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HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LAB
LAB REPORT # 03
“FOURIERS LAW STUDY FOR LINEAR CONDUCTION OF
HEAT ALONG A NON-HOMOGENOUS BAR, AND EFFECT OF
CHANGE IN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA”

SUBMITTED BY
Minahil Naeem 220101077

Syeda Alina Muaziz Kakakhel 220101082

Busha Mubeen 220101064

SUBMITTED TO
Lab Engr. Syed Amber Ali

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................................2
OBJECTIVE: ...........................................................................................................................3
APPARATUS: .........................................................................................................................3
CONSTRUCTION:..................................................................................................................4
LAB SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
EXPERIMENT: .......................................................................................................................5
OBSERVATION: ....................................................................................................................5
CALCULATIONS: ..................................................................................................................7
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................8
CONCLUSION: .......................................................................................................................8

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LAB SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid direct contact with hot surfaces.
2. Ensure that all pipes in the hydraulic bench are attached properly to avoid leakage.
3. Confirm that the specimen under observation is latched on securely.
4. Before beginning the experiment, check to see if all wires and sensors are properly
connected and not damaged. Loose or exposed wiring could lead to electric shock.
5. Keep the apparatus dry, as electrical components are integrated into the system and
any contact with water can lead to shock hazards.
6. Always ensure the power supply is set to the appropriate voltage to prevent
overheating or damage to the system.
7. Switch off after use.
8. Be familiar with the control switch and know how to quickly turn off the system in
case of an emergency.
9. Ensure that there is proper supervision during its use

LAB CLO’S AND PLOS’S:

INTRODUCTION:
Fourier's law of heat conduction is a fundamental principle that describes the flow of heat
through a material. It states that the rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to
the negative gradient of temperature and the area through which heat flows. Fourier's law is
expressed as
𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Where
𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 – Flow rate
𝑘 - Thermal conductivity of the material
𝐴 – Cross sectional flow
𝑑𝑇
- Temperature gradient, which is the rate of change of T with x, at location x.
𝑑𝑥

The equation shows that the rate of heat conduction in a certain direction is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient along that direction. Heat flows from regions of
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higher temperature to lower temperature, and as the temperature decreases with increasing
x, the temperature gradient becomes negative. The negative sign in guarantees that heat
transfer in the positive x-direction is expressed as positive, maintaining consistency with the
direction of heat flow.
The equation clearly shows how conduction heat transfer is directly proportional to the area
of the specimen.
The thermal conductivity ‘k’ depends on the material and a non-homogenous bar will have
an effect on conduction heat transfer

OBJECTIVE:
To understand conduction, study and measure the temperature distribution along the length
of the material, and analyze the effect of different materials, area and heat input on heat
conduction.

APPARATUS:
Linear/Radial Heat Conduction Unit

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CONSTRUCTION:
The linear heat conduction unit consists of
1. A series of digital displays labeled temperature 1 through temperature 9 measure
temperature at different points along the conducting material.
2. The power supply unit on the left is used to provide power to the heaters.
3. The white cylindrical devices on the left and right are a 3-part device with heater,
specimen, and cooling setup respectively. Both arrangements are made of brass of
radius 25mm respectively, which contain the heater and cooler, from left to right.
These heat the material in contact with them to initiate heat flow.
4. The adjustable space between the cylinders is the slot where the specimen is fitted
into.
5. Thin wires attached to the cylindrical materials are sensors, each 10mm apart; that
measure the temperature at various points along the length of the conducting
material.
6. Tubes connected to the setup are a part of a water-cooling system with a hydraulic
bench, whose pipes narrow down from 17mm to 10mm and then to 6mm to fit onto
the cooling arrangement that cools one side of the material, ensuring a temperature
gradient along the length of the rod for precise measurements.

