Chapter 6

Waves and Sound

 Waves

• We know that when matter is disturbed, energy

emanates from the disturbance. This
propagation of energy from the disturbance is
know as a wave.
– We call this transfer of energy wave motion.
• Examples include ocean waves, sound waves,
electromagnetic waves, and seismic
(earthquake) waves.

Audio Link
 Wave Motion

• Waves transfer energy and generally not matter

through a variety of mediums.
– The wave form is in motion but not the matter.
• Water waves (liquid) essentially bob you up and
down but not sideways.
• Earthquakes waves move through the Earth.
(solid)
• Sound waves travel through the air. (gas)
• Electromagnetic radiation waves travel through
space. (void)
 Wave Properties

• A disturbance may be a single pulse or shock

(hammer), or it may be periodic (guitar string).
 Longitudinal and
Transverse Waves
• Two types of waves classified on their particle
motion and wave direction:
• Longitudinal – particle motion and the wave
velocity are parallel to each other
– Sound is a longitudinal wave.
• Transverse – particle motion is perpendicular to
the direction of the wave velocity
– Light is an example of a transverse wave.
 Longitudinal & Transverse Waves

Longitudinal
Wave (sound)

Transverse
Wave (light)
 Wave Description

• Wavelength () – the distance of one complete wave

• Amplitude – the maximum displacement of any part of
the wave from its equilibrium position. The energy
transmitted by the wave is directly proportional to the
amplitude squared.
 Wave Characterization

• Frequency ( f ) – the number of oscillations or

cycles that occur during a given time (1 s)
– The unit usually used to describe frequency is the
hertz (Hz).
– One Hz = one cycle per second
• Period (T) – the time it takes for a wave to travel
a distance of one wavelength
• Frequency and Period are inversely proportional
1
• frequency = 1 / period f= T
 Wave Characterization

• Frequency and Period are inversely proportional

• Frequency = cycles per second
– If a wave has a frequency of f = 4 Hz, then four full
wavelengths will pass in one second
• Period = seconds per cycle
– If 4 full wavelengths pass in one second then a
wavelength passes every ¼ second (T = 1/f = ¼ s)
Wave Comparison

T= ¼ s

T= 1/8 s
 Wave Speed (v)

• Since speed is distance/time then

• v = /T or v = f
• v = wave speed (m/s)
•  = wavelength
• T = period of wave (s)
• f = frequency (Hz)
 Calculating
Wavelengths – Example
• For sound waves with a speed of 344 m/s and
frequencies of (a) 20 Hz and (b) 20 kHz, what is
the wavelength of each of these sound waves?
• GIVEN: v = 344 m/s, (a) f = 20 Hz,
(b) f = 20 kHz = 20 x 103 Hz
• FIND:  (wavelength)
• Rearrange formula (v = f) to solve for  = v/f
–  = v/f = (344 m/s)/(20 Hz) = 17 m
–  = v/f = (344 m/s)/(20 x 103 Hz) = 0.017 m
 Calculating Frequency
Confidence Exercise
• A sound wave has a speed of 344 m/s and a
wavelength of 0.500 m. What is the frequency
of the wave?
• GIVEN: v = 344 m/s,  = 0.500 m
• FIND: f (wavelength)
• Rearrange formula (v = f ) to solve for f = v/
• f = v/ = (344 m/s)/(0.500 m/cycle) =
• f = 688 cycles/s
 Electromagnetic Waves

• Consist of vibrating electric and magnetic fields

that oscillate perpendicular to each other and
the direction of wave propagation
• The field energy radiates outward at the speed
of light (c).
• The speed of all electromagnetic waves (“speed
of light”) in a vacuum:
– c = 3.00 x 108 m/s = 1.86 x 105 mi/s
– To a good approximation this is also the speed of
light in air.
 Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum

The human eye is only sensitive to a very narrow portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum (lying between the infrared and
ultraviolet.) We call this “light.”
 Computing Radio Wave
Wavelength Example
• What is the wavelength of the radio waves
produced by a station with an assigned
frequency of 600 kHz?
• Convert kHz to Hz:
• f = 600 kHz = 600 x 103 Hz = 6.00 x 105 Hz
• Rearrange equation (c = f ) and solve for 
•  = c/f = (3.00 x 108 m/s)/(6.00 x 105 Hz)
•  = 0.500 x 103m = 500 m
 Radio Wavelengths: AM vs. FM

• AM approx. = 800 kHz = 8.00 x 105 Hz

• FM approx. = 90.0 MHz = 9.0 x 107 Hz
• Since  = c/f , as the denominator ( f ) gets
bigger the wavelength becomes smaller.
• Therefore, AM wavelengths are longer than FM.
 Visible Light

• Visible light waves have frequencies in the

range of 1014 Hz.
• Therefore visible light has relatively short
wavelengths.
•  = c/f = (108 m/s)/(1014 Hz) = 10-6 m
• Visible light wavelengths (~10-6 m) are
approximately one millionth of a meter.
 Visible Light

• Visible light is generally expressed in

nanometers (1 nm = 10-9 m) to avoid using
negative exponents.
• The visible light range extends from
approximately 400 to 700 nm.
– 4 x 10-7 to 7 x 10-7 m
• The human eye perceives the different
wavelengths within the visible range as different
colors.
– The brightness depends on the energy of the wave.
 Sound Waves

• Sound - the propagation of longitudinal waves

through matter (solid, liquid, or gas)
• The vibration of a tuning fork produces a series
of compressions (high pressure regions) and
rarefactions (low pressure regions).
• With continual vibration, a series of high/low
pressure regions travel outward forming a
longitudinal sound wave.

Audio Link
 Tuning Fork

• As the end of the fork moves outward, it compresses the

air. When the fork moves back it produces an area of
low pressure.
 Sound Spectrum

• Similar to the electromagnetic radiation, sound

waves also have different frequencies and form
a spectrum.
• The sound spectrum has relatively few
frequencies and can be divided into three
frequency regions:
– Infrasonic, f < 20 Hz
– Audible, 20 Hz < f < 20 kHz
– Ultrasonic, f > 20 kHz
 Audible Region

• The audible region for

humans is about 20 Hz to
20 kHz.
• Sounds can be heard due
to the vibration of our
eardrums caused by the
sound waves propagating
disturbance.
 Loudness/Intensity

• Loudness is a relative term.

• The term intensity (I) is quantitative and is a
measure of the rate of energy transfer through a
given area .
• Intensity is measured in J/s/m2 or W/m2.
– The threshold of hearing is around 10-12 W/m2.
– An intensity of about 1 W/m2 is painful to the ear.
• Intensity decreases with distance from the
source (I  1/r2).
– This is called an inverse square relation.
 Sound Intensity decreases inversely to the
square of the distance from source (I  1/r2).
 Decibel Scale

• Sound Intensity is measured on the decibel

scale.
• A decibel is 1/10 of a bel.
– The bel (B) is a unit of intensity named in honor of
Alexander Graham Bell.
• The decibel scale is not linear with respect to
intensity, therefore when the sound intensity is
doubled, the dB level is only increased by 3 dB.
The Decibel
Scale
 Ultrasound

• Sound waves with frequencies greater than

20,000 Hz cannot be detected by the human
ear, although may be detected by some animals
(for example dog whistles).
• The reflections of ultrasound frequencies are
used to examine parts of the body, or an unborn
child – much less risk than using x-rays.
• Also useful in cleaning small hard-to-reach
recesses – jewelry, lab equipment, etc.
Bats use the reflections of ultrasound
for navigation and to locate food.
 Speed of Sound

• The speed of sound depends on the makeup of

the particular medium that it is passing through.
• The speed of sound in air is considered to be,
vsound = 344 m/s or 770 mi/h (at 20oC).
– Approximately 1/3 km/s or 1/5 mi/s
• The velocity of sound increases with increasing
temperature. (at 0oC = 331 m/s)
• In general the velocity of sound increases as the
density of the medium increases. (The speed of
sound in water is about 4x that in air.)
 Sound

