ELECTRONICS Reviewer Q1

How does your gadget work?

“Components”
Electrical and Electronic Circuit Components
⮚ ELECTRICITY
● It is the natural phenomena associated with the movement of electric charge.
● It is the reason why our Electrical/Electronic device works
● It is usually influenced with the 4 properties of electricity.
- Current- property of electricity where electrons flow.
- Voltage- describes the “pressure” that pushes electricity.
- Resistance
- Power
● The formula for the electric current is “Ohm’s Law” where in:
- I = Current
- V = Voltage
- R = Resistance
● I=V/R
● (Current and Voltage is directly proportional)
♦ Ampere- Unit of measurement= current of a circuit
♦ Current- usually associated with the movement of negatively charged particles
♦ Volts- Unit of measurement= voltage of a circuit

2 groups/classifications of devices
a. Electrical
● Usually uses high amount of electricity
● Does not generate data/information
● Made up of conductive materials
● Converts Energy into another type of energy
● Uses direct electricity and converts to mechanical energy
b. Electronic
● Uses lesser amount of electricity
● It generates, uses and manipulates data
● Its main materials are semiconductor materials
● Uses energy using thousands of transistors
● Uses small amount of conversion and is more on controlling
- (Manipulating the current is actually a key in processing data and making data)
⮚ UNITS
● Knowing your units is important!
● Kilo and Mega are common in resistors
● milli, micro, nano and Pico can be used in other components

K (kilo) 1,000
M (mega) 1,000,000
m (milli) 1/1,000
µ (micro) 1/1,000,000
n (nano) 1/1,000,000,000 (one trillionth)
p (pico) 1 / 1,000,000,000,000 (one quadrillionth)

ELECTRONS AND PROTONS

● Each electron has a charge (Electron -> 1.602x10^-9)
 ● Coulomb's law - calculates the amount of electrical charge
● Positive charge/Protons omit electro field
● Electromagnetic field - helps find the region of electric force
● Law of charges
- Same charges repel
- Different charges attract
● The strong nuclear force is why protons are compressed in the middle and do not repel from each other
● Charges travel through a conductor
● Formula: F= (Q^1)(Q^2)/P^2

Passive and Active Electrical/Electronic Components

BASIS ACTIVE COMPONENT (Electronic) PASSIVE COMPONENT (Electrical)
Nature of source Active components deliver power or energy Passive elements utilize power or energy in
to the circuit. the circuit.
Examples Diodes, Transistors, SCR, Integrated circuits Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.
etc.
Function of the Devices which produce energy in the form Devices which stores energy in the form of
component of voltage or current. voltage or current.
Power Gain They are capable of providing power gain. They are incapable of providing power gain.
Flow of current Active components can control the flow of Passive components cannot control the
current. flow of the current.
Nature of energy Active components are energy donor. Passive components cannot control the
flow of the current.

⮚ CONNECTING WIRES
● These conducting wires that are insulated that allows current to travel from one point on a circuit to another.
● It serves as a medium for electricity to move from one component to another.
● It ranges from copper, gold, silver, tungsten and aluminum
● Copper is the most used due to its abundance and low price
- Most conductive- silver, copper, gold, aluminum
● Where electrons pass through/pathway for electrons
● Point of connection between 2 components
⮚ POWER SUPPLY
● A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load.
● It is also known as a “Voltage Store”
● The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct voltage,
current, and frequency to power the load.
● The most common power supply devices are…
- Cell
- Batteries
- voltage outlet
● Transformers (Step-up Transformer- increase voltage, and Step-down Transformer- decrease voltage)
Ground/Earth is a connection to the earth that actually is important in every circuit
⮚ TRANSDUCERS (Output Devices)
● A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
- Examples of transducers: microwave, oven, air conditioner, smoke alarm/ ventilator, and hair dryer.
● Induce voltage, induce current is how a motor works
● Inductor can be electromagnet
- Temporary - electromagnet, using current it can produce magnetism
 - Permanent - is a magnet itself
● Inductor - a passive two-terminal component that stores energy in a magnetic field
● Solenoid - removes unwanted signals from other components
⮚ SWITCHES
● switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit,
interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
● Types:
1. Push to break – usually used for digital timers and alarms
2. Push to make – used for buzzers
3. Single-pole, single throw switch – It is used to control a light, receptacle, or other device from a single
location.
4. Single Pole, Double Throw – A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of current to one of two routes
according to its position.
5. Double Pole, Single Throw – A dual on-off switch which is often used to switch mains electricity because it
can.
⮚ RESISTOR
● Resistor is an electrical component that impedes or slows down the flow of electrical current in an electronic
circuit.
● It is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance.
● Classified as fixed and variable resistors
● Terminals:
- Point of connection between components
- Determines how much resistance does a carbon composition have
→ FIXED RESISTORS
● Fixed value resistors have a defined ohmic resistance and are not adjustable and are the most used resistors
electronic components.
● Most used resistors electronic components
- Carbon Composition Resistor
- Wire Wound Resistor
- Chip resistor (SMD)

1. CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR

● a blend of carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust mixed with a binder substance like clay treated with high
temp and pressure.
● Resistor Color Code
- 1st color band – 1st number value
- 2nd color band – 2nd number value
- 3rd color band – Multiplier/number of zeros
- 4th Color band – Tolerance value
o Note:
▪ Tolerance Value – how accurate is the resistance

▪ The color closest to the edge is the first value

Color 1st, 2nd, 3rd number Multiplier Tolerance

value
Dark Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 1%
Rainbow Red 2 100 2%
Orange 3 1,000
 Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000
Blue 6 1,000,000
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Gold 0.1 5%
Silver 0.01 10%

2. WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

● A Wire wound resistor is formed by wounding a wire made up of a resistive material around a core.
● The metallic core acts as a non-conductive material while the resistive wire conducts, but with some resistance.
3. CHIP RESISTOR
● SMD resistors are rectangular in shape and as a result they are often known as chip resistors.
● They have metallized areas at either end of the main ceramic body, and in this way, they can be set onto a
printed circuit board that has pads onto which the two ends are set to provide the connection.

→ VARIABLE RESISTOR
● It is the type of resistor which changes the flow of current in a controlled manner by offering a wide range of
resistances.
♦ Example: Potentiometer- a manually adjustable variable resistor with 3 terminals.

⮚ CAPACITORS
● A capacitor is a two-terminal, electrical component.
● Along with resistors and inductors, they are one of the most fundamental passive components we use.
● A capacitor is created out of two metal plates and an insulating material called a dielectric.
● Dielectric are insulative components
● Temporary Battery
● Redox- Reduction, oxidation process
● It occurs inside a battery
● From chemical it will be turned into another energy
⮚ DIODES
● A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in
the other.
● The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode
technologies exist.
● Diodes does not allow the backloads of currents
● Oscillation
- Movement of current/ electrons repetitively and moves forward and backward/ upward and downward
● Most common kind in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode
- Generic Diode
- Zener Diode
- Schottky Diode
- Light Emitting Diode (LED)
- Tunnel Diode
- Photo Diode

⮚ TRANSISTORS
● They are devices that control the movement of electrons, and consequently, electricity.
● They work something like a water faucet -- not only do they start and stop the flow of a current (Switch), but
they also control the amount of the current (Amplifier).
♦ Electric component that can be compared to the traffic lights that control the flow of traffic
 ● Types:
1. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)
- It was invented by William Shockley and John Bardee
- It is a bidirectional device that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers.
● Types
- NPN Transistor - one p-type semiconductor resides between two n-type semiconductors
- PNP Transistor - an n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors
2. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETs)
- It consists of a channel of N- or P-type semiconductor material through which current can flow, with a different
material (laid across a section of the channel) controlling the conductivity of the channel.
- One end of the channel is known as the source, the other end of the channel is called the drain, and the control
mechanism is called the gate.
- By applying a voltage to the gate, you control the flow of current from the source to the drain.
● Types of FETs:
- MOSFET - metal-oxide-semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
- JFET - Junction Field Effect Transistors
- MOSFETs have become much more popular than bipolar transistors for use in integrated circuits
♦ SEMICONDUCTOR- material usually used in making a diode and transistor.

⮚ METERS
● Ammeter - Electric Current
● Voltmeter - Voltage (potential difference)
● Ohmmeter - Resistance
● Galvanometer - small amount of current
PEOPLE:
André-Marie Ampère – known for the unit Ampere
Alessandro Volta – invented the voltaic pile, the first electric battery.
Georg Simon Ohm – discovered the Ohm’s Law
Luigi Galvani- invented the galvanometer

Schematics
● A schematic is defined as a picture that shows something in a simple way by using symbols.

Schematic Diagrams and Circuit Diagrams

⮚ Schematic Diagram is a representation of the elements of a system using abstract, graphic symbols rather than
realistic pictures.
⮚ Circuit Diagram (also named electrical diagram, elementary diagram, and electronic schematic) is a graphical
representation of an electrical circuit.

