Name: Muhammad Shawaiz Roll No: 22-Arid-4383

Assignment # 01
Operating System Structure
1. Main Components of an Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is software that helps manage computer hardware and software,
ensuring that everything runs smoothly. It provides essential services to other programs and
helps them communicate with the hardware. The main parts of an operating system include
the kernel, process management, memory management, file system management, device
management, and security and protection.

The Kernel
The kernel is the core part of the operating system, acting as the middle layer between
hardware and software. It’s responsible for controlling system resources and making sure that
hardware and software work together.

Key Responsibilities of the Kernel:

• Resource Allocation: It manages the allocation of CPU time, memory, and devices to
processes.
• Handling System Calls: It allows communication between user applications and the
hardware.
• Hardware Abstraction: It hides the details of the hardware, allowing software to
work without needing to know specifics about the hardware.

Process Management
Process management is all about handling processes, which are programs that are running.
The OS is in charge of making sure each process runs smoothly and in an organized manner,
allowing multitasking where several processes run simultaneously.

Responsibilities of Process Management:

• Process Scheduling: Decides which process gets CPU time using scheduling
methods like round-robin, first-come-first-serve (FCFS), or priority-based scheduling.
• Multitasking: Enables multiple processes to run at the same time by switching
between them efficiently.
• Process States: Keeps track of the state of each process (running, waiting, suspended)
using a data structure known as the Process Control Block (PCB).
• Inter-process Communication (IPC): Allows processes to communicate and
coordinate in multi-threaded environments.

Memory Management
Memory management makes sure that the system's memory (RAM) is used efficiently. The
OS assigns memory to processes and ensures data is stored properly.
Key Functions of Memory Management:
• Memory Allocation: Allocates memory to processes as needed during execution.
• Virtual Memory: Extends RAM by using hard disk space when memory is
insufficient.
• Paging & Segmentation: Organizes memory into small, fixed-size units (pages) or
larger, flexible segments to reduce fragmentation.
• Swapping: Moves inactive processes from RAM to the hard drive when memory is
running low.

File System Management

File system management deals with how data is stored and retrieved from storage devices
(e.g., hard drives).

Key Responsibilities of File System Management:

• File Access Methods: Supports different ways to access data, such as sequential or
direct access.
• File Systems: The OS uses different types of file systems, such as NTFS (Windows),
ext4 (Linux), or FAT32.
• Directory Structure: Organizes files in a hierarchical structure (folders and
directories).
• File Permissions: Ensures that users have the correct permissions (read, write,
execute) to access files.

Device Management
Device management controls hardware devices connected to the computer, such as
input/output devices.

Key Functions of Device Management:

• Device Drivers: These are programs that allow the OS to communicate with
hardware devices.
• I/O Scheduling: Manages input/output requests to ensure efficient use of devices.
• Buffering and Spooling: Temporarily stores data in memory (buffering) or queues
jobs for later processing (spooling) to improve device usage.

Security and Protection

Security and protection features ensure that the OS prevents unauthorized access to
resources and protects data integrity.
Key Security Mechanisms:
• User Authentication: Verifies the identity of users through passwords, biometrics, or
other credentials.
• Access Control: Defines user permissions for accessing files, memory, and devices,
using models like Access Control Lists (ACLs).
• Data Encryption: Protects sensitive information by converting it into a code.
• System Protection: Shields the system from viruses and malware through firewalls
and antivirus programs.

2. Types of Kernels and Their Roles

Monolithic Kernel
In a monolithic kernel, all operating system services (such as device drivers, file system
management, and memory management) run in the kernel space as one large process.
• Advantages: High performance because all services are in one kernel.
• Disadvantages: If the kernel crashes, the entire system goes down.
• Examples: Linux, early versions of Unix.

Microkernel
In a microkernel, only the essential services (like CPU scheduling and memory
management) run in the kernel space, while other services run in user space.
• Advantages: More modular and secure because errors in one part don’t crash the
whole system.
• Disadvantages: Slower performance due to more context switching.
• Examples: QNX, Minix.

Hybrid Kernel
A hybrid kernel combines the features of both monolithic and microkernels. Some services
run in the kernel space while others run in the user space.
• Advantages: Offers the performance of a monolithic kernel with the modularity of a
microkernel.
• Disadvantages: More complex to design and maintain.
• Examples: Windows NT, macOS.

