Physics Matters fot GGE 'O' Level (4th Edition) is written in alignment with the latest GCE 'O'

Level Physics syllabus requirements stipulated by the Ministry of Education. Designed for effective
concept development and reinforcement, this Textbook presents Physics in an engaging manner
through the use of infographics, graphic organisers and real-life examples. The Textbook also aims
to equip students with the necessary knowledge and 21st century competencies for their journey
of lifelong learning.

Chapter Opener
A short write-up related to the chapter, 42 t^enta
coupled with an attractive photo, arouses Learning Outcomes
students' interest and triggers off the Expected learning ^A'.carreiao!d""Mn 1
inquiry process in Physics. outcomes of each
section help students
stay focused. tublMb?

be 34s he ma$ or 30 dl6r ue

answe(s) can be found.

**-* a
Let's Explore
Questions lead students
to think about important Try lt Out
concepls, Short activities, carried out alone or in
groups, provide hands-on opportunities
to support inquiry-based learning.

Infographics and stepwise plesentation Take Note

Diagrams with explanations help students Brief notes on common
visualise abstract concepts, and break down mistakes, misconceptions
difficult concepts into easy-to-understand bites. and important information
highlight what students
should be aware of.

11.1 H6d Capaciiy and SFcific Hed Capachy

r&.{l.€-drerad-

s
mhM@l

.:,..:.::..:. :. a:. 4.:: :.: a::a:: a., a,...,:.. a::.,a a:,

0 adE4EimtrsL

Link
Links between r"""* A
chapters highlight I

related concepts I

to help students Quick Check ------l

appreciate the Short questions test students'
interconnected ness understanding and prompt
of knowledge. them to carry out immediate
revision to reinforce Iearning.
 *" .*"+=-*^,=--*, Physics Today
An article at the end of the chapter
showcases interesting and current
applications of concepts taught.
Questions at the end give students the
opportunity to think critically and discuss
issues raised in the article
i Ad6L se d4i4 b! da b n4n
s! crc! €an E<i '94(n4L
he wr!€e o , ild v

Investigation
Simple experiments or
demonstrations help familiarise
students with investigative
procedures and reinforce concepts.

219
19.3 Sources of Electrical Energy NFEn.m& src6 of €n€rg An icon highlights content that facilitates the infusion
of 21st century competencies during learning.
The domains are specified by icons:
Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and
Cross-Cultural Skills
Renshle3ou|q d.n.a
i4uEry sone4and4aesud€h!w
Critical and Inventive Thinking
Communication, Collaboration and
lnformation Skills
Key ldeas
A summary of key concepts at the end of
each section allows students to carrv out
bite-size consolidation.
Test Yourself
This formative assessment helos students
review and reinforce key concepts effectively.

IGT Link
Resources on the Internet, such
'** @ as simulations and videos, help
students to understand concepts.
Science Bites
Interesting nuggets of information serve to engage
students and expand their general knowledge. lT Learning Room
An assignment using Internet
resources and online research
Map lt sharpens students' lT and
A concept map communication skills.
summarises and links
the key concepts in
the chapter.
Let's Review
s.tu arMdMhoEo@rbE
An exercise at the end of each
chapter provides students
with practice in answering
Get lt Right questions. Challenging
A self-evaluation questions are indicated with
checklist of key learning an asterisk (*).
points at the end of
each chapter allows
students to evaluate Workbook and Practical
their understanding and Book Links
identify the concept(s)
These links direct students
to brush up on. Answers to the relevant Workbook
are available at the back I

of the book.
tl worksheets and Practical
t"j Book experiments for
further reinforcement of the
annaan+e la^rn+

--"**"G
THEME I GENERAT PHYSICS

Chapter 1 Measurement t
Chapter 2 Kinematics 19
Chapter 3 Forces 49
Chapter 4 Mass, Weight and Density 69
Chapter 5 Turning Effect of Forces 83
Chapter 6 Energy, Work and Power 103
Chapter 7 Pressure 1-23

THEME II THERMAL PHYSICS

Chapter 8 Temoerature 1.43
Chapter 9 Kinetic Model of Matter 153
Chapter 10 Transfer of Thermal Energy 1-67
Chapter 11 Thermal Prooerties of Matter 185

THEME III LIGHT, ES AND SOUND

Chapter 12 Light 2tt

Chapter 13 Waves 255
Chapter 14 Electromagnetic Waves 273
Chapter 15 Sound 285

THEME IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Chapter 16 Static Electricity 305

Chapter 17 Current Electricity 321-
Chapter 18 D.C. Circuits 341-
Chapter 19 Practical Electricity 363
Chapter 20 Magnetism 385
Chapter 21 Electromagnetism 405
Chapter 22 Electromagnetic I nduction 425

Data-based Questions 449

Quick Revision Guide 457
Index 462
In September 1999, after nine months and 650 million kilometres, the Mars Climate
Orbiter suddenly disappeared! The spacecraft was on an important mission to study the
weather and terrain of Mars. What could have happened? Perhaps Maftians hijacked
the spacecraft? Investigations into the disappearance led to something surprising.
What could it be?
 7..7. What is Physics?
Physics is the study of our natural world from the very large (e.9. the
solar system) to the very small (e.9. -
the atom).

The study of Physics can be divided into major topics such as General
Physics; Thermal Physics; Light, Waves and Sound; and Electricity and
Magnetism. All these topics are related to two main ideas: matter and
energy. The concept map in Figure 1.1 summarises this.

in the fields of

r Figure 1.1 Overview of the study of Physics

The knowledge we have gained in the field of Physics is the result of the
work of many scientists. These scientists conducted many experiments to
verify their ideas on matter and energy. When we carry out experiments, we
need to make accurate measurements in order to obtain reliable results.

Ghapter 1
7..2 Physical Quantities and Sl Units
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
show understanding that all physical quantities consist of a numerica
magnitude and a unit;
o list the seven base quantities and their Sl units;
. use prefixes and symbols to indicate very large orvery small Sl quantities.

When travelling within Singapore, you may have noticed that most
overhead bridges have a sign with '4.5 m' printed on them. In Physics,
height is a physical quantity
is the unit (Figure 1.2).
-'4.5'is the numerical magnitude and'm'
an overhead bridge warns drivers
of vehicles above the height of
4.5 m not to pass underneath it.

There are altogether seven basic physical quantities, or base quantities.

Table 1.1 shows the seven base quantities and their corresponding
Sl units. Sl units are the units of measurement in the widely used
lnternational System of Units (abbreviated Sl from French: Systdme
I ntern atio n al d' U n ites).

v Table 1.1 The seven base quantities and their Sl units

Length

Mass kg

Tme r Albert Einstein

(1879-1955)
Electric current
Einstein had a healthy
Thermodynamic sense of scepticism. When
temperature his father showed him a
'magical' pocket compass, he
Luminous intensitv believed that the 'magic' that
caused the needle to move
Amount of substance more could be logically explained.
Einstein's imagination and
perseverance in building
mechanical models to explain
Of the seven base quantities listed in the table, you will learn five in this observations were key to his
course. They are length, mass, time, electric current and temperature, success as a scientist.

Other common physical quantities such as area, volume and speed To Einstein, "the whole of
are derived from these seven quantities. They are called derived science is nothing more
quantities. For example, speed is derived from length (i.e. distance than a refinement of
everyday thinking". Many
travelled) and time.
of the famous scientists
we know today challenged
everyday'truths' to defend
science. Have you ever used
science to explain how some
accepted 'truths' are wrong?

Measurement
 Table 1-.2 gives examples of how some common physical quantities are
derived from the base quantities.

v Table 1.2 Some common derived quantities and their Sl units

Let's Explore!
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a)?

hy do we need Sl units?
In the past, people used parts of their bodies and things around them as
units of measurement. That was how measuring terms such as the foot, yard
and horsepower came about. Unfortunately, such methods of measurement
created much confusion because the measurement varied from individual
to individual. lt was not until 1968 that scientists agreed to adopt one
universal set of units the Sl units.
-
Prefixes for Sl units
Using decimal notation, the distance between air molecules can be
expressed as 0.000 000 01 m. lf we need to mention this quantity a number
of times, it would be cumbersome to use this type of notation.

Instead of using decimal notation, it is more convenient to use prefixes to

represent the quantity. For example, when measuring short distances such
1,
of a metre, we simply express it as one micrometre. Thus,
"s 1 000 OOO
0.000 000 01 m can be expressed as 0.01 pm (micrometre), where p
represents the submultiple 10-6. The prefixes listed in Table 1.3 are useful
for expressing physical quantities that are either very big or very small.

v Table 1.3 Some common prefixes and their svmbols

n'oOOO
oit -

r Prefixes are a
more effective way of
representing very small
or very large quantities.

Chapter 1
Standard form
Another convenient and acceptable way of expressing physical quantities is to
use the standard form. Standard form is a way of writing numbers, in which one
integer (1to 9) is multiplied by an appropriate power of 10. For example, 0.00567
and 16 800 expressed in standard form will be 5.67 x 10-3 and 1,68 x 104. In the
case of 0.01 pm, it can also be expressed as 1 x 10-8 m, Some other common
quantities expressed in standard form:
. One kilometre (km) is 1 x 103 m . One milliampere (mA) is 1 x 10-3 A
. Three megajoules (MJ) is 3 x 1Oo J o Six microcoulombs (pC) is 6 x 10-6 C
. Eight nanoseconds (ns) is 8 x 1O-e s

orked €xample l.l

Usain Bolt of Jamaica broke the 100 m sprint world record at the 2009 World
Athletic Championships, with a time of 9.58 s. With this record, he became
the world's fastest man. In contrast, a dog runs at a speed of 30 km h-1. lf a
dog chases Usain Bolt, will it be able to catch up with him?

Solution
Note: First, we calculate the average speed of Usain Bolt.
rristance _ 100m
Averagespeed=ff= =1_O.4ms_1
9.,|=,
The average speed of Usain Bolt is 10.4 m s-1.

Note: In order to make a meaningful comparison, the of the values

compared must be the same. r, Usain Bolt leading in
a 1OO m race
Converting Usain Bolt's speed to km h-1

100
m 1oO
nt -- - km
=:
Average speed = f]-
lOoO
= 37.6'.."' = 37.6 km h-1
v.58 s 9.58 h
N Let's Explore!
3600
From what you have
Since 37.6 km h-1 > 30 km h-1, Usain Bolt will outrun the dog over a distance
learnt so far, have you
of 100 m. found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)?

t. A physical quantity consists of a numerical The world's smallest playable guitar is 13 pm

magnitude and a unit. long. Express the guitar's length in standard form.
2. There are seven base quantities: length, mass,
time, electric current, temperature, luminous
intensity, and amount of substance.
3. The respective Sl units ofthese seven base
quantities are the metre, kilogram, second,
ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole.
4. Units derived from the Sl base units are called
Sl derived units.
5. Prefixes such as giga (G), mega (M), kilo (k),
r A photo of the microscopic nanoguitar made by
deci (d), centi (c), rnilli (m), micro (p) and Cornell University researchers. lt was built using
nano (n) can be used to represent quantities nanotechnology. (Refer lo Physics Today al the end
that are very large or very small. of the chapter for more on nanotechnology.)

Measurement
 1.3 Measurement of Length
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
show an understanding of how the sizes of objects, such as an atom and the
Earth, can range ln orders of magnitude;
. describe how to measure a variety of lengths using the appropriate instruments
(e.9. tape measure, metre rule, vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge).

