ANSWERS TO EXAMPLE SHEET FOR TOPIC 5 AUTUMN 2013

(Full worked answers follow on later pages)

Q1. (a) 1.40 m s–1

(b) 53.4 m
(c) 35.6 m

Q2. (a) 1290 m s–1

(b) 3.24 MPa
1
(d) u tank  u pipe
16

Q3. (a) 1.06 m s–1; 15 kPa

(b) (i) 1300 m s–1; (ii) 1.38 MPa; (iii) 2.45 s
(d) 8.59 s

Q4. (b) (i) 0.917 MPa; (ii) 4.53 MPa; (iii) 3.44 MPa
(c) 5.33 s

Q5. (a) 48.6 kPa

(b) 1350 m s–1; 1.72 MPa
(c) 3.37 km; 675 m from the reservoir (or 2698 m from the valve)

Q6. (a) 0.0165; 0.119 m3 s–1; 1.69 m s–1

(b) 1480 m s–1; 2500 kPa
(c) 11.7 s

Q7. 10.1 s

Q8. (a) 458 s; 7.42 m

(b) 434 s; 7.04 m

Q9. 15.1 L s–1; 2.26 s

Q10. (a) 2.83 m s–1; 37.4 m

(b) 6.93 s

Hydraulics 2 A5-1 David Apsley

Q1.
(a) Equating the drop in total head (which includes dynamic head at exit) to frictional losses,
u2 L u2
H  (0  )λ
2g D 2g
2
L u
 H  (λ  1)
D 2g
2 gH 2  9.81  20
 u 2   1.952 (m s 1 ) 2
L 0.02  1500
λ  1.0 1
D 0.15
 u  1.397 m s 1

Answer: steady-flow velocity = 1.40 m s–1.

(b) Force = rate of change of momentum

(0  u )
( p1  p 2 ) A  ρAL
t
ρLu
 p 2  p1 
t
p  p1 Lu 1500  1.397
 ΔH  2    53.41 m
ρg gt 9.81  4

Answer: excess head just upstream of the valve = 53.4 m.

(c) In incompressible flow all fluid decelerates at the same rate, so that the pressure gradient
must be constant along the pipe and the excess pressure (or head) changes linearly from zero
at the reservoir to its value at the valve. The given position is 2/3rd of the way from reservoir
to valve, so that:
2
ΔH   53.41  35.61 m
3

Answer: excess head at 500 m upstream of the valve = 35.6 m.

Hydraulics 2 A5-2 David Apsley

Q2.
(a)
1 1 D 1 0.91
     5.967  10 10 Pa 1
K  K Et 2.2  10 9
200  10 9  0.032
 K   1.676  10 9 Pa
K
 c  1295 m s 1
ρ

Answer: speed of water-hammer waves = 1290 m s–1.

(b)
Δp  ρcu  1000  1295  2.5  3.236  10 6 Pa

Answer: rise in pressure = 3.24 MPa.

(c) (See your notes for full description and diagrams – only the key numbers are given here).

A repeating sequence of shock waves propagates back and forth along the pipe.

On the valve side the velocity is 0 and the pressure alternates between ±Δp as the shock
reflects from the valve.

On the reservoir side the pressure is constant and the velocity alternates between ±u as the
shock reflects from the reservoir.

The shock travels at speed c = 1290 m s–1 and takes time Δt = L/c = 1.93 s to travel the length
of the pipe.

The whole cycle lasts time 4Δt.

(d) By continuity,
πD pipe
2
πD 2
u pipe   utank  tank
4 4
Hence,
2
 D pipe  1
u tank    u pipe  u pipe
 Dtank  16

Hydraulics 2 A5-3 David Apsley

Q3.
Q 4  0.3
4Q
u   1.061 m s 1

A π  0.6
πD 2 2

L 1600 1
Δp  λ ( 12 ρu 2 )  0.01   ( 2  1000  1.0612 )  15010 Pa
D 0.6

Answer: u = 1.06 m s–1, Δp = 15 kPa.

(b) (i)
1 1 D 1 0.6
     5.879  10 10 Pa 1
K  K Et 2.2  10 150  10  0.03
9 9

 K   1.701 10 Pa
9

K 1.701  10 9
c   1304 m s 1
ρ 1000

(ii)
Δp  ρcu  1000  1304  1.061  1.384  10 6 Pa

(iii) Time for the shock to traverse one length of the pipe is
L 1600
Δt    1.227 s
c 1304
The rapid-closure assumption is valid for valve-closure times less than the time taken for the
shock to travel the length of the pipe and back; i.e.
2Δt  2  1.227  2.454 s

Answer: (i) c = 1300 m s–1; (ii) Δp = 1.38 MPa; (iii) 2L/c = 2.45 s.