Schematic Symbols
● Standard
● Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
● International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

CONNECTING WIRES
POWER SUPPLIES

TRANSDUCERS (OUTPUT DEVICES)

SWITCHES
RESISTORS

CAPACITORS
DIODES

TRANSISTORS

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

METERS

SENSOR (INPUT DEVICES)

LOGIC GATES
Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor
Solid- anything hard/rigid
● Two types of Solid
1. Crystalline
- Particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) are arranged in an ordered repeating pattern/ period.
- Ex. Quartz, calcite, sugar, mica, diamonds, snowflakes, rock, calcium fluoride, silicon dioxide, and alum
- Lattice- solid structure
2. Amorphous
- Particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) are arranged randomly and have no ordered repeating pattern/ period.
- Ex. Plastics, glass, rubber, metallic glass, polymers, gel, fused silica, pitch tar, thin layer lubricants, and wax
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)- a type of flat panel displays which uses liquid crystals in its primary form of operation.
(found in gadgets such as phones)
Whenever charges (electrons) move/flow, they create electricity.

Properties
Conductors, insulators and semiconductors differ in many ways:
- Conductivity
- Resistivity
- Forbidden gap
- Current flow
- Formation
- Valence electrons

Valence shell- is the outer shell of the atom. Some materials have a free electron in their valence shell and this electron
can easily move from atom to atom.
Conduction- the process by which electricity is directly transmitted through a substance when there is a difference of
electrical potential between adjoining regions, without movement of the material.
- Electrons from the valence shell have higher average energy
- Electrons travel further from the nucleus than those in the inner shell
- Important in determining how the atom reacts chemically and behave as a conductor
- The pole of the atom’s nucleus upon them is weaker and easily broken
- A given element’s reactivity is dependent upon its electronic configuration
Electricity is the cousin of magnetism
Electromagnetism- Hans Christian Oersted and Michael Faraday
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS​
● In solid materials, electron energy levels form bands of allowed energies, separated by “forbidden bands”
● Valence band = Outermost (highest) band filled with electrons (“filled” = all states occupied).
● Conduction band = Next highest band to valence band (empty or partly filled).
● Gap = Energy difference between valence and conduction bands, = width of the forbidden band.

Classification of solids into three types, according to their band structure

A. CONDUCTORS (metal)
- Have a low resistance which allows electrical current to flow with minimum opposition or resistance
- Resistance is reflected in the form of heat.
- Most good conductors have one free electron in their valence shell
● Material capable of carrying electric current, i.e. material which has “mobile charge carriers”. (e.g. electrons,
ions,). ​
● A metal which is very good carrier of electricity is called conductor (Conductivity). They are formed by means of
metallic bonding. ​
● In a conductor (metal) - The valence and conduction bands overlap, so practically the energy gap is zero. Thus,
electrons need very little energy to stay in the conduction band, and conduct electricity. ​
● Good conductors do not require much force or voltage to free their electrons, thus propagating the flow of
energy
● valence band only partially filled, or (if it is filled), the next allowed empty band overlaps with it. ​
● One or more valence electrons can be easily freed
● If the electron to become free to conduct means, it must be promoted into an empty available energy state. ​
● For metals, these empty states are adjacent to the filled states. Generally, energy supplied by an electric field is
enough to stimulate electrons into an empty state. ​
● Examples:
- Metals - liquids with ions (water, molten ionic
- copper (high conductivity) compounds)
- silver, gold (more expensive and less practical in - plasma
most applications) - nickel
- aluminum

B. INSULATORS
- Have high resistance which suppresses/ resist electrical current (electron) flow
- Requires much more force or voltage than conductors to free their electrons
- Insulators are used to protect conductors from touching each other and us from touching the conductor.
- Most materials, other than metals are insulators
● Materials with no or very few free charge carriers​
● Noble gases (stable electrons)
● Gap = forbidden region between highest filled band (valence band) and lowest empty or partly filled band
(conduction band) is very wide, about 3 to 6 eV; ​
● In an insulator the valence band is filled with electrons, so electrons cannot move within the valence band. ​
● In order to produce conduction of electricity, the electrons from the valence band must go into the conduction
band. Thus, energy of more than the energy gap must be supplied to the electrons in the valence band, in order
to transfer them into the conduction band. Because the energy gap in insulator is large, it prevents this change in
energy by the electrons. Thus, insulators are poor conductors. ​
● Examples:
 - Quartz - wood
- most covalent and ionic solids - mica
- plastics - paper
- glass - ceramic
- plastic​
● Practically it is impossible for an electron to jump from the​valence band to the conduction band. Hence such​
materials cannot conduct and called insulators.
● Breakdown of an insulator- such materials may conduct only at very high temperatures or if they are subjected
to high voltage. Such conduction is rare