In Physics, length is an importantquantitythat is often used. Forexample, we

measure length to find out how lar an object has moved, how much space an
r Figure 1.3 A metre object occupies (i.e. the object's volume) and how far apart two objects are.
rule and a retractable
steel tape measure
The Sl unit for length is the metre (m). There is a wide range of lengths in
this world (Figure 1,.4). lt is necessary to use the appropriate instruments
and methods to measure different types of length.

v Figure 1.4 We need

The metre rule and tape measure
to measure a wide range The metre rule and tape measure (Figure 1.3) are instruments that are
of lengths, as the objects commonly used to measure length.
around us range from the
very big to the very smal,.
A metre rule can measure lengths of up to one metre. A steel tape measure
is suitable for measuring straight distances longer than a metre, while a
cloth tape measure is suitable for measuring the length along a curved
surface. such as a oerson's waist.
0.000 000 000 000 001 m
radius of a hydrogen nucleus

0.000 000 000 1 m 0.0001 m

size of a typical atom average width of human hair

1O-tu

!o-to

!o-"
1O-to O.2 m
length of
chopsticks

t0-o
LO-'
I

LO'

Ghapter 1
 at is the precision of an instrument?
The smallest unit an instrument can measure is known as its ptecision.
What is the smallest unit on a metre rule? lt is 0,1 cm or 1 mm. Therefore,
the orecision of a metre rule is 1 mm.

The thickness of a piece of paper is less than the precision of a metre rule
(i.e. 1mm). Therefore, you cannot directly measure the paper's thickness
using a metre rule. You will have to estimate its thickness.
r To estimate the
thickness of a sheet of
paper, we coulo measure
When you use a metre rule, your eyes should be positioned such that your the thickness of a stack of
paper and then divide the
line of sight is perpendicular to the rule (Figure 1.5(a)). Measurement errors
thickness by the number of
introduced when this is not done are called parallax errors (Figure 1.5(b)). sheets in that stack.

Accurate length of object = 2.9 - I.O = 1.9 cm lnaccurate length of object = 3.0 - 0.9 = 2.1 cm

nnqqihlo
4 4 I =4
\\ 4-
I

zero error ar object I

this end
I
I

(a) Accurate measurement (b) Inaccurate measurement

I Figure 1.5 How to take accurate readings by avoiding parallax errors

Note that some metre rules have their zero marks at the very end of the
rule. Wear and tear of the metre rule may make this mark unsuitable for
measuring purposes. This worn end may introduce errors into the readings. Search the Internet to find
Hence, it is better to measure from another point and subtract it from the out more about the relative
qizoq nf f hinoe in f ho
final reading (Figure 1.5(a)). Taking several readings and calculating the
universe. Use keywords
average also minimises errors.
such as "powers often".
8848 m
heisht of Mount Everest
9 500 000 000 000 000 m
distance travelled by light in I
one year
TO,,
I

!o'o
I

lott

loto
I
IO,,
I lOto
1Ou
1O'
100

000 000 000 000 000 000 000 m

distance from the Earth to the
Andromeda galaxy
Measulement
The vernier calipers
A pair of vernier calipers (Figure 1.6) has a main scale and a
sliding vernier scale. lt is a useful tool for measuring both the
interna|andexterna|diametersofobjects.Verniercalipers
are able to measure to a precision of 0.01 cm.

tail
inside jaws
- used to - used to
measure the depth
measure the internal
diameter of an object of an object

main scale

sliding vernier scale

a small sliding
-scale alongside the
0 main scale that allows
us to read a fraction of
the smallest interval

outside jaws
.:i,,i - used to measure the
external diameter or width of an object

r Figure 1.6 Parts of a pair of vernier calipers and their uses

 Step 2
How do usethe vemier calipers? Read the main scale to the
Figure 1.7 shows how a pair of vernier calipers is used, immediate left of the zero mark
on the vernier scale. In this
inside jaws main scale case, the reading on the main
scale is 31 mm or 3.1 cm.

Step 3
The 4th vernier mark coincides
with a marking on the main scale.
This gives a reading of 0.4 mm or
ball
bearing O.O4 cm on the vernier scale.

outside jaws
Step 4
The diameter is found by adding
Step 1 the vernier scale reading to the
Grip the ball bearing gently using
main scale reading:
the outside jaws of the calipers. 31- mm + 0.4 mm = 3L4 mm or
3.1 cm + O.O4 cm = 3.14 cm
r Figure 1.7 Step-by-step instructions on how to use a pair of vernier calipers

Before using the vernier calipers, we need to examine the instrument for
zero error, That is, we check if the zero mark on the main scale coincides
with the zero mark on the sliding vernier scale when the jaws touch each
other. Table 1.4 shows how to correct for zero errors on the vernier calipers.

v Table 1.4 Checking and correcting zero errors when using the vernier calipers

No zero eltor
marn scale
4 ru,n aau,"
The zero marks of the -->
|||l 3.14 cm
vernier scale
TTTTTT-
'l 'l 'l vernierscale
two scales coincide. (No correction
10
required)

Positive zelo eror o l- main scale

The zero mark of --->

vernier scale
the vernier scale is
010'
U .LU

q:-e :*191*_ _

slightlytotheleftof 0 i 0 10 -24Aan
e- -10
the main scale' 3 divisions
i

Zero error = -0.03 cm i neaoing = 3.11 .t

Measurement
 What happened to the Mars
L. Commonly used measuring instruments with their range
Climate Orbiter?
and precision:
The Mars Climate Orbiter
was lost due to human error.
The space englneers made
measurements in imperial
0.1 cm units (e.9. yards, inches) but
orlmm entered them as Sl units into
the computer system. This
Several 0.1 cm confusion resulted in the loss of
centimetres to orlmm a US$125 million spacecraft
one melre a very expensive mistakel This
-
mishap shows how a universal
Vernier From one to 15 0.O1 cm Diameter of
and standardised measurement
ca i pers centimetres or 0.1 mm a test tube
I
system is important.
Less than 2.5 O.O01cm Diameter of
centimetres or 0.01 mm a wrre

2. Errors to note when using measuring instruments:

Parallax error

Vernier calipers Zero error and oarallax error

Micrometer screw gauge Zero error and parallax error r NASA engineers working on
the Mars Climate Orbiter

L. The diameter of a wire is measured using a 3. Figure t.t2 shows a voltmeter scale with a
micrometer screw gauge. The student takes an strio of mirror mounted under the needle.
initial zero reading (Figure 1.10(a)) and then a Suggest how this may help reduce errors
reading of the diameter (Figure 1.1O(b)). What when readings are taken.
is the diameter of the wire? c3

(al Zero reading (b) Diameter reading

r Figure 1.10
r Fiture 1.12
2. A pair of vernier calipers is used
to measure the
diameter of a ball bearing. What is the reading
of the vernier calipers shown in Figure t.LI?

How do we use measuring

instruments to measure
lengths accurately?

Measurement
 7-.4 Measurement of Time
Learning Outcome be able to:
- You ashould
. describe how to measure short period of time with appropriate accuracy, us ng
appropriate instruments.

How do we measure time?

lmagine that you are stranded on an island. You do not have a watch or a mobile
phone. How would you be able to tell the time?

We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular intervals or periods.

$easons
Spring, summer, autumn and winter come once a year.

Fllasee of the 00n

The shape of the Moon changes from a full moon to a
crescent and back to a full moon again, showing that a
month has passed.

.-l'l i.lr'.'::tirr:ll
The Sun sets each day. A day can be divided
into 24 hours, an hour can be divided into
60 minutes and a minute can be divided into
6O seconds. How do we measure these shorter
time intervals?

Fositlon of the Sun

In the old days, a sundial was used to tell the
time of the day. The position of the shadow
cast by the Sun differs according to the time
of the day. At noon, the Sun is high in the sky.
In the evening, it is low in the western sky.

Figure 1.13 Measuring time using natural events that occur at regular intervals
^
The Sl unitfortime is the second (s). The year, month, day, hour and minute are
other units for measuring time.

For scientific work, the observation of natural events (Figure 1.13) is not
accurate enough. For example, the time interval between a sunrise and a sunset
is different in winter and summer. The time intervals for scientific work have to
be fixed; they cannot change. can you think of recurrent motions that can be
used to measure time for scientific work?

Chapter 1
Using a pendulum to measure time
A simple pendulum can be used to measure time. lt consists of a heavy
object, called a bob (e.9. a metal ball), that is attached to one end of a string.
The other end of the string is fixed. When a pendulum swings freely, it will Other than its length,
move back and forth at regular intervals. the period of a
pendulum also depends
on the gravitational field
strength of its location.
You will learn more
about gravitational field
strength in Chapter 4.

a:

r Figute 1.14 When the bob moves from R to S and back to R, the pendulum completes
one oscillation. In what otherways can the bob swingto produce one complete oscillation?

How long is one second?

The period of a pendulum depends on its length. Pendulum clocks can be The second is the time
calibrated to measure time accurately by adjustingthe length of the pendulum. taken for a caesium atom
to oscillate a certain
For scientific work, time intervals have to be precisely measured. The period number of times. There
of the oscillations must not change. Most modern timepieces are calibrated are exactly
9 L92 63]-770
using precise timekeeping devices called atomic clocks (Figure 1.15).
oscillations in one
second. Clocks all round
Instruments used to measure time the world are adjusted to
match the time interval
measured by a standard
All timepieces use some kind of periodic motion to measure time. Pendulum caesium clock (an atomic
clocks keep time using a pendulum's periodic swing. clock).

Clocks and st tches

The oscillations of springs and the natural vibrations of crystals are other
periodic motions that can be used to keep time. Most clocks and watches
today use quartz crystals. Quartz crystals are small, accurate and require very
little electrical energy.

Depending on the accuracy and precision needed, the instruments used

will vary. For example, we would not use an analogue watch to measure
the time taken for a runner to run a 100 m race, but we will use a digital
stopwatch instead.

Most stopwatches can measure time to a precision of 0.01 s. Digital stopwatches

usually show readings up to two decimal places. However, we usually take
readings to the nearest one decimal place. This is because, unlike the electronic r Figure 1.15 An atomic
sensors used in data loggers, stopwatches need to be started and stopped by clock built in 1975 by
the National Research
hand. This manual operation introduces a random error called human reaction Council Canada
time. Human reaction time is about 0.3-0.5 s for most people.
Measurement
Investigation Ll

Objective
To calibrate a simple pendulum to measure time in seconds

Apparatus
Pendulum, stopwatch, metre rule, retort stand and clamp

Procedure
1-. Tie the pendulum to the clamp, and measure the length / of the string in metres (Figure 1.16).
2. Measure the time taken for the pendulum to make 20 oscillations.
3. Vary the length / of the string between 50 and 90 cm and repeat step 2.
4. Complete the following table:
retort

0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800

pendulum

5. Plot a graph of period I/s against length l/m, and find

the length of the pendulum with a period of one second.
Plot also a graph of T2/s2 against length l/m.