(c)
At valve
p
 Δp

2Δt 4Δt
t

 Δp

400 m upstream
p
2Δt 4Δt
 Δp

9
4 Δt 15
4 Δt
1
Δt 7
Δt
t
4 4

 Δp

The cycle then repeats every 4Δt.

Hydraulics 2 A5-4 David Apsley

(d) After n reflections the pressure is reduced by a factor 0.9n. Set
0.9 n  0.5
 n log( 0.9)  log( 0.5) (any base of logarithms)
which yields
log( 0.5)
n  6.58
log( 0.9)
Since we require a whole number of reflections, this occurs after the 7th reflection, at time
7Δt  7 1.227  8.589 s

Answer: 8.59 s.

Hydraulics 2 A5-5 David Apsley

Q4.
(a) All the water in the pipeline must be brought to a halt. Since the friction force is balanced
by the pressure force between upstream and downstream and the upstream pressure is
controlled, this deceleration can only be brought about by a rise in the downstream pressure.

If the pipe is long then the momentum of water – and hence the required pressure impulse – is
large. If this is applied over a short time interval then the pressure itself must be large.

(b)
(i) Using (force = mass  acceleration):
 Δp  A  ρ( AL)  (u / T )
where A is the cross-sectional area and u is the velocity in the pipe prior to valve closure.

Hence,
ρLu
Δp 
T
The velocity in the pipe prior to valve closure is
Q Q 4  0.6
u    3.056 m s 1
A πD / 4
2
π  0.5 2

ρLu 1000  3000  3.056

Δp    9.168  10 5 Pa
T 10

Answer: 0.917 MPa.

(ii) For a rigid pipe:

K 2.2  10 9
c   1484 m s 1
ρ 1000
p  ρcu  1000  1483  3.056  4.532 10 6 Pa

Answer: 4.53 MPa.

(iii) For a non-rigid pipe:

1 1 D 1 0.5
     7.879  10 10 Pa 1
K  K Et 2.2  10 9
30  10  0.05
9

1
K  9
 1.269  10 9 Pa
7.879  10
K 1.269  10 9
c   1126 m s 1
ρ 1000
p  ρcu  1000  1126  3.056  3.441 10 6 Pa

Answer: 3.44 MPa.

Hydraulics 2 A5-6 David Apsley

(c) Minimum valve closure time is (by convention) the time taken for a pressure pulse to
traverse the reservoir and back, i.e. 2L.

Hence,
L 3000
T 2  2  5.328 s
c 1126

Answer: 5.33 s.

(d) A surge tank is a large volume z

into which water is automatically z=0
diverted if the turbine valve is
reservoir surge
closed rapidly. The surge tank has
tank
large cross-sectional area and its
turbine
basic role is to bring the water to
rest more slowly, without a large
rise in pressure.

water level The sketch left shows the water level in the
surge tank as a function of time after valve
closure. The trace consists of a damped
level in
oscillation about the water level in the
time upstream reservoir.
reservoir

Hydraulics 2 A5-7 David Apsley

Q5.
(a) The bulk velocity under normal operating conditions is
Q 4Q 4  0.25
u    1.273 m s 1
A πD 2
π  0.5 2

The piezometric pressure drop over length L = 1000 m is λL/D times the dynamic pressure:
L 1000
Δp  λ ( 12 ρu 2 )  0.03   0.5  1000  1.2732  48620 Pa
D 0.5

Answer: piezometric pressure drop per km = 48.6 kPa.

(b) The effective bulk modulus K′ is given by

1 1 D 1 0.5
     5.498  10 10 Pa 1
K  K Et 2.2  10 9
210  10  0.025
9

1
 K  10
 1.819  10 9 Pa
5.498  10

(i) Speed of water-hammer waves:

K 1.819  10 9
c   1349 m s 1
ρ 1000

(ii) Pressure rise:

Δp  ρcu  1000  1349  1.273  1.717  10 6 Pa

Answer: speed of water-hammer waves = 1350 m s–1; pressure rise = 1.72 MPa.