C. SEMICONDUCTORS
- Can allow or suppress electrical current flow
- These are elements that are unique and they are neither good conductors, nor good insulators.
- Can be made conductive by “doping” process
DOPING- mixing in small amounts of impurities containing free electrons)
- Basis for transistors, diodes and other solid-state devices.
● A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and good
conductors. ​
● Electrons and holes flow
● In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have almost an empty
conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap.
● The energy gap is very small, and very little energy is needed to transfer electrons from the valence band into the
conduction band. ​
● Even the thermal energy at room temperature is enough. ​
● By raising the temperature, more and more electrons will be transferred to the conduction band. ​
● This process results in an increase in conductivity with increase in temperature. ​
● Examples;
- Carbon
- Germanium
- silicon. ​

Types of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
→ An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the​semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
→ Examples of such semiconductors are: pure germanium and silicon which have forbidden energy gaps of
0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively.
→ The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature; there are many electrons which possess
sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap between the valence and the conduction bands.
→ Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which the number of conduction electrons
is equal to the number of holes.
Holes (+)- absence of electrons
→ Electrons moving to conduction band leave “hole” behind; under influence of applied electric field,
Neighboring electrons can jump into the hole, thus creating a new hole, etc.​
→ Holes can move under the influence of an applied electric field, just like electrons; both contribute to
conduction.

2. Extrinsic or impure semiconductors (“doped semiconductor”)

● semiconductor with small admixture of trivalent or pentavalent atoms.
 ● Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or doping has been added in
extremely small amounts (about 1 part in 108) are called “Extrinsic or Impurity semiconductors”.
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR​
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub- divided into two classes:
- N-type semiconductors (donor)​
- P-type semiconductors (acceptor)​

a. N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor​

► This type of semiconductor is obtained when a Pentavalent material like antimony (Sb) is added to pure
silicon crystal.
► in N- type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the minority
carriers. has conduction electrons, no holes.
► dopant with 5 valence electrons. 4 electrons used for covalent bonds with surrounding Si atoms.
► each antimony atom forms covalent bonds with the surrounding four silicon atoms with the help of four
of its five electrons.
► The fifth electron is loosely bound to the antimony atom. it is mobile charge carrier. This electron
needed only small amount of energy to lift it into conduction band (0.05 eV in Si) which improves the
conduction ability to some extent.
► Hence, it can be easily excited from the valence band to the conduction band by the application of
electric field or increase in thermal energy.
► e.g. of dopant with 5 valence electrons N, P, As, Sb​, Bi
► (Donor impurity contributes free electrons)
► They have more electrons, so they can move easily
► Electrons are the majority of carriers

b. P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor​

► Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity causes as many positive holes in a germanium crystal
as there are boron atoms there by producing a P-type (P for positive) extrinsic semiconductor.
► In this type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement of holes in the valence band.
► Examples for trivalent dopant B, Al, Ga, In​
► This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent like boron (B) are added to a pure
germanium crystal.
► dopant with 3 valence electrons (e.g. B, Al, Ga, In, Tl)
► only 3 of the 4 covalent bonds filled and vacancy in the fourth covalent bond is hole.
► In this case, the three valence electrons of boron atom form covalent bonds with four surrounding
germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole.
► hole is left free as a mobile charge carrier, which improves the conduction ability to some extent.
► (Acceptor impurity creates a hole)
► Can combine with pure conductors
► Holes are flowing like electrons, it is left free as a mobile charge carrier, which improves the conduction
ability to some extent.
► Electrons are attracted to holes
► Any charge can produce electricity
p-n JUNCTION​
- It is two terminal devices consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge or Si crystal.
- The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and cathode respectively.
- arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow when forward biased. It is the same
direction in which hole flow takes place.
- A boundary between two semiconductor material types
- Allows electric current when it is forward bias and block electric current when it is reverse biased

ELECTRONIC TOOLS
■ Tools- anything that makes life easier, and has function.
■ A tool is an object used that extend the ability of an individual to modify features of the surrounding
environment.
■ Although many animals use simple tools, only us used stone to make tools that dates back hundreds of millennia
■ Gear or equipment is a set of tools required to perform different tasks that are part of the same activity.