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PROCEDURE:
FOR NON-HOMOGENOUS BAR
1. The 25mm steel specimen is fitted into the arrangement, creating a non-homogenous
brass bar.
2. The sensors that measure the temperature at various points along the length are
attached at 6 points along the heating unit and cooling unit.
3. The DC power supply and the hydraulic bench are switched on.
4. The steel specimen heats up, and thermal energy will begin to flow from the hot end
connected to the heater to the cold end, which is connected to the cooler. This heat
flow happens due to the temperature gradient along the length of the specimen.
5. The cooling system ensures that heat is continually drawn away from the cold end,
maintaining a strong temperature gradient along the brass specimen.
6. We measure the temperature along the bar with the sensor values shown on the
digital monitor.
FOR BAR WITH CROSS-SECTION AREA CHANGE:
1. The 13mm brass specimen is fitted into the arrangement, creating a non-uniform and
homogenous brass bar.
2. The sensors that measure the temperature at various points along the length are
attached at 6 points along the heating unit and cooling unit.
3. The DC power supply and the hydraulic bench are switched on.
4. The specimen heats up, and thermal energy will begin to flow from the hot end
connected to the heater to the cold end, which is connected to the cooler. This heat
flow happens due to the temperature gradient along the length of the specimen.
5. The cooling system ensures that heat is continually drawn away from the cold end,
maintaining a strong temperature gradient along the brass specimen.
6. We measure the temperature along the bar with the sensor values shown on the
digital monitor.

OBSERVATION:
FOR NON-HOMOGENOUS BAR:

Heater 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇7 𝑇8 𝑇9
Power (K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (K)
(W)
10 337.25 336.85 336.15 303.55 303.35 301.15

14.28 337.55 337.25 336.4 304.05 303.75 302.95

31.35 338.25 337.85 337.25 304.25 304.15 303.15

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FOR BAR WITH CROSS-SECTION AREA CHANGE:

Heater 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇7 𝑇8 𝑇9
Power (K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (K)
(W)
11.5 329.45 329.15 328.55 303.45 303.25 302.05

26.167 340.15 339.55 339.05 309.05 308.45 307.25

59.2 340.85 339.25 337.85 305.25 304.85 303.75

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CALCULATIONS:
𝑇°𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Rearranging for k we get
𝑄
𝑘=−
𝑑𝑇
𝐴
𝑑𝑥
FOR NON-HOMOGENOUS BAR:
Calculating k for steel (25 mm);
For Q= 13 W, Δx=40mm=0.04m, d =25mm=0.025m and 𝑇3 =336.15 K, 𝑇7 =303.55K

Q Δx
𝑘=−
𝜋(𝑟)2 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)

10 W ∗ 0.04
𝑘=−
(336.15 − 303.55) ∗ (𝜋(0.025𝑚)2 /4)

0.4
𝑘=
(32.6) ∗ (4.91 ∗ 10−4 )

𝑘 = 26.62 𝑊/𝑚𝐾

Which corresponds to the value of steel with a slight error margin, which is k= 40W/𝑚𝐾

FOR BAR WITH CROSS-SECTION AREA CHANGE:

Calculating k for brass (13 mm);

For Q= 11.5 W, Δx=40mm=0.04m, d =13mm=0.013m and 𝑇3 =328.5 K, 𝑇7 =303.45K

Q Δx
𝑘=−
𝜋(𝑟)2 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)

11.5 W ∗ 0.04
𝑘=−
(328.55 − 303.45) ∗ (𝜋(0.013𝑚)2 /4)

0.46
𝑘=
(25.1) ∗ (1.327 ∗ 10−4 )

𝑘 = 138.106 𝑊/𝑚𝐾

Which corresponds to the value of brass with a slight error margin, which is k=125𝑊/𝑚𝐾

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GRAPH:
FOR NON-HOMOGENOUS BAR:

FOR BAR WITH CROSS-SECTION AREA CHANGE:

CONCLUSION:
The experiment confirmed Fourier's Law by demonstrating the proportionality between heat
,Area and the temperature gradient in the brass & steel specimen.Using the temperatures and
power input, we calculated the thermal conductivity. This experiment proved the principles
of heat conduction and provided insight into the factors effecting thermal transfer.

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