(c) From the pressure-time trace a total cycle has length 12.5 – 2.5 = 10 s. This corresponds
to a shock traversing the pipe 4 times. Hence,
L
4  10
c
1349
 L  10   3373 m
4

It is not actually stated in the question that the time trace has t = 0 at the point when the valve
was shut! However, most students assumed it was and ended up with the correct answer. A
better analysis which does not fix the moment of closure is as follows. From the trace, the
pressure is “high” for a time 1 s, corresponding to the time taken for a water hammer wave to
travel a distance x to the reservoir and then x back. Hence,
2x  c 1
1349
 x  675 m
2

Answer: the pipe is 3.37 km long; the monitoring device is 675 m (= 1/5 × length of the pipe)
from the reservoir or, equivalently, 2698 (= 4/5 × length of the pipe) from the valve.

Hydraulics 2 A5-8 David Apsley

Q6.
(a) L = 1500 m
D = 0.3 m
ks = 10–4 m
hf = 12 m

Darcy-Weisbach head-loss equation:

L u2
hf  λ
D 2g
Rearranging for the unknowns:
2 gDh f 2  9.81  0.3  12
λu 2    0.04709
L 1500

Colebrook-White equation:
1 k 2.51
 2.0 log 10 ( s  )
λ 3.7 D Re λ

uD
Expand Re  and rearrange:
ν
1 1
λ 2
 2
 ks 2.51ν   104
2.51  10 6 
 2.0 log 10 (  )  2.0 log 10 (  )
 3.7 D D λV 2   3.7  0.3 0.3 0.04709 
 0.01652

Then
λu 2 0.04709
u   1.688 m s 1
λ 0.01652
and
πD 2 π  0.32
Q  uA  u  1.688   0.1193 m 3 s 1
4 4

Answer: λ = 0.0165; Q = 0.119 m3 s–1; u = 1.69 m s–1.

(b)
K 2.2  10 9
c   1483 m s 1
ρ 1000

Δp  ρcu 0  1000  1483  1.688  2.503  10 6 Pa

Answer: c = 1480 m s–1; Δp = 2500 kPa (= 25.0 bar)

(c) Whilst u is positive,

Hydraulics 2 A5-9 David Apsley

 L du L u2
 H1  H 2  λ
g dt D 2g

Relative to the head at the end of the pipe in normal operation,

H1  12 m (given)
Δp 3  10 5
H2    30.58 m
ρg 1000  9.81

Substituting values into the unsteady pipe-flow equation (working in metre-second units):
du
152.9  18.58  4.210u 2
dt
or, dividing by 4.210 (because it is convenient to have a coefficient of 1 in front of u2):
du
36.32  4.413  u 2
dt
Hence
du
 36.32  dt
4.413  u 2

Integrate between the initial (t = 0, u = 1.688) and final (t = T, u = 0) conditions:

T

0
 36.32 du
  dt
1.688 4.413  u 2 0
or,
1.688
36.32 du
T
0 a  u 2
2

where
a  4.413  2.101 (m s 1 )
Then,
1 1.688
T  36.32  tan 1  11.70 s
2.101 2.101
(Remember that the tan–1 result should be in radians).

Answer: 11.7 s.

Hydraulics 2 A5-10 David Apsley

Q7.
Unsteady pipe-flow equation (with no friction):
L du
 H1  H 2
g dt

We are given that

π t
p2  p1  p0 sin( )
2T
and hence
p0 π t
H 2  H1  sin( )
ρg 2T
where p0 = 7105 Pa and T is the (unknown) time to reach the pressure maximum. Hence,
du p π t
  0 sin( )
dt ρL 2T

Integrating between t = 0 (when u = u0 = 2.5 m s–1) and t = T (when u = 0):

T
p 2T  π t  2 p 0T
0  u0  0  cos( 2 T ) 
ρL π  0 π ρL
Hence,
π ρLu0 π 1000  1800  2.5
T    10.1 s
2 p0 2 7  10 5

Answer: T = 10.1 s.

Hydraulics 2 A5-11 David Apsley

Q8.
Initial velocity in the pipe,
Q 4Q 4 2
u0     1.768 m s 1
A πD 2
π  1.2 2

From the momentum equation (time-dependent pipe-flow equation), ignoring friction:

L du
 h
g dt
where L is the length of pipe up to the position of the surge tank, and h is the excess height.