The Stone Ages/ Prehistoric Times- era where tools were discovered.
How did we started utilizing these tools?
The appearance of simple stone tools, widely known as Oldowan tools or the Oldowan industry marked the beginning of
our technological revolution. Purpose is to extract the food hidden on the animals.

The First Tools

● Lomekwian Tools (Lomekwi)
- Dated to 3.3 million years ago much earlier than the Oldowan tools (Kenya)
- Australopithecines- Hominids
- Made by striking one stone to the other stone or a flat surface chipping it to form a sharp edge
● Oldowan Tools
- It was made 2.6 million years ago by the first Hominids in Africa, (Tanzania)
- these tools are a major milestone in human evolutionary history: which the earliest evidence of cultural
behavior.
- They were made by striking two rocks together.
- Homo habilis (crafters) invented Oldowan tools.
- Sharper than lomekwian tools

Tools are the most important items that the ancient humans used to climb to the top of the food chain; by inventing
tools, they were able to accomplish tasks that human bodies could not, such as using a spear or bow and arrow to
kill prey, since their teeth were not sharp enough to pierce many animals' skins. “Man, the hunter” as the catalyst for
Hominin change has been questioned. Based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites, it is now more evident that
pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators' carcasses rather than killing their own food.

Prehistoric people were scavengers. Their experience and knowledge gave way to developing and improving tools (more
accurate and sharper tools). Tools helped people have higher accessibility to food, higher accessibility to food means
higher intellectual capacity.

MODERN TOOLS
- Classification according to functions;
■ Cutting and edge tools- produce a sheering force along a narrow surface- knife, hatchet, axe, scissors
■ Moving tools- operates when applying physical compression- levers, hammer, maul
■ Tools that enact chemical changes- including temperature and ignition- lighter, blowtorch
■ Guiding, measuring and perception tools- ruler, glasses, microscope
■ Shaping tools- used to cut in curves, different angles, and many other shapes
■ Fastening- welders, nail guns, glue guns

🢬 Mechanical devices experienced a major expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the
systematic employment of new energy sources especially waterwheels.
🢬 Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills.
🢬 Machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution.
🢬 Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size

Tools and equipment for Electrical/Electronic Projects

● Screwdrivers- tool used if you need to remove screws from your project.
● Pliers
● Wire cutters- appropriate tool used if your intent is to cut a wire.
● Crimping tools
● Clamps
● Vises
● Tweezers
● Magnifiers

There is much more to tools for electronics than just screwdrivers and pliers. While most of the common tools can be
found at a local hardware or home improvement store, many are unique to the electronics industry.
These specialized tools have evolved over many years, in some cases starting out as modified versions of common
hardware store types, and in other cases designed from the outset to fulfill a specific need.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN ELECTRONICS