Calculation r
The period of the pendulum f f= jf.
is found by dividing t"u" by 20. That is,'20
Note: A common mistake made during practical work is to take the average time for
20 oscillations
/ (t- +
t*"=.tJ L)\ as the period f of the pendulum.
Ii.e.
Frecaution
Why do we need to take the time fiot 2O oscillations?
When we divide the measured time by 20, the inaccuracy associated with period f due to human
reaction will be onty of the human reaction time.
20
-1
Results and Discusslon
Period I/s

Lenglh l/m Length //m

e, Figure 1,.L7(al Graph of f vs. I r Figure 1.17(b) Graph of T2 vs. I

How does this experiment allow us to use a pendulum to measure time in seconds?
The length of the pendulum with a period of one second can be read off the graph. By using a
pendulum with this length, we can measure time by counting the number of oscillations (e.g. if
l l
oscillation takes second, then 60 oscillations take 60 seconds or minute). l
Chapter 1
What can we observe about the graph of f against /?
The period increases with length, but not linearly.

What does the plot oI T2 against / tell us?

It tells us that the square of the period is directly proportional to the length. This gives rise to a
straight-line graph when we plot f2 against i. By extending the straight-line graph, we can easily
predict the period of the pendulum for lengths that are not included in the graph we have plotted.

1. Time intervals can be measured by observing events that repeat

themselves periodicall;,. How does a pendulumis
2. To measure time intervals in minutes and hours, we can use analogue length affect its period?
watches and clocks. To measure time intervals to a precision of 0.01 s,
we usually use stopwatches.
3. The period of a pendulum is the time taken for the pendulum bob to
make one complete oscillation.
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (c)?
Figure 1.18 shows an oscillating pendulum. lf the
time taken for the pendulum to swing from A to C
to B is 3 s, what is the period of the pendulum?
2. How would you measure the average time taken
by a bus to travel from your home to school?
3. How would you determine the period of a swing in
the playground? r Figure 1.18

measured using
measured using

rape measure 1mm i Several metres

Metre rule :l-mm Several cm to 1 m

Vernier calipers j0.1 mm 11cmto15cm
Micrometer screw gauge j 0.01 mm i Less than 2.5 cm
Measurement
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

'36 metres' is a measurement of a physical

(a) i! numerical
j
i quantity because it has both a
magnitude and unit. a

: The Sl units for mass, length, time, temperature, current and amount of
(b) I substance are the gram, metre, second, degree Celsius, ampere and mole ,
L.2
: respectivelv.
+*-***1-
' When there are 600 turns of a wire, the length covered by the wire is 3.6 cm. The i
,^,
("' i
,

i t'2
, diameter of the wire is 0.06 mm.
"u"rrge I

,,, The radius of an atom is ofthe orderof 10-10 metres, whereasthe radius of Earth i i 1.3
tql
'"' I is of the order of 106 metres. i i

,^, , t":-*"rrrr"-f"ng,h.less ttran one centimetre, we should use a micrometer --i il

(e) ::::"; ' 1.3
_*_*.9r"* rye".
,,':Whenmeasuringaphysica|quantity,takingtheaverageva|ueofrepeated
t'' measurements gives a more accurate value of the quantity.
"""''.':_:]t:*:_:::_:::i:::.::i:::::.::::*_: i I L4
__"i_
i,
*=*:t*-*-
,-,
rlt , The period of a pendulum calculated from',-;,'-.-";: - " for
the time taken multiple oscillations
':,',,-.: i l
\o' is less accurate ;'_:" :''"
1-'_:.:_,-_:i'-:^,.: 1.4
than measuring the time taken for one oscillation. . '

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 2. Two vernier scales are shown below. The vernier
scale at the top shows the reading when the
L. In a particular experiment, you are required to
vernier calioers are closed and the vernier scale at
measure the distance between two ooints that
the bottom shows the reading when the diameter
are between 0.7 m and 0.8 m apart. Which of
of a steel ball bearing is being measured.
the following instruments should you use in
order to obtain a reading that has a precision 10 20 30
of 0.001 m?
A A half-metre rule
B A metre rule
c A ten-metre measuring tape
D A metre rule and vernier calipers

The diameter of the steel ball bearing is

A 1.49 cm
B 1.50 cm
C 1.59 cm
D 1.61cm

Chapter 1
3. The thimble scale at the top
shows the zero reading of a
micrometer screw gauge r, Figure 1.19
and the scale at the bottom
shows the reading when the (a) What is the reading shown?
diameter of a ball bearing (b) Describe briefly the measurements you will
was measured using the make to determine the diameter of a oiece
same micrometer screw of copper wire.
gauge. What is the diameter
of the ball bearing? 5. A student measures the width of a glass slide
using a pair of vernier calipers.
A L.42 mm
B 1.92 mm
C 1.98 mm
D 2.O4 mm

Section B: Structured Questions

t. ldentify the physical quantity, numerical
magnitude and unit in the following statements:
(a) The length of a table is found to be
five metres.
(b) The time the pendulum takes to complete
a single oscillation is two seconds.
(c) A typical car has a mass of one
thousand kilograms. (a) In Figure 1.20, what is the measurement
of the width of the glass slide?
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct symbols. The
(b) List the precision of the following
first has been done for you. measuring instruments: vernier calipers,
(a) metre rule and micrometer screw gauge.
ILg=103g (c) Explain why the method shown in
(b) !- s=10-6s Figure 1.20 will not yield an accurate
(c) 1mA=-A measurement. How would you obtain a
(d) 7- m=10-2m more accurate measurement of the width
(e) 1- cm2 = m2 of the glass slide?
(f) I-W=106W
- Section C: Free-Response Question
3. Comolete Table 1.6.
v Table 1.6
*1. A student conducted an exoeriment to measure
the acceleration due to gravity g of a simple
oendulum. The data obtained were tabulated
in Table 1.7.

v Table 1.7

Between 1cm
and 15 cm

Between 0.001 cm Given that the relation between the oeriod L the
and O.O1 cm length I of the pendulum and the acceleration
t;
due to gravity 4 is f = 2x.l-, find the value of g
4. Figure 1.19 shows the reading on a micrometer \/s
screw gauge. The upper scale is in mm and the using the graphical approach.
lower scale shows the intermediate half-mm
divisions. The screw has a pitch of 0.50 mm
(i.e. one turn will move the thimble 0.50 mm
along the main scale).

Measurement
 1987, Gregory Robeftson, a skydiving instructor, carried out the most daring rescue
his lifetime. Upon seeing his fellow skydiver, Debbie williams, falling past him
unconsctous In midair, Robertson instinctively increased his speed to go after her. He
caught up with her and released both their parachutes barely seconds from crashing
to the ground. How did he manage to alter his speed in midair?
 2.7. Distance and Displacement

Scalars and vectors

v Table 2.1 Common scalar and vector quantities

Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
MaSS Acceleration
Energy Force
Time

Diffetence between distance and displacement

Figure 2.1 shows the motion of an object between two points, A and B.
For any object moving
to illustrate the meaning of distance and displacement.
We will use it
in a straight line (i.e.
linear motion), we can
assign its direction
from a reference point
as positive or negative.
For example, in Figure
2.L, if we assign the
direction to the right
of A as positive, the
displacement of the
moving object is +5 km.

a Figure 2.1 Distance and displacement between A and B

Displacernent
Bistanee . The distance measured in a straight
o The total length covered by a moving object line in a soecified direction
regardless of the direction of motion o A vector quantity (i,e. has both
. A scalar quantity (i.e. has magnitude only) magnitude and direction)
o Sl unit: metre (m) . Sl unit: metre (m)
. The distance travelled by the moving object o The displacement of the object from A
from A to B is either 7 km (blue path) or to B is 5 km due east of A, regardless
10 km (green path). of the actual oath it takes.

What if the object moves back to A along the same path (i.e. A -+ B -+ A)?
.The distance it travels is either t4 km (blue path) or 20 km (green path);
.lts displacement is zero, because it is back at A.
Chapter 2
 orked Cxample ?.1

Figure 2.2 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn
to travel another 3 km.
Calculate
(a) the distance covered;
(b) its displacement.
Solution
(a) Distancecovered = 5 km + 3 km
=8km

r-3 km N The magnitude of

E j------------
t a displacement is
n ending
v- Ul
point E
lull lK lJulllt
T measured from the
starting polnt to the
starting point [<-- 5 km < Figwe2.2 final point.
Taking the direction due east of point O as positive,
Its direction is from the
Displacement = 5.km 3 km - starting polntto the
=2km final noint.

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. distinguish between-speed and velocity;
distance travelled
. find average speed using
t.'xe
;
taken
o state what uniform acceleration is:
change in velocity
. calculate the value of acceleration using
" time taken
o interpret examples of non-uniform acceleration.

Speed
How would you find out who the
faster 100 m sprinter is
Bolt (the current fastest- Usain
man)
or a cheetah (the fastest land
mammal) (Figure 2.3)?

To make a fair comparison, we

need to find the speed of Usain
Bolt and a cheetah over 100 m. a Figure 2.3 How do we use kinematics to identify the faster 100 m sprinter?

A unit time can be a

distance travelled
Speed = second, a minute or
time taken an nour.

Speed is a scalar quantity. lts Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-t).

Kinematics
 Based on Usain Bolt's 100 m world record time of 9.58 s set in 2009,
distance travelled
Speed =
time taken
100 m
9.58 s
= 10.4 m s-1

The average speed of a cheetah is between 20 m s-1 and 30 m s-1. So, a

Science Bites cheetah has the edge over Bolt, unless Bolt can finish the 100 m sprint below
"lronically, being the 5 s in the future.
fastest can be a curse
for cheetahs." Ave speed
fable 2.2 shows the results for men's running events at the 2008 Beijing
Using the Internet,
o verify the above Olympics.
statement with v Table 2.2 Results for men's running events at the 2008 Beijing Olympics
supporting reasons;
. find out if there is a
correlation between
animals' speeds and
Usain Bolt Jamaica 100 9.69 10.3
thelr masses.
Usain Bolt 200 19.30 ro.4

LaShawn Merritt I USA 400 43.75 9.r4

Wilfred Bungei I N"nV" 800 7.64

2.2is actually his average speed. Average

The speed of each athlete in Table
speed assumes that each athlete travels at the same speed throughout the
entire distance.

Average speed =
total distance travelled
total time taken

In reality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their
races. The soeed at one instant is different from the soeed at another
instant. The speed of an object at a oarticular instant is known as its
instantaneous speed.

v Average speeds of different objects or animals

bullet from rifle

15OO m s-1
Airbus A38O
280 m s-1
 locity
When we are asked for the velocity of an object, we have to state the speed
of the object and the direction in which it is travelling. This is because
velocity is a vector quantity.
lt is speed in a specified direction. lf the athlete in the
diagram takes 25 s
to complete a 2OO m
sprint event, find her
speed and velocity
distance
displacement travelled
Velocity = 200 m
time taken

Its Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-").

displacement
50m
An object moves at a constant velocity when it moves at a constant speed in
one direction. The object is no longer at a constant velocity when it changes
direction without changing its speed, or when it changes its speed without
changing its direction.