3. OS Handling of Process and Memory Management

Process Management
Operating systems manage processes by using different scheduling algorithms like round-
robin, priority scheduling, or FCFS. They track the state of each process and manage CPU
time allocation for multitasking. Inter-process communication (IPC) mechanisms ensure
that processes can coordinate effectively in a multi-threaded environment.

Memory Management
The OS uses techniques like paging (dividing memory into small, fixed-size units) and
segmentation (dividing memory into variable-size segments) to organize memory. Virtual
memory extends the available memory by using disk space, allowing processes to run
efficiently even if the physical RAM is limited.

4. Structure and Types of File Systems

A file system determines how data is stored, accessed, and managed on storage devices.

File System Types

• NTFS (Windows): Supports large files, metadata, and security features like
encryption.
• ext4 (Linux): Extensible and reliable, widely used in Linux systems.
• HFS+ (macOS): Optimized for Apple devices, supports large files and journaling.
• FAT32: Simple and widely compatible but has limitations on file sizes.

File System Structures

• Hierarchical Structure: Organizes files into directories (folders) for easy
management.
• File Metadata: Stores information like file size, permissions, and creation dates.

5. Interaction with Hardware Devices

The OS uses device drivers to communicate with hardware. These drivers convert high-level
commands from the OS into specific instructions that hardware can understand. Buffering
and spooling optimize data transfer between hardware devices, ensuring smooth interaction.

6. Mechanisms for Ensuring Security and Protecting Resources

To ensure security, the OS uses mechanisms like:
• Access Control: Restricts access based on user roles and permissions.
• Authentication: Ensures only authorized users can access the system.
 • Encryption: Protects sensitive data from unauthorized access.
• Auditing and Monitoring: Tracks system activity to detect security breaches.

7. Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be classified into different types based on how they manage resources,
interact with users, and execute processes.

7.1 Batch Operating Systems

In a batch operating system, similar tasks are grouped together and processed sequentially.
Users submit jobs, and the system processes them in batches without real-time interaction.
• Characteristics: No direct user interaction, job scheduling in batches, reduced CPU
idle time.
• Applications: Early mainframe computers for tasks like payroll or billing.
• Examples: IBM Job Control Language (JCL), early versions of UNIX.

7.2 Time-Sharing Operating Systems

In time-sharing operating systems, multiple users can share system resources at the same
time. The CPU switches between tasks quickly, giving users the impression that they are the
only ones using the system.
• Characteristics: Multitasking, time slicing, interactive systems.
• Applications: Multi-user environments like universities or large companies.
• Examples: UNIX, Multics, Windows Server.

7.3 Distributed Operating Systems

A distributed OS manages a group of computers and makes them work together as one
unified system. Tasks are distributed across several machines, which communicate over a
network.
• Characteristics: Resource sharing, decentralization, fault tolerance.
• Applications: Cloud computing, scientific simulations, enterprise systems.
• Examples: Google Cloud, Apache Hadoop, Microsoft Azure.

7.4 Network Operating Systems

A network operating system (NOS) allows multiple computers to communicate and share
resources over a network. Unlike distributed systems, NOS focuses on providing network
functions like file and printer sharing.
• Characteristics: Centralized control, remote resource access, file and printer sharing.
• Applications: Corporate networks, educational institutions, data centers.
 • Examples: Novell NetWare, Windows Server, UNIX with Samba.

7.5 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

A real-time OS is designed to process tasks within strict time constraints. These systems are
often used in environments where timing is crucial, like medical devices or automotive
systems.
• Characteristics: High reliability, predictable response times, specialized for time-
critical applications.
• Applications: Medical equipment, industrial control systems, embedded systems.
• Examples: VxWorks, QNX, FreeRTOS.

Summary of OS Types
Type Key Features Examples

No real-time interaction, processes jobs in

Batch OS IBM JCL, early UNIX
batches

Time-Sharing OS Multitasking, CPU time slicing UNIX, Multics

Distributed OS Resource sharing across multiple machines Google Cloud, Apache Hadoop

Centralized resource control, network Novell NetWare, Windows

Network OS
communication Server

Real-Time OS Precise timing, critical task execution VxWorks, FreeRTOS, QNX