1. Long nose pliers- are both cutting and holding pliers used by artisans, jewellery designers, electricians, network
engineers and other tradesmen to bend, re-position and snip wire.
2. Channel lock pliers- are a type of slip-joint pliers. They have serrated jaws generally set 45 to 60 degrees from the
handles. You can expand the mouth/jaws in specific degree.
3. Philips Screw- a screwdriver having a head with a cross slot or the corresponding screwdriver.
4. Allen wrenches- an L-shaped metal bar with a hexagonal head at each end, used to turn bolts and screws having
hexagonal sockets. It is used for specialized size screws.
5. Wire stripper- a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from electric wires. It is a
component deemed useful for removing insulation of the wire. The tool needed for peeling of wire.
6. Wire crimper- joining 2 pieces of metal or other ductile material (usually a wire and a metal plate) by deforming
one or both of them to hold the other.
7. Helping Hand/ Third Hand- a compact station that usually composed/ consists set of tools like clamps, magnifying
glass, and holders. Set of tools used in order to hold a circuit and look closely into its small components.
8. Side cutting plier- are to cut a wire and to substitute for a set of pliers. These are used for bigger and stronger type
of wires.
9. Pocket Knife- also known as swiss knife is a foldable knife with one or more blades that fit inside the handle that
can still fit in a pocket. (portable)
10. Tweezers- a small instrument like a pair of pincers for plucking out hairs and picking up small objects/components.
This type of tweezers is usually used to get chip resistors. The tool best used for handling and picking up small
components.
11. Fish tape- is a tool used by electricians to route new wiring through walls and electrical conduit. Made of a narrow
band of spring steel, by careful manipulation, the tape can be guided through confined spaces such as wall cavities.
(guides electrical wiring)
12. Push-pull rule- is a measuring tape that coils into a compact case. It is used for measuring long, short, straight
lengths.
13. Level- device for establishing a horizontal plane. It consists of a small glass tube containing alcohol or similar liquid
and an air bubble; the tube is sealed and fixed horizontally in a wooden or metallic block or frame with a smooth
lower surface.
14. Magnifier- a lens that produces an enlarged image, typically set in a frame with a handle and used to examine
small or finely detailed things such as fingerprints, stamps, and fine print.
15. Lighting- illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect.
16. Antistatic wristband- or ground bracelet is an antistatic device used to safely ground a person working on very
sensitive electronic equipment, to prevent the buildup of static electricity on their body, which can result in
electrostatic discharge (ESD).
17. Electrical Tape- is a type of pressure- sensitive tape used to insulate electrical/exposed wires and other materials
that conduct electricity.
18. Soldering gun- is an approximately pistol-shaped, electrically powered tool for soldering metals using tin-based
solder to achieve a strong mechanical bond with good electrical contact.
19. Soldering Iron- Soldering is a joining process used to join different types of metals together by melting solder.
Solder is a metal alloy usually made of tin and lead which is melted using a hot iron. The iron is heated to
temperatures above 600 degrees Fahrenheit which then cools to create a strong electrical bond. It is a tool used to
melt solder for joining components.
20. Tick Tracer- detects the presence of voltage in a wire or piece of equipment without actually making direct contact
with the conductor or energized part. An equipment preferably used to check a wire’s continuity.
- Multitester or Multimeter- is a device which can be used to gather data about electrical circuits. A basic
multitester can measure resistance, voltage, and continuity, while more advanced versions may be able to
provide additional data. It is a gear used to measure the capacitance. A multimeter determines capacitance by
charging a capacitor with a known current, measuring the resulting voltage, then calculating the capacitance.
21. Electric Drill- a rotating power drill powered by an electric motor. It is used to create holes in various materials,
such as wood, metal, and plastic. Drills are commonly used in construction and carpentry work, as well as in
plumbing and electrical work.
22. Oscilloscope- a device for viewing oscillations, as of electrical voltage or current, by a display on the screen of a
cathode ray tube. The primary function of an oscilloscope is to measure voltage waves. It is an equipment used for
measuring the time constant.
23. Signal Generator- an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating electronic signals in either the
analog or the digital domain. It is generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or
electroacoustic devices, though it often has artistic uses as well.
24. Breadboard- is used for building temporary circuits. It is a construction base used to build semi-permanent
prototypes of electronic circuits. It is useful to the person who wants to build a circuit to demonstrate its action,
then to reuse the components in another circuit. This item is used for solderless connection of component.
Electric Circuit
• A closed loop through which current can flow.
• For a continuous flow of electrons, there must be a complete circuit with no gaps.
• A gap is usually provided by an electric switch that can be opened or closed to either cut off or allow energy to
flow.
Current in a Circuit

- When the switch is off, there is no current.

- When the switch is on, there is current.

Current Flow
→ Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive side of the battery, through the circuit, and
back to the negative side of the battery. This was the convention established when electricity was first
discovered, but it is incorrect!
→ Electron Flow is what actually happens. The electrons flow out of the negative side of the battery, through the
circuit, and back to the positive side of the battery.

Circuits according to state (status)

• Open Circuit- there is no electricity flowing- “switch off”; R= ∞
• Closed Circuit- there is electricity flowing- “switch on”

Components of ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

1. Voltage source- is a device that maintains a constant amount of voltage. Common voltage sources used at home
are battery, generator, wall socket, and electric outlet.
2. Conducting wires- are special kind of conductors where current can pass through easily. There is a corresponding
safe amount of current that can pass through for every size, thickness, or cross-sectional area of conducting wire.
So, it is important to consider the dimension of wire to be used when connecting a load or number of loads in a
circuit.
3. Electrical switch- is a device that can control the entrance of current. When it is on, the circuit is closed, then
current can pass through. When it is off, the circuit is open, and current cannot pass through.
4. Electrical load- is an electrical device that converts electrical energy to heat like in the case of electric iron, and
to light and heat like in the case of a light bulb.

