Computer - Data and Information : Data: It is the term used for raw facts and

For example, 134, +9, 'Raju', C' are data. Information: Data figures.
and meaningful form is information. That is data is the raw represented in useful
to give meaningful, ordered or structured information. For material that is processed
old. This is infornmation about Raju and conveys some example Raju is 9 years
data to information is called data meaning. This conversion of
processing.
Functional Components of a Computer : The computer is the combination of
hardware and software. Hardware are the physical components of a computer like
motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while software is the set of
programs or instructions. Both hardware and software together make the computer
system function. Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output
Cycle (IPO cycle). It needs certain input, processes that input and produces the
desired output. The input unit takes the input, the central processing unit does the
processing of data and the output unit produces the output. The memory unit holds
the data and instructions during the processing.

Output
Lunit

CPU

ALU

Input Registers Memory

unit

CU

Fig: Functional Components of a computer

attached to the computer.

Input Unit :The input unit consists of input devices that are
These devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer
Scanner etc.
understands. Ex : Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick,
 Central Processing Unit (CPU):Once the information is entered into centrethe computer
control of the
by the input device, the processor processes it. It is the
computer. As the CPUis located on a sInall chip, it is also called the microprocessor.
Ttirst fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know what
Is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory or input device. , then Co
exeCutes or performs the required computation and then either stores the output or
displays on the output device.
The CPU has three main components :
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit (CU)
Memory registers. (Registers)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU. performs mathematical calculations
and takes logical decisions.

Control Unit :The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of
CPU and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also
input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in
the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets (understands) it and sends
control signals to inputeoutput devices until the required operation is done properly
by ALU and memory.
Memory Registers : A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These
receive data/information and then this data/information is held in them as per the
requirement. Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and
each register inside the CPU has a specific function like storing data, storing an
instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the
main register in the ALU.

Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions
and is called internal memory. During processing, it is the internal memory that
holds the data. The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of
which can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and
has an address. With the help of the address, the computer can find any data easily
the
without having to search the entire memory. The internal memory is also called
Primary memory or Main memory. When the task is performed, memory the CU makes the
is cleared
space available for storing data and instructions, thereafter the
time of access of data
and the memory space is then available for the next task. The
is also called
is independent of its location in memory, therefore this memory means
Random Access memory (RAM). Primary memory is volatile in nature. That
when the power is switched off, the data stored in this memory is permanently
 erased. Hence
permanently secondary
for later use. memory is needed to store data and information
hard disk, Some of the examples of secondary storage devices are
compact disks, pen drives etc.
Output Unit : The output unit consists of
output devices that are attached
with the
cOmputer. converts the binary data coming
It from CPU to human understandable
from. The common output devices are
monitor, printer, plotter etc.
Booting:When the computer is switched on, a
from ROM into the main memory. This process iscopy of boot program is brougnt
called booting. (The process or
switching on the a computer in a proper method is called Booting.)
There are two types :
Cold Booting: When the system starts from initial state i.e. it is switched on, it is
called cold booting or Hard Booting. When the user presses the Power button, the
instructions are read from the ROM to initiate the booting process.

Warm Booting: When the system restarts or when Reset button is pressed, it is called
Warm Booting or Soft Booting. The system does not start from initial state and so
all diagnostic tests need not be carried out in this case. There are chances of data loss
and system damage as the data might not have been stored properly.

Memory Concepts : Memory stores data and instructions. Every memory chip
contains thousands of memory locations. The data is stored in the form of bits and
bytes. A bit is the smallest storage unit of memory. Anibble is a collection of 4bits.
Eight bits together form a single byte, which in turn represents a single character.
The computer memories can be divided into following categories:
Primary Memory
Secondary memory
Cache Memory

Primary Memory: Primary memory or main memory is a Metal Oxide

Semiconductor (MOS) memory used for storing program and data during the
execution of the program. It is directly accessible to CPU. A given memory is
divided into N words where each word is assigned an address in the memory. A
number of bits in a word is
word is generally more than 8 bits in length and the and 64 bit word length are
termed as word length. Computers with 8, 16, 24, 32
available. The higher the word length, the more powerful a computer is.
read/write memories.
Memories can be both read from and written to are called
Primary memory can be of two types -
 " RAM (Random Access Memory)
" ROM (Read only memory)
In RAM, the memory can be accessed from any
(RAM) : any
Ikandom Access Memory That means without searching the entire memory, data that
desired location randomly. The instructions
and
amount of time. read/write
location can be accessed in the same RAM of theComputer. It is a volatile
computer are stored in the is a
We input into the both read from and written to the RAM. It
memory, so data can be
switched off.
memory and loses its contents when the power is
memory (ROM): ROM is a type of memory that can perform read
Read only written by the manufacturer and come
operation only. The contents of ROM are memory, which means that contents
along with the computer. It is a non-volatile to the computer is switched off. ROMs
stored in it are not lost even when the power altered.
the information once written, need not be or a
are used in applications whereinstructions such as interrupt service routines
They hold certain essential
SCIEN monitor program controlling the machine.
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): This type of ROMBut can be programmed
circuit. once a PROM is
even after its manufacture using a PROM programmer
programmed, it becomes just like ROMi.e. it cannot be changed. In EPROM, the contents
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): erase the data, an EPROM
To
can be erased and the memory can be reprogrammed.reprogrammed using a PROM
is exposed to ultraviolet light and then it incanuse,bethen it behaves like a ROM, that
programmer circuit. When the EPROM is
means the information can only be read.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): The contents