By continuity,
dh
Au  As
dt
As dh
 u
A dt

Substituting the last in the momentum equation,

L As d 2 h
 h
g A dt 2

This is SHM:
d2h
2
 ω 2 h
dt
with
A g D g 2π
ω  , T
As L Ds L ω

The boundary conditions at t = 0 are

h=0
dh A D 1.2
 u 0  ( ) 2 u 0  ( ) 2  1.768  0.1018 m s 1
dt As Ds 5

Noting the boundary condition on h, the solution for h(t) is of the form
h  C sin(ωt )
whence
dh
 Cω cos(ωt )
dt
Hence the amplitude C is given by
1  dh 
C  
ω  dt  t 0

Case (a):
L = 3000 m
D g 1.2 9.81
ω    0.01372 rad s 1
Ds L 5 3000

Hydraulics 2 A5-12 David Apsley

 2π 2π
T   457.8 s
ω 0.01372
1  dh  1
C     0.1018  7.420 m
ω  dt  t 0 0.01372

Answer: period = 458 s; maximum height of surge = 7.42 m.

Case (b):
L = 2700 m
D g 1.2 9.81
ω    0.01447 rad s 1
Ds L 5 2700
2π 2π
T   434.2 s
ω 0.01447
1  dh  1
C     0.1018  7.035 m
ω  dt  t 0 0.01447

Answer: period = 434 s; maximum height of surge = 7.04 m.

Hydraulics 2 A5-13 David Apsley

Q9.
Use subscripts 1 and 2 for pipes 1–J and J–2 respectively, where J denotes their junction.
L1 du1 L1 u12
 h1  hJ  λ1
g dt D1 2 g
L2 du 2 L2 u 22
 hJ  h2  λ 2
g dt D2 2 g

Adding the two equations to eliminate hJ:

L1 du1 L2 du 2 L1 u12 L2 u 22
  h1  h2  λ1  λ2
g dt g dt D1 2 g D2 2 g

It is easiest to work in terms of the flow rate Q, whence

Q 4Q Q 4Q
u1   , u2  
A1 πD1 2
A2 πD22
Hence,
4  L1 L  dQ 8 λ L λ L 
 2  22   h1  h2  2  1 51  2 5 2 Q 2
πg  D1 D2  dt π g  D1 D2 

Substituting values (L1 = 30 m, D1 = 0.2 m, λ1 = 0.025, L2 = 70 m, D2 = 0.25 m, λ2 = 0.02,

h2 – h1 = 14 m):
dQ
242.7  14  312.1Q 2
dt
Dividing by 312.1 (to make the coefficient of Q2 on the RHS equal to –1),
dQ
0.7776  (0.04486  Q 2 )
dt
dQ
  0.7776   dt
0.04486  Q 2

Applying Q = Q0 = 0.15 m3 s–1 at t = 0 as the lower boundary condition, and a general (t, Q)
pair as the upper boundary condition:
Q

t
 0.7776
dQ
  dt

0.15 a  Q
2 2
0
where
a  0.04486  0.2118

Then,
 0.7776  1 Q 0.15 
 tan ( )  tan 1 ( ) t
a  a a 
whence:
Q  2.262  t 
t  2.262  3.671 tan 1 ( ) or Q  0.2118 tan 
0.2118  3.671 

(i) Putting t = 2 in the latter gives

Hydraulics 2 A5-14 David Apsley

  2.262  2  3 1
Q  0.2118  tan   0.01514 m s
 3.671 

(ii)
Alternatively, for the stopping time, set Q = 0. Then
t  2.262 s

Answer: flow rate after 2 seconds is 15.1 L s–1; time to stop = 2.26 s.

Hydraulics 2 A5-15 David Apsley

Q10.
(a)
Q 4Q 4  0.2
(i) u    2.829 m s 1
A πD 2 π  0.32

L u2 800 2.829 2
(ii) H  hs  λ  20  0.016    37.40 m
D 2g 0.3 2  9.81

Answer: bulk velocity = 2.83 m s–1; pump head = 37.4 m.

(b) H1 = 60 m, H2 = 20 m. Hence, the difference in (piezometric) head along the pipe is

H1  H 2  40 m
Since u is always positive in the motion here,
L du L u2
 H1  H 2  λ
g dt D 2g
800 du 800 u2
  40  0.016   (metre-second units assumed)
9.81 dt 0.3 2  9.81
du
 81.55  40  2.175u 2
dt
du
 37.49  18.39  u 2
dt
du
 37.49  dt
18.39  u 2
Integrating from rest to velocity 2.829 m s–1 at time T:
T

2.829
37.49 du
  dt where a 2  18.39 , a = 4.288 m s–1
0 a  u 2 2
0
X
1 a X
Using the standard integral: 
dx 1 X
 2  tanh 1 (also written as ln ):
0 a  x 2
a a 2a a  X
37.49 2.829
tanh 1 T
4.288 4.288
 T = 6.928 s

Answer: time to raise to required flow = 6.93 s.

Hydraulics 2 A5-16 David Apsley