Series and Parallel Circuits

SERIES CIRCUITS- a circuit that contains only one path for current flow.
- If the path is open anywhere in the circuit, current stops flowing to all components. The total resistance
increases.
In this type of connection, the resistance increases with the number of bulbs added in the circuit. The total resistance in
the circuit is the sum of the resistance offered by each bulb.
• the current is the same anywhere, and the sum of the voltages across each bulb equaled that of the voltage
source.
Characteristics of Series Circuits
1. The current in all parts of the circuit is the same
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 … = In
2. The sum of all each voltage drop is the same as the applied electromotive force/emf.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + … + Vn
3. The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn
Advantages of Using Series Circuits
1. A series connection does not overheat easily. For a given circuit of two loads, the amount of current passing
through each load is constant. If you add more loads, the amount of current passing through in all the loads is
still constant. However, the amount of current in a circuit with two loads is higher than the amount of current in
a circuit with more than two loads. Meaning, the more loads connected in series circuit the amount of current
reduces.
2. In a series circuit, there is the only one path for the current to flow from the voltage source to the different
loads. It would be easy to connect and disconnect new load.
3. Since series circuit is less likely to overheat, there is no need to use expensive, thick wires.
Disadvantages of Using Series Circuits
1. If one of the light bulbs is damaged or removed in a series connection, all other light bulbs in the circuit will not
light too. This is because the point where the bulb is damaged or removed causes the circuit to open, resulting to
discontinue the flow of current in the circuit.
2. The addition of more light bulbs in series circuit causes a decrease in the brightness of the bulbs. Given a fixed
amount of voltage supplied by the voltage source, the more bulbs are added would mean more bulbs will share
the available electrical energy to be converted to light energy.
3. The loads in a series circuit are difficult to control individually. When the switch is off, all loads in the circuit will
not function anymore.
4. It is difficult to identify the damaged bulb in the circuit.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS- A circuit that contains more than one path for current flow.
- If a component is removed, then it is possible for the current to take another path to reach other components.

- The voltage across each bulb is almost equal to the voltage of the two dry cells, indicating that the voltage
anywhere in the circuit is the same.
- The total resistance of the circuit decreases
Characteristics of Parallel Circuits
1. The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the current in each branch.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 … + In
2. The voltage across all the branches in a parallel circuit is the same for each branch.
 VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … = Vn
3. The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the separate resistances.
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + … + 1/Rn
Advantages of Using Parallel Circuits
1. All loads in parallel connection are directly connected to the voltage source. Even the resistances vary, all light
bulbs can still have their maximum brightness.
2. In a parallel circuit, even if one of the light bulbs is damaged, all other light bulbs will still function since the flow
of current is not entirely interrupted.
3. Individual load in a parallel circuit is easy to control. Each load has a connecting wire for the current to flow, and
each may have its own switch. Even if you switch off one bulb, other bulbs are not affected.
4. 4. All light bulbs and appliances at home are connected in parallel. Switching off some appliances does not affect
other appliances.
Disadvantages of Using Parallel Circuits
1. Overloading may happen if appliances are simultaneously used at home. With more loads, total resistance
decreases resulting to excessive, large amount of current that would pass through the conducting wires.
Consequently, overheating of wires takes place which may lead to fire.
2. A parallel connection is difficult to install, maintain, and repair since large volume of conducting wires is needed.
When problem in the connection occurs, it is difficult to identify which loop among the many loops does not
work.
3. It requires the use of several conducting wires of varying sizes.

Sample Problem (Series Circuits)

1. Let us assume that you have five appliances connected in series. The refrigerator has a resistance of 20 Ω, the TV
set 10 Ω, the radio 5 Ω, the flat iron 75 Ω and the electric stove 55 Ω. If the circuit is connected to a direct
current of 220V, what is
a. The total resistance on the circuit?
b. The total current?
c. The voltage drop in each appliances?
Sample Problem (Parallel Circuits)
1. The refrigerator, TV set, radio, flat iron and electric stove have a resistance of 20 Ω, 10, 5 Ω, 75 Ω and 55 Ω,
respectively. If the current is connected to a parallel circuit of 220 V, what is the
a. Total resistance in circuit?
b. Voltage drop in each appliance?
c. Current used by each appliance?
d. Total current?