can be erased and then reprogrammed using electric
signals. This makes it an
is switched off.
excellent back up for RAM whose contents are lost when the power
back into the RAM
When the power is returned, the contents of EEPROM are copied and
Nowadays RAMs
and the computer continues working without any data loss.
EEPROMs are integrated in a single chip.
Cache Memory : Cache memory is a special high speed memory made up of high
accessed data and instructions.
speed static RAMs. It is used to hold frequently data is found, it
Whenever some data is required, the CPUfirst looks into cache. If
of a miss,
is called cache hit and the information is transferred to the CPU. In case
because most
the main memory is accessed. Memory caching proves to be efficient
frequently
programs repeatedly access the same data and instructions, so access of
used data becomes very fast with cache memory.
 The cache memory
Ll cache- divides into three levels:
fastest, but
L2 smallest, data and
cache-slower,
L3 cache- but bigger,
data-only.
slowest, but biggest,
instructions.
data-only.
Secondary Memory
Storage capacity
: The major limitation of primary memory is that it has limited
and is
storage devices are used. volatile.
To overcome this limitation
This secondary memory
type of memory is also called external
are three types of memory. 1here
Magnetic
secondary storage media.
Optical
" Solid State

Magnetic storage media: Magnetic media is coated with a magnetic sensitive

and this layer is magnetized in clockwise or anticlockwise layer
directions, which then are
interpreted as binary ls and Os at reading.
Ex: Hard disks, Floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
Floppy Disk (Diskette): A floppy disk is a flexible disk made up of mylar with a
magnetic coating on it. It is packaged inside a protective plastic envelope. FD could
store up to 1.44 MB of data but now they are no longer in use.

Hard disk: A hard disk consists of one or more circular disks called platters which
are mounted on a common spindle. Each surface of a platter is coated with a
magnetic material. Both surfaces of each disk are capable of storing data except the
top and bottom disk where only the inner surface is used. The information is
recorded on the surface of the rotating disk by magnetic read/write heads. These
heads are joined to a common armn known as access arm. This arm moves over the
surface of the rotating disk. Information is recorded on each of these disks in the
form of concentric circles called tracks which are further divided into sectors.
Optical storage media : On an optical storage media information is stored and read
using a laser beam. The data is stored as a spiral pattern of pits and ridges denoting
0and 1.

Ex:CDs, DVDs etc.

CD and DVD:(Assignment)
 Blue Ray Disk: This is the latest optical storage media to store high definition audio
and video. It looks like a CD or DVD but can store up to 27 GB of dataon asingle
layer disk and up to 54 GB of data on a dual layer disk. CDs or DVDs use red laser
beam, the blue ray disk uses a blue laser to read/write data on a disk. As the
wavelength of the blue ray is shorter, more data per unit area can be stored on the
disk. This is because due to shorter wavelength, it is possible to focus the laser spot
with greater precision
Solid State Memories : The term 'solid-state' essentially means 'no moving parts'.
ie devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels of tape,
no spinning discs, no laser beams, etc.)
Ex:digital cameras, pen drives or USB flash drives.

Pen Drives: Pen Drives or Thumb drives or Flash drives are the recently emerged
portable storage media. It is an EEPROM based flash memory which can be
repeatedly erased and written using electric signals. This memory is coupled with a
USB connector through which it can be plugged into the computer. They have a
capacity smaller than a hard disk but greater than a CD/DVD/BRD.

Units of Measurements of Memory :

Relationship with earlier memory unit In equivalent Bytes

Memory unit
1 Kilo Byte = 1024 Bytes(or 210 Bytes) 1024
Kilo Byte (KB)
Mega Byte (MB) 1 Mega Byte = 1024 Kilo Byte(or 210 KB) 1024x1024

Giga Byte (GB) 1Giga Byte = 1024 Mega Byte(or 210 MB) 1024x1024x1024

Tera Byte (TB) 1Tera Byte = 1024 Giga Byte(or 210 GB) 1024x1024x1024x1024

1Peta Byte = 1024 Tera Byte(or 210 TB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x

Peta Byte (PB)
1024

1 Exa Byte = 1024 Peta Byte(or 210 PB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x

Exa Byte(EB)
1024x1024

Zetta Byte(ZB) 1Zetta Byte = 1024 Exa Byte(or 210 EB) 1024x1024x1024x1024x
1024x1024x 1024

Yotta Byte(YB) 1Yotta Byte = 1024 Zetta Byte(or 210 ZB) 1024x1024X1024x1024x
1024x1024x 1024x1024

VO Devices and Ports (covered in Practicals):