Similarly, as in the case of average speed,

Average velocity =

orked €xamplc e.e

The 'triangle' method
Figure 2.4 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and can help you to recall the
relationship between velocity
makes a U-turn to travel another 7 km. lf the time taken
% displacement d and time t.
for the whole journey is 0.2 h, calculate the
(a) average speed; (b) average velocity of the car.
d
Solution
vt

,.\ o
5€\roe .
To find time
cover tto obtain t=
t,
d
starting point 5 km
< Figure 2.4 (as shown above). v

To find velocity v,
total distance covered o
cover yto obtain y= .'
(a) Average speed = t
total time taken
To find displacement d,
(5+7) km cover d to obtain d = vt.
o.2 h
This method can also be
60 km h-1 applied to other similar
formulae, in which variable
(b) Taking the direction due east of point O as positive, x is directly proportional
to variable y but inversely
total disolacement proportional to variable z,
Average velocity =
total time taken
v
_ (5-7)km Xe-
z
0.2 h
= -10 km h-1 KV
X=: z , where k= constant

Kinematics
 Acceleration
An object is accelerating when its velocity changes. In other words,
the object undergoes acceleration when its speed and/or direction
ch ange(s) (Figure 2.5).

-...f
m s-1
...\
(a) Change in speed (b) Change in direction (c) Change in both speed and direction

r Figure 2.5 Three scenarios in which acceleration occurs

change in velocity
Acceleration =
time taken

Acceleration is a vector quantity. lts Sl unit is the metre per second per
second (m s-').

There is acceleration when velocity increases or decreases over time.

1. A string is tied to a stone. For an object whose velocity decreases over time, we can say that it is
Does the stone undergo undergoing deceleration or retardation.
acceleration when it is
whirled in circles?

An object undergoes uniform acceleration when the change (increase

or decrease) in its velocity for every unit of time is the same
(Table 2.3).

v Table 2.3 Obiect moving with uniform acceleration

Object

Whirling a stone
^
2. ldentify the event(s) that
involves deceleration:
(a) A space shuttle
blasting off
(b) An aeroplane landing When the velocity of the object is increasingby 20 m s-1 every second,
(c) A lift approaching the the acceleration is 20 m s-2. When the velocity of the object is decreasing
intended floor by 20 m s-1 every second, the deceleration is 20 m s-2.
(d) An MRT train leaving a
station
(e) A car coming to a halt

Chapter 2
The following equation can be used to determine the uniform acceleration a
of an object:
Are uniform acceleration
and uniform motion
u = initial velocity (in m s-1);
y = final velocity (in m s-1); the same? Explain your
answer.
t, = time at which an object is at initial velocity u
(in s);
tu = the time at which an object is at final velocity
v (in s);
ay= change in velocity (in m s-1);
At = time interval between f, and t"(in s).

orked Cxample e.3

A car at rest starts to travel in a straight path. lt reaches a velocity of 72 m s-1 in 4 s (Figure 2.6).
What is its acceleration, assuming that it accelerates uniformly?

Solution
We assign the direction to the right as positive.
Given: initial velocityu= O m s-1(since the car starts from rest)
final velocity v = t2 m s-L
time taken At= ( _ t, = 4 S u=Oms-1

Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniform,

^_v-u _(!2-0)
U= ms-r )^^-2 t =0s t =Ac
Ot = 45 =5n1S--
r, Figure 2.6
The acceleration is 3 m s-2.

orked €xample ?.4

Thevelocityofagolfball rollinginastraightlinechangesfromSms-1to2ms-1in10s(Figure2.7).
What is its deceleration, assuming that it is decelerating uniformly?

Solution
We assign the direction to the right as positive. u=8ms1 v=2ms-a
-------------.-- _____________>
Given: initial velocityu= 8 m s-1
final velocity v= 2 m s-1
time taken At = 10 s

Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniform.

At=10s
_ (2-8) ms-1 t
^_v-u
'- N --tos =_0.6ms_2 Figwe 2.7

The deceleration is 0.6 m s-2.

Kinematics
 Non-unifo acceleration
An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration if the change in its velocity
for every unit of time is not the same (Table 2.4).

v Table 2.4 Object moving with non-uniform acceleration

10-O=10
40-10=30
60-40=20
70-60=10
From what you have
i 50-7O=-2o
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a), (b) Note that the change in velocity is not the same for every second. The
and (c)? moving object is undergoing non-uniform acce leration.

ies are physical quantities 7. An object undergoes acceleration when its

that have magnitude only. Examples include speed andlor direction change(s).
distance, speed and time. change in velocity
2. Vector quantities are physical quantities Acceleration =
time taken
that have both magnitude and direction.
Examples include displacement, velocity and 8. An object undergoes uniform acceleration a if
acceleration. the change in its velocity for every unit of time
3. Speed is the distance moved per unit time. is the same, i.e. the rate of change of velocity
Its Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-'). is constant.
total distance travel led
4. Average speed = a= ;,where Ay = the change of the velocity;
total time taken at At = the time interval over
5. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. which the change in
Its Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-'). velocity occurs.
displacement 9. An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration
Velocity =
time taken if the change in its velocity for every unit of
6. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. time is not the same.
Its Sl unit is the metre oer second
per second (m s-').

A.l E' e.e

1-. From point A, a boy walks 4 m to the east, 2 m 4. At the start of a journey, the odometer (i.e. a
to the south, 4 m to the west, and finally 2 m meter that tracks the total distance a car has
to the north. Find (a) the distance he travelled; travelled) showed an initial reading of
(b) his displacement. 50 780 km. At the end of the journey, the
2. What is the difference between soeed and odometer reading was 50 924 km. The journey
velocity? took two hours. What was the average speed
3. "An object moving at a constant velocity is of the journey in (a) km h-1; (b) m s-1?
moving in a straight line. " ls the statement true 5. What is acceleration?
or false? Explain your answer. 6. Given that the velocity of an object moving in
a straight line changes uniformly from u to v in
time t. write an exoression for the acceleration
of the obiect.

Chapter 2
2.3 Graphs of Motion
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
plot and interpret a displacement-time graph;
. plot and interpret a velocity-time graph;
. deduce information about motion from the shape of a displacement-time graph;
. deduce information about motion from the shape of a velocity-time graph;
. determlne displacement by calculating the area under a velocity-time graph.

Displacement-time graphs
Figure 2.8 shows a car travelling along a straight line in one direction, starting
away from the starting point O. If the direction to the right is set as
positive, then the positive gradients of graphs in (b)-(c) mean that
the car is travellingtowards the right. The displacement of the car is
measured for every second. The displacement and time are recorded r Figure 2.8 Motion of a car
and a graph is plotted using the data. The results for four possible
journeys are shown below.

(a) Car at rest

Displacement/m
The graph has zero gradient.
The displacement is a constant
for every second.

The magnitude of the

gradient gives the speed
of the car. The sign of
the gradient gives the
direction of the car.

(b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 10 m s-1

Sketch a displacement-
time graph of another
car that travels at
a higher velocity
Displacement/m compared to the car in
The graph has a constant gradient, Figure 2.8.
The displacement increases 10 m
every second.

:- :

Kinematics
 (c) Car travelling with increasing velocity (non-uniform velocity)
5

o;5 i2o I
725

Displacement/m
The graph has an increasing gradient.
The velocity increases.

7E

The instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 3 s is

5q given by the gradient of the tangent at the point.
25

Time/s
t 2.3 4

(d) Car travelling with decreasing velocity (non-uniform velocity)

rzc
Displacement/m

r25, The graph has a decreasing gradient.

The velocity decreases.
100

75

50,

25

Iime/s
r 2,3

locity-time graphs
A boy playing in a video arcade controls his car by stepping on a pedal. Velocity-
time graphs can be used to illustrate uniform and non-uniform acceleration in his
motion in one direction in a straight line.

(a) Car at rest (b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 10 m s-1

01L1213:4t5
OJO 10 110 l1-0:10r10:10

The velocity remains The velocity remains

at0ms-1,so at 10 m s-1, so
the car has zero the car has zero
acceleration. acceleration.

Time/s
(c) Car travelling with uniform acceleration

Velocity/m s I
I The velocity of the car increases
by 10 m s-1 every second.
+
Hence, the graph has a positive
I and constant gradient, and the
acceleration is constant.
+

a By stepping on the pedal all

the way, the boy moves his car
with constant acceleration.

(d) Car travelling with uniform deceleration

Velocity/m s I
The velocity of the car decreases
by 10 m s-1 every second.
Hence, the graph has a negative
and constant gradient, and the
deceleration is constant.

r. By releasing the pedal,

the boy moves his car with
a constant deceleration.

(e) Car travelling with increasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration)

Velocity/m s 1

The increase in velocity is increasing

with time. Hence, the graph has a
positive and increasing gradient, and
the acceleration increases.
The instantaneous acceleration of the car at t = 3 s
is given by the gradient of the tangent at the point.
a By stepping on the pedal slowly,
Time/s the boy moves his car with an
increasing acceleration.

Kinematics
(f) Car travelling with decreasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration)

The increase in velocity is

decreasing with time. Hence,
the graph has a positive and
decreasing gradient and the
acceleration decreases.

r By releasing the pedal slowly, the

boy moves his car with a decreasing
acceleration.

Gompadsons between displacement ime

Compare deceleration and velocity-time glaphs
and decreasing Velocity-time graphs and displacement-time graphs look very similar, but they
acceleration. What are give different information. We can differentiate them by looking at the labels
the differences between on the y-axes.
the two?
Assume that the car in Figure 2.8 starts from rest and accelerates uniformly
in one direction to a constant velocity. The car then comes to a stop at a red
light. Figure 2.9 shows the displacement-time and velocity-time graphs of the
car and how they are related.

Car accelerates Car moves at constant Car decelerates uniformly

uniformly from rest. velocity. to a stop.

Displacement-time graph
The y-axis indicates displacement. Thus,
this is a displacement-time graph.
Dicnlaccment /n1
s,ev,vvv"'v"!/
''
Displacement moved increases
uniformly over time. Hence,
Disolacement moved increases gradient is a positive constant --k '\i\
at an increasing rate. Hence, (represented by a \
gradient increases (represented Displacement moved increases i
straight line
by a concave curve). at a decreasing rate. Hence, i

gradient decreases (represented i

\ by a convex curve).
Time/s
A
Velocity increases Velocity-time gtaph
The y-axis indicates
uniformly over time. Velocity decreases
velocity. Thus, this is
Hence, gradient is uniformly over time. Hence,
a velocity-time graph.
a positive constant gradient is a negative
Velocity/m s 1 (represented by a constant (represented by a
straight line). straight line).

\ /

Time/s
BC
Chapter 2
r Figure 2.9 Displacement- and velocity-time graphs
 orked Cxample 2.5
Figure 2.10 shows the displacement-time graph of a car. Assume that the direction of the car
moving away from origin O is positive.

Displacement/m

n
D
A Refer to Figure 2.LO.
EF . ls the car moving at a uniform
velocity for the stretch of the
journey described by curve CF?
Time/s
. Compare and comment on the
r, Figure 2.1O velocity at D and at E.
. ls the velocity increasing or
Describe the motion of the car at each stage: decreasing from E to F?
(a) A
(b) B
(c) c
(d) DtoE
(e) EtoF
Solution
The motion of the car is described in Table 2.5.

v Table 2.5 Motion of the car

Disolacement is 40 m from O.
(a)
Velocity is zero.

(b) . Velocity is uniform.

(c)
r Disolacement is 90 m from O.
. Velocity is zero.
r Car travels in the opposite direction back towards O.
. Displacement decreases at a decreasing rate.
. Velocity is non-uniform and decreasing.
. Displacement remains at 28 m from O.
. Velocity is zero.

Science Bites
Have you heard of the Vertical Marathon?
Since 1987, the Vertical Marathon has been taking place annually atthe
226 m-tall SwissOtel The Stamford in Singapore. In 2008, Thomas Dold reached
the 73rd storey of the hotel in a record time of 6 minutes and 52 seconds.
During the process, Thomas climbed a total of 1336 steps!