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
• If circuit components are series-connected in some parts and parallel in others, we won’t be able to apply
a single set of rules to every part of that circuit.
• Instead, we will have to identify which parts of that circuit are series and which parts are parallel
• Then selectively apply series and parallel rules as necessary to determine what is happening.
Junction- point of connection in a circuit where three or more wires connect.
- Typically represented by a dot

ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE, OHM’S LAW, AND POWER

● Ohm’s Law- states the relation between voltage, current, resistance (V, I, R) in an electrical circuit.
- Georg Simon Ohm
𝑉
- I= 𝑅
- The current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.
● Charge- basic property of matter carried by some particles that governs how the particles are affected by an electric
or magnetic field.
- Coulombs (C)- unit of measurement of charge
- 1.602x10^-19 C
𝑄1𝑄2
- F= 𝑟2
- Charge is conserved
- Same repel, opposite attract

● Electric Field- the physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles and exerts force on all other charged
particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them.

• Electric Current- It is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit.
- the current in a circuit can be determined if the quantity of charge (Q) passing through a cross section of a wire
in a time (t) can be measured.
𝑄
- I= 𝑡
𝐶
- The standard metric unit for current is the ampere or 𝑠
● Voltage (Potential Difference)
- The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the amount of work done per unit of charge as
a charge is moved between two points.
- Mathematically:
- Potential Difference = Work Done/ Charge
- The volt – one volt is the potential difference between two points in an electric field when one joule of work is
done in moving a charge of 1 C between these points.
● Resistance, Resistivity, and Resistors
- Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of charge.
- Suppresses the flow in a circuit
- The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to
𝑉
the electric current which flows through it: R = 𝐼
Variables Affecting Electrical Resistance
• First, the total length of the wires will affect the amount of resistance.
– The longer the wire, the more resistance that there will be.
• The cross-sectional area of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. Wider wires have a greater
cross-sectional area.
– The wider the wire, the less resistance that there will be to the flow of electric charge.
• A third variable that is known to affect the resistance to charge flow is the material that a wire is made of
 – Not all materials are created equal in terms of their conductive ability.
– The conducting ability of a material is often indicated by its Resistivity (ρ) - is an intrinsic property that
quantifies how strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current.
𝐿
R=ρ𝐴
L= length of the wire
A= Area of the material
ρ= resistivity of the material
- Unit of measurement of rho (ρ)- ohm-meter (Ωm)

Materials and Resistivity

Platinum 11 x 10-8
Material Resistivity Lead 22 x 10-8
(ohm-meter) Nichrome 150 x 10-8
Silver 1.59 x 10-8 Carbon 3.5 x 10-5
Copper 1.7 x 10-8 Polystyrene 107 to 1011
Gold 2.2 x 10-8 Polyethylene 108 to 109
Aluminum 2.8 x 10-8 Glass 1010 to 1014
Tungsten 5.6 x 10-8 Hard Rubber 1013
Iron 10 x 10-8
RESISTORS
• Are electrical components that restrict the flow of electric current in a circuit.
• Resistors may be connected either way round and they are not damaged by heat when soldering.
• Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)
• 1Ω is quite small so resistor values are given in kΩ and MΩ
1kΩ = 1000Ω
1MΩ = 1000k Ω
• Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids using a decimal point
because it is easy to miss the small dot.
• Instead the letters R, K and M are used in place of the decimal point.
• To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point, then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or
1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R means multiply by 1.
• For example:
• 560R= 560Ω
• 2K7= 2.7kΩ = 2700Ω
• 1M0 = 1.0MΩ = 1000kΩ

• Resistor color code

– Resistor values are usually shown using colored bands, each color represents a number as shown in the
table. Most resistors have 4 bands:
• The first band gives the first digit.
• The second band gives the second digit.
 • The third band indicates the number of zeros.
• The fourth band shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor but this may be ignored for
almost all circuits.
– Tolerance is the percentage of error in the resistor's resistance, or how much more or
less you can expect a resistor's actual measured resistance to be from its stated
resistance.
» Gold - 5% tolerance,
» Silver is - 10%
» no band - 20% tolerance.

• EXAMPLE
– This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands so its value is 270000 Ω = 270 k Ω

Note: The nearest band to the edge of the resistor is considered to be the first color band.

POWER
• Power (P) is the rate at which energy is used
• Power in electrical circuits is measured in watts and symbolized by the letter W.
• the rate at which energy is consumed.
𝑊
P= 𝑡
or P = VI
W= amount work done V= amount of Voltage
t = time I = amount of Current
• Power in electrical circuits is measured in watts and symbolized by the letter W.

POWER IN OHM’S LAW

• Using Ohm’s Law, you can state the above formula in a number of ways:
– P = I2 * R
– P = V2 / R
​