough to cause deflection due to thermal expansion
of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch and hence contacts get separated.
In some MCBs, the magnetic field generated by the coil causes it to develop pull on bimetals such
that deflection activates the tripping mechanism.

Under short circuit or heavy overload conditions, magnetic tripping arrangement comes into the
picture. Under normal working conditions, the slug is held in a position by a light spring because
the magnetic field generated by the coil is not sufficient to attract the latch.
When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated by the coil is sufficient to overcome the
spring force holding the slug in position. And hence slug moves and then actuate the tripping
mechanism.
A combination of both magnetic and thermal tripping mechanisms are implemented in most
miniature circuit breakers. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc is formed
when the contacts start separating. This arc is then forced into arc splitter plates via arc runner.
These arc splitter plates are also called arc chutes where arc is formed into a series of arcs and at
the same time energy extracted and cools it. Hence this arrangement achieves the arc extinction.
 electric shock

An electric shock occurs when an electric current passes from a live outlet to part of the

body.

Electric shocks can result from contact with:

• faulty electrical appliances or machinery

• household wiring

• electrical power lines

• lightning

• electricity outlets

A person can get an electric shock through contact with an electric current from a small
household appliance, wall outlet, or extension cord. These shocks rarely cause severe trauma or
complications.

Several factors can affect the severity of electric shock injuries, including:

• the intensity of the current

• the type of current — alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)

• which part of the body the current reaches?

• how long a person has exposure to the current

• resistance to the current

The let-go threshold

The let-go threshold is the level where a person’s muscles contract, meaning that they are unable
to let go of the electrical source until someone safely removes it. This table shows the body’s
response to different intensities of current, using milliamps (mA) as the measurement:
 Current (mA) Response

0.2–2 an electrical sensation

1–2+ a painful shock

3–5 let-go threshold for children

6–10 minimum let-go threshold for adults

10–20 possible seizure at the contact point

22 inability to let go, for 99% of adults

20–50 possible seizures

50–100 possible life threatening heart rhythms

Preventative steps to Avoid Electric Shock

There are various ways of protecting people from the hazards caused by electricity, including
insulation, guarding, grounding, and electrical protective devices. Laboratory users can
significantly reduce electrical hazards by following some basic precautions:

• Inspect wiring of equipment before each use. Replace damaged or frayed electrical
cords immediately.
• Use safe work practices every time electrical equipment is used.
• Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or circuit breaker panels.
Use these devices to shut off equipment in the event of a fire or electrocution.
• Limit the use of extension cords. Use only for temporary operations and then only for
short periods of time. In all other cases, request installation of a new electrical outlet.
• Multi-plug adapters must have circuit breakers or fuses.
• Place exposed electrical conductors (such as those sometimes used with
electrophoresis devices) behind shields.
• Minimize the potential for water or chemical spills on or near electrical equipment.
EARTHING

The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the
earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing. The electrical
earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of
supply system to the ground.

The electrical system earthing can be classified into two types.

• Neutral Earthing
• Equipment Earthing.
Neutral Earthing

In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI
wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing. Such type of earthing is mostly
provided to the system which has star winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in
the generator, transformer, motor etc.

Equipment Earthing

Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part of
the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the conducting
wire. If any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of
wire. Thus, protect the system from damage.

Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing

Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in house wiring
or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are discussed as follows.

Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm
(2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m (10ft)
from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above-mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate introduction) to
maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth plate.
Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically in a
wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The dimension
of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or
greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to be
buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
Earthing through the Waterman
In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing purpose.
Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the resistance
for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire and make
sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect tightly to the
waterman pipe.
STRIP OR WIRE EARTHING:

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x
0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trench of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section
of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than
6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would
give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m.