• The speed of light is MUCH faster than the

speed of sound. So in many cases we see
something before we hear it (lightening/thunder,
echo, etc.).
• A 5 second lapse between seeing lightening and
hearing the thunder indicates that the lightening
occur at a distance of approximately 1 mile.
 Computing the 
of Ultrasound Example
• What is the  of a sound wave in air at 20oC with
a frequency of 22 MHz?
• GIVEN: vsound = 344 m/s and f = 22MHz
• CONVERT: 22 MHz = 22 x 106 Hz
• EQUATION: vsound = f   = v/f

–  = (344 m/s)/(22 x 106 Hz) =

–  = (344 m/s)/(22 x 106 cycles/s) = 16 x 10-6m
 The Doppler Effect

• The Doppler effect - the apparent change in

frequency resulting from the relative motion of
the source and the observer
• As a moving sound source approaches an
observer, the waves in front are bunched up and
the waves behind are spread out due to the
movement of the sound source.
• The observer hears a higher pitch (shorter ) as
the sound source approaches and then hears a
lower pitch (longer ) as the source departs.
 The Doppler Effect Illustrated

• Approach – the waves are bunched up  higher

frequency ( f )
• Behind – waves are spread out  lower
frequency ( f )
 The Doppler Effects –
all kinds of waves
• A general effect that occurs for all kinds of
waves – sound, water, electromagnetic
• In the electromagnetic wavelengths the Doppler
Effect helps us determine the relative motion of
astronomical bodies.
– ’blue shift’ – a shift to shorter  as a light source
approaches the observer
– ’redshift’ – a shift to longer  as a light source moves
away from the observer
• These ’shifts’ in  tell astronomers a great deal
about relative movements in space.
 Sonic Boom

• Consider the Doppler Effect as a vehicle moves

faster and faster.
• The sound waves in front get shorter and
shorter, until the vehicle reaches the speed of
sound. (approx. 750 mph – depending on temp.)
• As the jet approaches the speed of sound,
compressed sound waves and air build up and
act as a barrier in front of the plane.
 Bow Waves and Sonic Boom

• As a plane exceeds the speed of sound it

forms a high-pressure shock wave, heard as
a ’sonic boom.’
Mini-Sonic Boom – Crack of a Whip

• With the flick of a wrist, a wave pulse travels

down a tapering whip.
• The speed of the wave pulse increases as the
whip thins, until the pulse is traveling faster than
sound.
• The final “crack” is made by air rushing back into
the area of reduced pressure, created by the
supersonic final flip of the whip’s tip.
 Standing Waves

• Standing wave – a “stationary” waveform arising

from the interference of waves traveling in
opposite directions
• Along a rope/string, for example, waves will
travel back and forth.
– When these two waves meet they constructively
“interfere” with each other, forming a combined and
standing waveform.
 Standing Waves

• Standing
waves are
formed only
when the
string is
vibrated at
particular
frequencies.
 Resonance

• Resonance - a wave effect that occurs when an

object has a natural frequency that corresponds
to an external frequency.
– Results from a periodic driving force with a frequency
equal to one of the natural frequencies.
• Common example of resonance: Pushing a
swing – the periodic driving force (the push)
must be at a certain frequency to keep the swing
going
Here are two links that do a really nice job with resonance.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BE827gwnnk4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvJAgrUBF4w
 Resonance

• When one tuning fork is struck, the other tuning fork of

the same frequency will also vibrate in resonance.
• The periodic “driving force” here are the sound waves.
 Musical Instruments

• Musical Instruments use standing waves and

resonance to produce different tones.
• Guitars, violins, and pianos all use standing
waves to produce tones.
• Stringed instruments are tuned by adjusting the
tension of the strings.
– Adjustment of the tension changes the frequency at
which the string vibrates.
• The body of the stringed instrument acts as a
resonance cavity to amplify the sound.
 Chapter 6 - Important Equations

• f = 1/T Frequency-Period Relationship

• v = /T =  f Wave speed
• 3.00 x 108 m/s Speed of Light