Calculate his speed in metres per second and in steps per second. Which s
would you use to pace yourself if you are aiming to beat his record?
> Swiss6tel The Stamford
 orked €xample 2.6
The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.11. Describe the motion of the car.

Velocity/m s-1

When interpreting
the motion of the car
in a velocity-time
graph, explain what
is happening interval
by interval.

Time/s

t Figure 2.L1-

Solution
The motion of the car is described in Table 2.6,

v Table 2.6 Motion of the car

Velocity increases uniformly fromOms-1 to15ms1

Acceleration is uniform at
0-5s
(15-0) ms1
,= S, =3ms-:
Velocity increases from 15 m s-1 to 20 m s 1 at a decreasing rate.
5-10s Acceleration is non-uniform and decreasing.

Velocity is uniform and is at a maximum.

10-15s Acceleration is zero.

Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m s-1 to 0 m s 1

Acceleration is uniform at
15-20s (0-20)ms{
O=4 =-4 m S-2.
5S
Therefore, deceleration (or retardation) is 4 m s-2.

Velocity is zero.
20-25s Acceleration is zero.
Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s 1 to 10 m s-1
25-30s Acceleration is uniform at
(10-O)
msr
a=#=2ms-2 hq

Velocity decreases from 10 m s-1 to 0 m s-1 at a decreasing rate.

30-35s Deceleration is non-uniform and decreasing.

Chapter 2
Area under velocity-time glaph
Figure 2.12 shows the velocity-time graph for an object moving with
uniform velocitv.

Velocity,/m s-1

Time/s
681072
r Figure 2.12 Velocity-time graph of an object moving with uniform velocity

Thevelocity is 6 m s-lfromtime t= 0 sto t=L4 s. What isthetotal

disolacementfrom t= 0 s to t= 10 s?

We can calculate it as follows:

v=6ms-1,t=10s
d

.'. d = vx t= 6 m s-l x 10 s = 60 m
The product of velocity and time gives the displacement.
From Figure 2.I3, you can see that the product of 6 m s-1 and 10 s is
the area of the shaded rectangle.

Velocity/m s-1

. Only the area under a

velocity-time graph gives
the disolacement. The area
under a displacement-
time graph does not give
disolacement.
. We can derive the total
Time/s disolacement from a
displacement-time graph
r Figure 2.13 Displacement of the object is the area of the rectangle under by reading the values
the velocity-time graph. directly off the y-axis.

Kinematics
 Now, consider the following velocity-time graph (Figure 2.14) for an object
that accelerates, moves with uniform velocitv and then decelerates.

Velocity/m s-1

r Fiture 2.L4 Velocity-time graph of an object that accelerates, moves with

uniform velocity and then decelerates

Calculation of total displacement

Total displacement of the object is the total area underthe velocity-time graph
= Area of the trapezium
1
= +2 x sum of parallel sides x height
1
=+x(9s+24s)x36ms-1
z
=594m
Calculation of ave speed
Average speed of object
total distance travelled 594 m
= 24.8 m s-1
total time taken 24 s

Desc tion of motion

Fromtimet=0stot=6s,
. Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s-1to 36 m s-1.
/"6-0) ms-1
o Acceleration = -*= 6 m s-2
(6-0)s
Fromtimet=6stot=15s,
. Velocity remains constant at 36 m s-1.
o Acceleration=0ms-2

From time t= 15 s to t= 24 s,
o Velocity decreases uniformly from 36 m s-1to 0 m s-1.
. (0-36) ms{
Acceleration = =-4ms-2
(24 - t5) s
Chapter 2
 orked €xample ?.7
An MRTtrain moves off from Aljunied station and travels along a straighttracktowards Paya Lebar
station. Figure 2.1-5 shows how the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey.

Velocity/m s 1

Time/s

a Figure 2.15 Velocity-time graph of an MRT train

(a) Determine the average speed of the train between t = 0 s and t = 70 s.

(b) Describe the motion of the train between
(i) t=0sandt=10s;
(ii) t=10sandt=70si
(iii) t=TOsandt=90s.
Solution
(a) Displacement between t= 0 s and t= 70 s Velocity/m s 1

= area under velocity-time graph between

t=Osandt=70s
= area of shaded trapezium (on the right)
1
=;x(60s+70s)
z
x15ms-1
=975m
Average _ total distance travelled
speeo time taken
975 m
- 7Os
= 13.9 m s-1
(b) (i) The velocity-time graph of the train has a gradient
that is positive and constant. This means that the We can also find the same
train is undergoing uniform acceleration. shaded area under the velocity-
(ii) The velocity-time graph of the train is a horizontal time graph by adding the area
line. That is, its gradient is zero. This means that of the small shaded triangle and
the acceleration of the train is zero. area of the shaded rectangle.
(iii) The velocity-time graph of the train has a negative
Try computing the total
and decreasing gradient. This means that the displacement using the method
velocity of the train decreases at a decreasing rate. above. Check if it gives the same
The train is undergoing decreasing deceleration. answer as in the solution to
Worked Example 2.7.

Kinematics
 o.rked Cxample ?.8
A motorist approaches a traffic light junction at 54 km h-1. The
traffic light turns red when he is 30 m from the junction. lf he takes Visit http://www.
0.4 s before applying the brakes, and his car slows down at a rate of stoppingdistances.org.uk
3.75 m s-2, determine whether the motorist is able to stop his car to watch a simulation
in time. of how the stopping
distance changes
under various driving
The assumptions are: conditions.
o The car travels at a uniform velocitv of 54 km h-1 until the brakes
are applied.
o lts deceleration of 3.75 m s-2 is uniform.

Solution
Note: First; convert 54 km h-1 into a speed in m s-1.

54 km
54km 54 00O m
=15ms-1
h-1 =
th 3600s
Velocity-time graph of vehicle:

Can the car stop

in time?

Y
Does the car stop
within 30 m?
I

t/s v
00.47
k--At---------N To answer that,
we need to find its
Find: time interval At between the point at which the motorist applies displacement.
the brakes and the point at which the car stops
Given: unlform deceleration = 3.75 m s-2 Y

(i.e. acceleration a = -3.75 m s-2) Its displacement is

change in velocity Ay = final velocity - initial velocity the area under its
= -15 m s-1 velocity-time graph.
Lv
a=E Y

-3.75ms-2=-15ms-1
At
the area,
To find
we need to find At.
At=4s
Displacement = area under velocity-time graph
= area of trapezium
=
t
jx (O.4 s + 4.4s) x 15 m s-1
=36m
Since the displacement of his car is more than 30 m, the motorist is
unable to stop his car in time.

Chapter 2
Speed-time graph against velocity-time graph
Consider a volleyball that is tossed vertically upwards (Figure 2.!6) and allowed
to fall freely with negligible air resistance. We assign the upward direction from
the ground as positive.

time t= t, /7'--'., I
velocityv=0 i i
I

a Figure 2.16 The upward and

downward journey of a volleyball

Figures 2.17 and 2.18 show the speed-time graph and the velocity-time graph
of the volleyball respectively. What do you notice about the areas under the
two graphs?

Total distance travelled Total displacement

by the ball of the ball

,_l
Distance travelled Distance travelled h Displacement Displacement
h during its upward during its downward increases during its decreases during its
journey to the journey from the upward journey to the downward journey from
highest point highest point highest point. the highest point.

Velocity

Speed/m s{

Time,/s

Time/s

a Figule 2.17 Speed-time

graph of of the volleyball e Figure 2.18 Velocity-time
graph of the volleyball

For the speed-time graph, For the velocity-time graph,

total distance travelled by the volleyball total displacement of the volleyball
= total area under the speed-time graph = total area under the velocity-time graph
= Ar+ A, = Ar+ Ao
= h+ h =h+(-h)
=2h =Q

. Why is the displacement of the volleyball during its downward journey negative?
. Sketch the velocity-time graph if the downward direction is defined as positive.

Kinematics
 1-. (a) The gradient of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity of an object.
From what you
(b) The gradient of a tangent on a displacement-time graph for non-uniform
have learnt so far,
velocity gives the instantaneous velocity of an object at that instant.
have you found the
2. (a) For an object at rest, the displacement-time graph is a horizontal line.
answers to Let's (b) For an object travelling at uniform velocity, the displacement-time graph is
Explore (d)?
a straight line with constant gradient.
(c) For an object travelling at increasing velocity, the displacement-time graph
is a curve with increasing gradient.
(d) For an object travelling at decreasing velocity, the displacement-time graph
is a curve with decreasing gradient.
3. (a) The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of an object.
(b) The gradient of the tangent on a velocity-time graph for non-uniform
velocity gives the instantaneous acceleration of an object at that instant.
4. The displacement can be determined by calculating the area under its
velocity-time graph.

L. Study the displacement-time $raph shown in Figure 2.19.

Displacement,/m

30&
z5v
20d
150
100
50
>OTime/s
15
a Figure 2.19 Displacement-time graph of an object

For each time interval, specify whether the object is moving at uniform velocity,
moving at non-uniform velocity or at rest. Calculate the average velocity for the
given time intervals.
2. How do we tell whether an object is stationary from its displacement-time
graph?
3. How do we determine the velocity of an object using its displacement-time
graph?
4. Figures 2.2O and 2.21 show the displacement-time and velocity-time graph of
a car. For both graphs, describe the motion of the car from
(a) point O to point A; (b) point A to point B;
(c) point B to point C; (d) point C to point D.
Displacement/m

Time/s Time,/s
a Figure 2.20 Displacement- a Figure 2.21 Velocity-time
time graph oI a car graph of a car

Ghaptet 2
2.4 Acceleration due to Gtavity
be able to:
Learning Outcomes
- You ofshould
. state that the acceleration free fall near to the Earth's surface is approximately
10 m s-2;
. describe the motion of free-falling bodies with and without air resistance;
. apply the term terminal velocity when describing the motion of falling bodies.

Galileo's discovery
lf we drop a large stone and a small pebble from the same height at the
same time, which object will hit the ground first?

In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei discovered through a series of experiments

and careful observations that all objects, regardless of mass or size, fell
at the same acceleration due to the Earth's gravity. Galileo's finding was
contrary to the widely accepted claim made by Aristotle that a heavier object
fell faster than a lighter object.

Aristotle's claim Galileo's finding

|- t
'-'t

Find out if an object that

is projected sideways
takes more time to hit
the ground.
r lf you were a scientist in the 17th century, would you have
accepted Galileo's finding? Why?
1, Set up a ruler and two
coins as shown below.
Acceleration due to gravity g is a constant. For objects close to the Earth's
surface, the value of gis generally taken to be 9.8 m s-2. For simplicity in
calculations, we approximate this value to 10 m s-2 throughout this book,
unless otherwise stated.

Open-mindedness
To be a good scientist, one has to have an open
mind, that is, to be willing to consider alternatives 2. Press on the ruler and
even if they are contrary to what is widely tap the end as shown,
accepted. Galileo's willingness to challenge the so that coin A falls
claims of Aristotle, a famous philosopher, led to vertically, while coin B
his discovery that the acceleration of all objects, is projected sideways.
regardless of mass or size, due to the Earth's 3. 0bserve whether they
gravity is the same. This discovery is core to our hit the ground at the
scientific knowfedge today. r Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) same time.

Kinematics
 O ects falling without air resistance
An object can only be in free fall if the only force acting on it is its
own weight. Fiflure 2.22 shows the path taken by a feather and by
a hammer falling in a vacuum (i.e. in free fall).

At rest
t=Os

Weight of feather, Wr

Weight of hammer, LV6

t=1s ------l-
V

10 m s-1

displacement s, (>sr)

L_ZJ

I
20 m s-1

displacement s3 (>s2)

t= 3 s l

30 m ^-1
5-

r Figure 2.22 A feather and a hammer in free fall

From Figure 2.22, we can make the following deductions:

. The velocity of the two objects under gravity increases by 10 m s-1

every second. That is, both objects undergo a constant acceleration of
10 m s-2.
o The direction of their motion is downward (i.e. towards the centre of
the Earth).
' The acceleration of the free-falling objects does not depend on their
mass or size. In other words, all objects fall freely at a constant
a Figure 2.23 Velocity-time
acceleration of 10 m s-2. Figure 2.23 shows the velocity-time graph graph of free-falling motion
that describes the motion of the two free-falling objects.
Chapter 2
 onked Cxample ?.9
A sandal fell off a bamboo pole from the third floor while it was being put out to dry.
The time taken for the sandal to reach the ground was 1.34 s. lf air resistance was
negligible,
(a) find the velocity of the sandaljust before it hit the ground;
(b) find the height of the third floor from the ground;
(c) do you expect any change in the velocity-time graph if a sock fell off instead?

Solution
sandal
Since the air resistance is negligible, the sandal is in free fall tt.
(i.e. accelerating at 10 m s-2). 'o
Given: time taken tto reach the ground is t, = 1.34 s

To visualisethe problem, we sketch the path and the velocity-time

graph of the free-falling sandal.
t1
'1 34s
(a) Gradient of v-t graph = constant acceleration due to gravity v2
'1
-

(vr-0) ms{
(1.34 - 0) s
=10ms-2 r, Path of the free-falling sandal

Yr=13.4ms-r v/m s'1

The velocity of the sandal just before it hit the ground
was 13.4 m s-1.
(b) Displacement = area under y-t graph

Height of third floor from the ground =

trJ"
=|":r3.4ms-1 x1-.34s
t/e
=9.0m tr= L'34
(c) No. Both the sandal and sock would give the same
a Velocity-time graph of
velocity-time graph, since acceleration is constant at 10 m s-2. the free-fallins sandal

O ects falling with air resistance

When you run fast, do you feel air brushing against you? You are experiencing
air resistance. Air resistance is a frictional force. lt has the following
characteristics:
o lt always opposes the motion of moving objects.
r lt increases with the speed of the objects.
o lt increases with the surface area (or size) of the objects.
o lt increases with the density of air.

) Air resistance pushes upwards

against the open parachute
to counter the weight of the
parachutist and his gear. weight of
parachutist i
l
and gear
 Small dense objects (e.g. steel balls)fall through air at the same acceleration
and hit the ground at the same time. This is because they experience low
air resistance. In comparison, a piece of paper is light and has a large
surface area. lt experiences greater air resistance. The paper falls at a
lower acceleration.

Figures 2.24 and 2.25 show the velocity-time graph and the motion of a
piece of paper falling through air respectively.

At rest

Area A, < Area A, < Area A. < Area Ao

a Figure 2.24 Velocity-time graph of

a piece of paper falling through air

fable 2.7 below summarises the forces involved, the changes in velocity
and acceleration, and the displacement of the piece of paper at different
time intervals.

v Table 2.7 Summary of the forces involved, changes in velocity and

acceleration, and displacement of the paper falling through air

s from zero to v1.

ulglj_*.,."_.-
s from vtlo v2.
vr- vr). (y, - 0)
1ry"1t-l-1,!E!-p"9-1,ry99.t*l-=,0,-.-q,N,-|.:-1--::
t=2sto i W , R, :, c reases from v, to v.. i s. (= A")
t=3s ,: Rr, R, I o i.e. (v. - vr) . (vr- v) 1s]'sr-
; r. n is lower than that between t =
.1""-*-*"*-.--".i
locity stays constant. ; so (= Ao)
Y = O, i.e. vr= vo = terminal velocitY (s. > s^. onlv slightlv)
cceleration is zero.
Objects experience higher air resistance when their speed increases. When
the air resistance against an object equals its weight, the object starts to
travel at a constant speed known as terminal velocity. This means that the
object has zero acceleration.

lf an object falls through a short distance, it may not reach terminal velocity
before hitting the ground.

orked €xampl€ ?.lO

A window cleaner drops a sponge from a window at time t = 0 s. Figure 2.26
shows the velocity-time graph for the motion of the sponge.

Velocity v/m s-1

Time t/s

t Figute 2.26

(a) Describe the motion of the sponge between A and D.

(b) Find the displacement of the sponge between t = 0 s and f = 0.6 s.

Solution
(a) From A to B, the velocity of the sponge increases uniformly and the acceleration
is a constant 10 m s-2. From B to D, the velocity is still increasing but at a
decreasing rate. The acceleration decreases. After D, the acceleration soon
becomes zero and terminal velocity of t2 m s-1 is reachec.

(b) DisPraceme"

= i":,;::,T:H:-"',t'""
.2
1.8 m

Kinematics
 What is the physics of skydiving? gains speed, the air resistance increases until it
Just like a piece of paper falling through air, when a eventually equals his weight. At this point, he falls at
skydiver leaps off a plane, two forces act on his body terminal velocity and his acceleration is zero.
the Earth's gravity (i.e. a downward force) and air
-resistance (i.e. an upward force). The amount of air Surface area of a skydiver
resistance a skydiver experiences depends on his How a skydiver positions his body during his
soeed and surface area. important. A larger surface area will create more air
resistance. A skydiver falls in a spread-eagle position
Speed of a skydiver to maximise his surface area. In this way, he can
Air resistance increases with the skydiver's speed. achieve a lower terminal velocity and stay in the air
During the initial part of his descent, the skydiver's longer. To fall faster, he simply reduces his surface
weight is greater than the air resistance. Hence, he area by falling head or feet first.
falls with acceleration towards the ground. As he
For the rescue attempt mentioned at the beginning
of the chapter, Gregory Robertson adjusted his body
to fall head first. He increased his speed to catch up
with the unconscious Debbie Williams. Upon nearing
her, he went into a spread-eagle position to slow
down before grabbing her and opening her parachute.
Robertson and Williams landed safelv.

From what you have

L. In the absence of air resistance (i.e. in vacuum), all objects fall under
learnt so far, have you gravity at constant acceleration g. lt is approximately 1-O m s-2 near the
found the answers to
Earth's surface.
Let's Explore (e)? 2. In the presence of air resistance, the velocity of a falling object
increases at a slower rate (i.e. decreasing acceleration).
3. An object falling through air achieves terminal velocity when its weight
is equal to the air resistance against it.

Visit http://www.
dsc.discovery.com to
watch a video on the
physics of skydiving. L. An object is released from an unknown height and falls freely for 5 s
Use keywords such as before it hits the ground.
"video" and "skydive". (a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for a time interval of 5 s,
assuming there is negligible air resistance.
(b) What is the velocity of the object just before it hits the ground?
(c) What is the unknown height?
2. Why does a feather reach terminal velocity faster than a hammer, even
though both are released from the same height?

Chapter 2
The Moving Man
Visit http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/moving-man to watch a simulation of a moving man.
Click on Run Now! to start the simulation program.

Part 1 Getting familiar with the program

t-. Select lhe lntroduction lab on the top left corner of the program window.
2. (a) Drag the Position, Velocity and Acceleration sliders to change the values of these
variables.
. Position slider from L2O m to -1-.20 m
. Velocity slider from I.2O m s-1 to -1.20 m s-1
c Acceleration slider from t.2O m s-2 to -1.20 m s-2
(b) Check the Velocity Vector and/or Acceleration Vector boxes to visualise the man's
movement.
(c) Click the P/aybutton at the bottom of the window to start the motion of the man according
to the variables specified.
3. At the end of the simulation for one setting, click on the Pause button followed by the Clear
button before entering the values of the next setting.
4, Observe and describe how the motion of the man changes with time for individual settings.

Part 2 Predicting and sketching displacement-time (s-t) and velocity-time (v-f ) graphs
1,. Select the Charts tab on the top left corner of the program window.
2. Explore the different tabs and buttons as was done in Part 1.
3. Without running the simulation, predict and sketch the s-t and y-t graphs for the following
two scenarios.
Scenario 1:At -8.0 m from his mother, a toddler started to walk towards his father at a
constant velocity of 1.2 m s-1. He bumped into his father, who was 10 m away
from his mother.
Scenario 2: A departing tourist stood -5.0 m from the departure hall at the airport, looking
for her passport. lt was 4 s before she started walking towards the hall at a
constant velocity of 0.50 m s-1. After 4 s, she decided to walk faster at an
acceleration of 1.0 m s-2 before stopping at a souvenir shop.
4. Enter the relevant values into the program., and run the simulation to check if your graphs
match the ones generated by the program.

Part 3 Collaborative learning

1,. lf any of your predicted graphs differ from those generated by the program, discuss and clarify
your doubts on the chapter with your classmates and teacher.
2. In groups of four, discuss how a velocity-time graph can be drawn if you are given a
displacement-time graph.

Kinematics
 nave have both . Magnitude
lvlagnitude only . Direction

Distance Speed Displacement Velocity Acceleration

(Sl unit: m) (Sl unit: m s-1) (Sl unit: m) (Sl unit: ms1) (Sl unit: m s'?)

I
I I

Y v v
distance Area under change in velocity
. Speed = velocity-time graph
. Acceleration =
time taken time taken
---> displacement
Gradient of velocity-time graph
total distance
o Average speed = -> acceleration
total time taken
Acceleration due to gravity g

disolacement - without air resistance, object

Velocitv=-
- time taken falls with constant acceleration
- with air resistance, object falls
Gradient of with decreasing acceleration
displ acement-time graph and may reach terminal velocity
---> velocity

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) : Velocity is a scalar, and hence has magnitude and direction. : I 3.)
,,. ," objecttravelling
\-' . An
(b) -_--:. ,'"'::,",o at graph that
-,.","' velocity has a displacement-time o'"F"
".: a uniform - i
'' has a l
2.2
constant, positive gradient.

i"J *n.n the speeo of an object changes, its acceleration .r'rrng".. 22

I9l:]!:ii.=-a*:?y:|i9,]I-liT-"-9:1t.!"la-9.9]::lqrr-r:iy-"l"':i]'r.

:ii:::Tiy"l:T:1::1.::1111'5t:ii::11lilT:
(0
lf weight is the only force acting on a falling object, the object will not achieve
,
,
_ __ia
:. 2.4
terminal velocitv.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 2
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions Section B: Structured Questions
1,. The average speed of a car is 35 km h-1. How L. (a) Define average speed.
far can it travel in 45 minutes? (b) Figure 2.27 shows a cyclist's route. He
A 0.78 km B 26.25 km started from point A at 6 am and went
C 729km D 467 km past three other points B, C and D, before
returning to point A at 6 pm.
2. Acaraccelerates uniformlyfrom 5 m s 1to
13 m s-1 in 4.0 s. What is the acceleration of 6pm6am
the car?
A O.5O m s-2
B 0.80 m s-2
C 1-.25 m s-2
D 2.00 m s-2

3. A ball that is thrown vertically upwards at

1,.2 m s-1 decelerates uniformly at 10 m s-2.
How long will it take to reach zero velocity?
A O.!2 s B 2.4s
C 6.0s D t2.O s
L2 noon
4. Which one of the following velocity-time graphs r, Figure 2.27
represents the motion of an object slowing down
at a non-uniform deceleration? Calculate the average speed of the cyclist
A Velocity B (i) from A to B;
(ii) from B to C;
(iii) for the whole journey.

2. A train travels along a straight track from one

station to another. Figure 2.28 shows how the
Time velocity of the train varies with time over the
whole journey.
C Velocity D
Velocity/m s 1

Time

5. Which of the following velocity-time graphs

represents the motion of an object falling to the Timels
ground in the presence of air resistance?
t Figwe 2.28

(a) State the time interval over which the train

is decelerating.
(b) Determine the acceleration of the train
during the first two seconds of the journey.
(c) Determine the
Time Time (i) displacement between the two
C Velocity Velocity stations;
(ii) average speed of the train.

Time Time

Kinematics
3. Figure 2.29 shows how the velocity of a moving Section G: Free-Response Questions
body varies with time t.
Velocity/m s-'
1. Figure 2.31 shows a smooth track ABCD. The
track has a horizontal section BC calibrated in
metres. A smooth, steel ball bearing of mass
0.3 kg was released from a point on the slope AB.
steel ball bearing

0 1.0m 2.0m 3.0m 4.Om 5.0m

r Figure 2.31

A stopwatch was used to time how long it took

the ball bearing to go past the various calibration
marks. The times were recorded in the fable 2.8.
The timing on the stopwatch started some time
Time/s after the ball bearing went past B.
20 30 40
t Figwe 2.29 v Table 2.8

(a) Determine the acceleration of the body

during the first 10 s.
(b) Between t = 30 s and t = 45 s, the body
decelerates uniformly to rest.
(i) Complete the graph for this
time interval.
(ii) From the graph drawn in (i), obtain the
velocity of the body when t = 37.5 s. (a) Using graph paper, plot a displacement-time
(c) Determine the displacement of the body graph for the steel ball bearing.
between t= 30 s and t= 45 s. (b) Calculate the average speed of the ball
bearing between the 3.0 m and 4.0 m
4. Figure 2.30 shows the velocity-time graph of a marKS.
car in motion. (c) Assuming there was negligible friction
Velocity/m s 1 between the ball bearing and the track,
calculate the displacement of the ball
bearing from B just before the timing started
on the stopwatch.
(d) What was the acceleration of the bearing as
it rolled along BC? Explain your answer.
(e) The ball bearing slowed down on its way
up slope CD and stopped momentarily at T
before rolling back down the slope. Given
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Time/s that at T the reading on the stopwatch was
r Figure 2.30 13 s, calculate the deceleration of the ball
bearing as it rolled up slope CD.
Describe the motion of the car between
(a) t=Osandt=1Os; 2- A feather was released from rest in vacuum, and
(b) t= 1-O s and t= 15 s; then in air. In both situations, the feather was
(c) t= 15 s and t= 20 s; released from a significant height.
(d) t=20sandt=30s; (a) Compare and comment on the motion of the
(e) t=30sandt=35s. feather in vacuum and in air.
(b) Sketch the velocity-time graphs of the
motion of the feather in vacuum and in air.

Chapter 2
Jumping off an aircraft at an altitude of 4OOO metres is definitely not for the faint-
heafted. So is it possible for someone to experience the thrill of skydiving without
jumping from such a great height?

ln May 2orl, singapore opened the world's largest skydiving simutator, iFly singapore,
an indoor skydiving wind tunnel with a height of 77 .2 metres and a diameter of 5.03 -
metres. What is the physics behind a skydiving simulator?

x€
+t
ia
r*
 3.1 Forces
hat is a force?
To move our luggage from one point to another, we can either push it or pull it.

A force is either a push ora pullthat one object exerts on another object.
It can produce, slow down, speed up or stop motion. lt can also change the
Our hands exeft either direction of motion.
a^ push or a pull on our
luggage to move it.
hat are the types of forces?
Forces are produced by the interaction between objects. Forces can be
classified into two types:
a contact forces, which exist between objects that are in contact;
From what you have
a non-contact forces, which do not require objects to be in contact to exist.
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a)? Table 3.1 lists some contact and non-contact forces.

v Table 3.1 Tvpes of forces and their nature

The push exerted by a surface on The pull exerted by a stretched

an object pressing on it spring, string or rope on an object
- thisto
push is always perpendicular attached to it
the surface

r The normal reaction by the table r The tension in the rope pulls the
surface on the cup is perpendicular wakeboarder foruard
to the surFace.

The pull exerted by the Earth's The attractive (i.e. pull) or repulsive The attractive (i.e. pull) or repulsive
gravity on any object (i.e. weight) (i.e. push) forces between electric (i.e. push) forces between
cnarges magnets

+ <-

^
Attractive electric forces between r Attractive magnetic forces between
unlike charges unlike ooles

<_ _>

r The gravitational force pulls the r, Repulsive electric forces between r, Repulsive magnetic forces between
diver down into the water. like charges like poles

Chapter 3
 3.2 Vector Diagrams
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o -
add two vectors using a graphical method;
. solve problems that involve three forces acting on a static body using a graphical
method.

How are vector quantities represented?

vector- it has both magnitude and direction. lts sl unit is the
A force is a
newton (N). At any time, two or more forces may be acting on an object. The Recall the definitions
forces may have different magnitudes and directions. In such cases, we can of scalars and vectors
use vector diagrams to add up these forces. in Chapter 2.

In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow. The length

of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. The direction of
the arrow indicates the direction of the vecror.

Figure 3,1 shows the vector diagram of a force of 20 N in the direction 45"
north of east.

Step 1
Choose an appropriate
scale to represent the force.
Scalelcm:5N
Step 3
Draw an arrow at the angle
measured. The length of this
arrow should be proportional
to the magnitude of the force.
Step 2 This is defined by the scale
Draw a base line (horizontal in Steo 1.
45"
in this case) and measure the
required angle with a protractor.
r Figure 3.1 A vector diagram

How do we add vectors?

scalar quantities (or scalars) such as distance and speed have only
magnitude. When we add scalars, we add their magnitudes only.

Unlike scalars, vector quantities (or vectors) have magnitude and direction,
when we add two or more vectors, we cannot add their magnitudes only. we
need to find a single vector that produces the same effect as the vectors
combined. The single vector, called the resultant vector, must be equivalent
to the individual vectors combined in terms of magnitude and direction.

Forces
 Let us assign the direction towards the right as positive. Figure 3.2 shows
two parallel forces of magnitudes 3 N and 5 N acting on a block. Both forces
act in the same direction (i.e. towards the right). The resultant force is 8 N
(i.e. 3 N + 5 N = 8 N) and is directed towards the right. A resultant vector is
usually indicated by a double-headed arrow.

r Figure 3.2 Addition of vectors acting in the same direction

In Figure 3.3, the two forces are still parallel but act in opposite directions. The
resultantforce is 2 N (i.e. 5 N + (-3 N) = 2 N) and is directed towards the right.
In Figure 3.3, why is
the3Nforcenegative? resu ltant
ce=2N

r Fiture 3.3 Addition of vectors acting in opposite directions

In Figure 3.4, two parallel forces of 3 N act on the block in opposite directions.
This produces zero resultant force.

resultant
force = O N

r, Fiture 3.4 Addition of vectors that are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions

There are two methods of adding non-parallel vectors: the parallelogram method
and the tipto-tail method. Both methods give the same resultant vector.

Consider two forces, 5 N and 3 N, acting on a block (Figure 3.5). The forces
r Figure 3.5 Forces acting do not act along the same line (i.e. they are not parallel). Figures 3.6 and 3.7
at an angle to each other
describe how we can obtain the resultant force.

@ Complete the parallelogram by adding

Choose an appropriate scale. Scalelcm:1N dotted lines AC and BC, which are
Draw arrows to represent the parallel to OB and OA respectively.
forces.

@ sru
@ zr,r @ fne resultant force is
represented by the diagonal
of the parallelogram, OC. To
obtain its
. magnitude, measure the
1g'
20"
e length of OC;
o direction, measure the
@ sN angle between OC and the
horizontal baseline.
r Figure 3.6 Addition of vectors using the parallelogram method

Chapter 3
 Choose an appropriate scale. From A, draw arrow AC to
Draw an arrow to represent reoresent the 3 N force. The
one of the forces. Here, we tip of the arrow OA is joined
draw OA to reoresent the 5 N to the tail of arrow AC.
force first.

5N

Join O (i.e. the tail of the 5 N force) to

C (i.e. tip of the 3 N force). This forms
the triangle OAC. The resultant force is
represented by the arrow OC. To obtain its
r Figure 3.7 Addition of vectors using the tip-to-tail method
. magnitude, measure the length of OC;
o direction, measure the angle between
OC and the horizontal baseline.

By eitherthe parallelogram method or the tip-to-tail method, we arrive at the

same answer: the resultant force has a magnitude of 7 N, and acts at an
angle of 18' to the horizontal.

orked €xamplc 3.1

An object O weighing 6.0 N hangs from the end of a string OC that is pulled
sideways by a force F. The string OC makes an angle of 30'with the vertical, f=7.0N
as shown in Figure 3.8. The tension f has a magnitude of 7.O N. Given that
the resultant force is zero, determine the magnitude of the force Fusing the
(a) parallelogram method;
(b) tip-to-tail method.
W= 6.0 N
Solution
(a) The parallelogram method (b) The tip-to-tail method
F
Draw a force @ using a scale of 1.75 cm
parallelogram with a 1 cm : 2 N, draw force
scaleoflcm:2N. vector tAl, followed by force
vector I, with a 30' angle
between the vectors.
- w
3.0 cm
resultant
**, of @ Since the forces are
TandW in equilibrium, that is, the
resultant force is zero, the
@ Since the
arrows representing the
resultant force is w '
@ tn order to balance forces W, F and f result in a
zero, force Fmust this resultant, Fmust
be balanced by the closed triangle,
also be 1-.75 cm long.
resultant of weight This means force Fis
W and tension L 3.5 N.
@ SV measurement, the length
of Fis 1.75 cm, so force Fhas a
magnitude of 3.5 N.
The resultant of f and LV is represented by the
diagonal of the parallelogram. By measurement,
the length of the diagonal is 1.75 cm.

The force Fhas a magnitude of 3.5 N, and acts towards the left.

Forces
 When using the tip-to-tail method, if the
arrows representing the forces result in a
closed triangle, we say that the forces are
in equilibrium (i.e. the resultant force is
zero).

lf the arrows do not result in a closed

triangle, there is a resultant force acting on
the object. lt is represented by the arrow
from the tail of the first arrow to the tip of
the last arrow. r Forces acting on an object r Forces acting on an object do not
form a closed triangle if they form a closed triangle if they are not
are in equilibrium. in equilibrium.

Visit http://phet.
colorado,edu and learn 1,. When we add two or more vectors acting on a body, we need to find a
more about vector resultant vector that is eouivalent to the individual vectors combined, in
addition with the help
terms of magnitude and direction.
2. Addition of forces (i.e. vectors)
of a simulation. Use
keywords such as
(a) For parallel forces, take one direction as positive and the opposite
"vector addition" and as negative. Then, add up the forces to find the resultant force.
" simu lation ".
(b) For non-parallel forces, add the vectors using the parallelogram
method or the tip-to-tail method to find the resultant force.

L. Name three types of forces in our daily lives. 3. An object O of weight W is supported by
2. Figure 3.9 shows a lorry that is stuck in two strings, as shown in Figure 3.10. The
muddy ground being pulled by two jeeps. tension in each string is 10 N. Using a
Each jeep exerts a force of 3000 N at an vector diagram, find the value of W.
angle of 20" to the horizontal. Using a vector
diagram, find the resultant force on the lorry.

pulled by jeep
3000 N

lled by jeep
3000 N
r Figure 3.9

r Figure 3,10

Chapter 3
3.3 Forces and Motion
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
apply Newton's laws of motion to
- describe how a force may change the motion of a body;
- describe the effects of balanced forces and unbalanced forces on a bodv:
- identify action-reaction forces acting on two interacting bodies;
. apply the formula resultant force = mass x acceleration to solve oroblems.

a body?
we can observe how forces affect the motion of objects in sports
(Figure 3.11).

r A stationary football r A moving hockey ball r A descending parachutist r A moving tennis ball is
moves when it is kicked. moves faster when it slows down due to air returned when it is hit. There
There is a change in speed. is pushed. There is an resistance. There is a is a change in direction.
increase in speed. decrease in soeed.

r Figure 3.11 The effects of forces in sports

In each of the four sports in Figure 3.11, when a force is applied on an object,
there is a change in speed and/or direction a change in velocity
- over
a period of time. This means that there is -acceleration (or deceleration).
Thus, a force can cause an object to accelerate (or decelerate). Does this
mean there is no force acting on an object when its acceleration is zero?

Zero acceleration implies that the object can be stationary or moving with
constant velocity (Figure 3.r2). However, even though acceleration is zero,
it does not mean there are no forces acting on it; it means that the resultant
of these forces is zero.

> Even when we are motionless on a weighing scale, it

still measures a force that acts on us our wei€ht.
-

Forces
 Balanced forces and Newton's First Law
lf the resultant force acting on an object is zero, we say the forces acting
on the object are balanced.

The table exerts an upward force F(i.e. A force F is applied on a book and it moves in a
normal reaction) that pushes on the straight line across a rough table. The size of the
book. Fis eoual to M applied force Fis equal to the frictional force f
between the book and the table.
table exerts normal
reaction Fon book book sliding across a surface at a constant velocity

weight of book W

Resultant force
These two forces are eqgal but act Resultant force
in opposite directions. Hence, the Since the two forces are equal but act in
resultant force is zero and the book opposite directions, the resultant force acting
remains stationary. As the book is on the book remains zer.o, and the book
at rest, its acceleration is zero. continues moving at a constant velocity.

(a) A book at rest (b) A book moving at a constant velocity

r Figure 3.12 Forces on an object at rest or moving at a constant
velocity are balanced. The resultant force on each object is zero.

The two examples in Figure 3.12 illustrate Newton's First Law of Motion
(i.e. the Law of lnertia).
You will learn more
about inertia in
Chapter 4.

We now know how an object behaves if the resultant force acting on it is

zero. What if the resultant force is not zero?

fan fan
The physics of indoor skydiving spinning spinning
The skydiving simulator, iFly
Singapore, is based on the
principle of balanced forces.
The weight (t44 of the skydiver
is balanced by the upward force
(D of the fast-moving air that
comes from the bottom of the
tunnel. This is how the skydiver
is able to stay suspended in
the tunnel.
flow of fast-moving air flow of fast-moving air

r Schematic diagram of a skydiving simulator

Ghapter 3
Unbalanced forces and Newton's Second Law
lf the resultant force acting on an object is not zero, we say the forces
acting on the object are unbalanced. There are two other
forces that act on the
book: the weight of the
ln Figure 3.12(b), the forces on the book are balanced and it moves at book and the normal
constant velocity. lf the applied force F is now increased, the forces that reaction on the book
act on the book are no longer balanced and the book accelerates (Figure due to the table (Figure
3.13(a)). 3.12(a)). These two
forces are eoual in
lf the applied force F is now removed while the book is still in motion magnitude but act in
(Figure 3.13(b)), friction is the resultant force that causes the book to opposite directions, so
they balance each other.
decelerate and eventually stop.

(a) lf the push is larger than the friction, (b) When the pushing force is removed,
the book will accelerate. the only force acting on the book is
friction. This will cause the book to
decelerate to a stoo.

r Figure 3.13 Friction causes a book to decelerate.

When there is a resultant force acting on an object, the object will

accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The relationship between
resultant force, mass and acceleration is described bv Newton's Second In Figure 3.13(a), is the
Law of Motion. push on the book the
resultant force?

Newton's Second Law of Motion in symbols: Experiment 3

What is the
F= tTto where F= resultant force (in N); relationship between
m = mass of object (in kg); acceleration and
a = acceleration of object (in m s-2). applied force?

Newton's Second Law of Motion tells us that

L. a resultant force Fon an object produces an acceleration a;
2. doubling the resultant force Fon an object doubles its acceleration a;
3. with the same resultant force E doubling the mass m halves the
acceleration a.

One newton is defined as the force that produces an acceleration of

1m s-2on a mass of 1kS. lf m= kgand l a=tm
s-2, by F= ffta,
F= tkE x 1m s-2
=1kgms-2
=1N
Forces
 Science Bites
orked Cxamplc 3.?
Curiosity an important A boy pushes a stationary box of mass 20 kg with a force of 50 N.
-
attitude of a scientist
Calculate the acceleration of the box. (Assume that there is no friction.)
Sir lsaac Newton can be
considered one of the
greatest physicists and Solution
mathematicians in historv. Given: mass m = 20 Rg
force F= 50 N
One day, while he was
roaming around his orchard, From Newton's Second Law,
he saw an apple fall to the F = tno, where a = acceleration of the box
ground. Curiosity had him
thinking about why it fell, ..4--
m
and he finally concluded
that the same force that _ 50N
caused the apple to fall kept 20 kg
the Moon in orbit around = 2.5 m s-2 in the direction of the applied force
the Earth. This force, which
he called the gravitational
force of attraction, also kept
the olanets in orbit around orked €xampl€ 3.3
the Sun. His research in
the field of light led to the
discovery of the reflecting
telescope, which gained him
entry into the Royal Society
of London.

ln honour of his
contributions to the field of
physics and mathematics,
the unit of force, the newton
(N), is named after him.

r lsaac Newton (1643-L727)

to motion of uniform
acceleration.

Chaptet 3
Newton's Third Law Quick Gheck
When you swim in a pool, do you sometimes push your feet against the wall
Describe the action-
to propel yourself forward (Figure 3.!4)? When you do this, you are applying
reaction relationship
Newton's Third Law of Motion.
between the egg and
Lr rE UBB UUp.

@ ffre boy's feet exert a

force Fr* on the pool wall
by pushing against it.

o They
Fr*and F*, occur as a pair.
are equal in magnitude,
@ fne wall exerts a reaction force but act in opposite directions.
F*, on the boy's feet. This Fr* acts on the wall, whereas
force propels the boy forward. F*, acts on the boy.

r, Figure 3.14 Newton's Third Law of Motion at work

Thus, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, and they act
on mutually opposite bodies.

Figure 3.15 shows some examp es o action pairs.

Force of man
on basketball

basketball
on man
Ground
pusnes
forwards
on skater Skater pushes
backwards on ground
r A baseball player strikes r A basketball player aims r, A skater speeds on
the baseball with his bat. the basketball at the net. her in-line skates.

r Figure 3.15 Some examples of action and reaction forces

book

f, is the gravitational force of Earth on book.

Fu, is the gravitational force of book on Earth.

F* is the contact force of table on book.

FBr is the contact force of book on table.

r Figure 3.16(a) Forces between r Figure 3.16(b) Forces between

book and Eafth book and table

Forces
 Weight is a force exerted by gravity on every object. In Figure 3.12, does the
force of the table on the book form an action-reaction pair with the weight
You wili learn more
of the book? We examine the forces acting on the book and the table with
about mass and
weight in Chapter 4.
the book (Figure 3.16).

The pair of action and reaction forces are:

o The gravitational force f, exerted by the Earth on the book, and the
upward force F* exerted by the book on the Earth, which are equal in
magnitude but act in opposite directions (Figure 3,16(a));
Let's Explore!
. the contact force Fru by the table on the book, and the contact force F*
by book on the table (Figure 3.16(b)).
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
Hence, the force of the table on the book does not form an action-reaction
found the answers to
pair with the weight of the book.
Let's Explore (b)?

Newton's Third Law of Motion tells us four characteristics of forces:

t. Forces always occur in pairs. Each pair is made up of
an action and a reaction.
2. Action and reaction are equal in magnitude.
3. Action and reaction aclin opposite directions.
4. Action and reaction act on mutually opposite bodies.

es and their relation to 2. Unbalanced forces and their relation to

NeMon's First Law of Motion: Newton's Second Law of Motion;

When forces are balanced When forces are unbalanced

Resultant rce is zero Resultant force is not zero

I
V
Acceleration=0ms-2 Acceleration*0ms-2
.f
8&
\
{\
Object at rest Object in motion Object at Object in motion
will remain at will remain rest will start will change its
rest in motion at moving velocity (i.e. speed
constant velocity and/or direction)

3. For an object of a constant mass, the product of its mass and acceleration gives the
resultant force that acts on the object, i.e. F = ma.
4. A resultant force of 1 N produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 on a mass of 1 kg.
5. Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Action and reaction forces act on mutually opposite bodies.

3.3
1. What can you deduce about the resultant force acting on an object that is
(a) moving at a constant speed in a straight line?
(b) accelerating?
2. An object is initially moving at a constant speed. After a while, it starts to accelerate. Use Newton's
laws of motion to explain this situation.
3. An unloaded van has an acceleration of 5 m s-2. A fully loaded van weighs twice as much as the
unloaded van. lf the forward thrust on both vans is the same, what is the acceleration of the fully
loaded van?
4. The AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, which the Singapore Air Force uses, has a mass of 86.5 kg.
lf the missile can accelerate from 300 m s-1 to 700 m s-1 in 6 s, what is the average resultant force
on the missile? (Assume that the loss in mass of the missile is negligible after it is launched.)

Chapter 3
3.4 Friction and lts Effects

How does friction affect motion?

Friction opposes motion between surfaces in contact. lt is the result of

irregularities of the surfaces (Figure 3.I7).

direction of
motion
Surface irregu larities
catch onto one another,
causing surfaces to
resist motion.

r Figure 3.17 Microscopic view of two surfaces in contact

For example, if a force is applied to move a book across a table towards

the right, friction will act towards the left. lf the applied force is removed,
friction will cause the book to slow down and come to a stop eventually.

How does ffiction affect us?

The effects of friction can be positive or negative. Table 3.2 lists some of
these effects. Can you think of other effects of friction?

v Table 3.2 Some positive and negative effects of friction

. We can walk without slipping. Cars are less efficient by up to r Friction between the
. Moving vehicles are able to slow 2Oo/o. brake pads and wheels
down when needed. Moving parts in engines, motors slows down a bicycle.
and machines suffer wear and tear.

How can negative e cts of friction be reduced?

eels
Can you imagine pushing a shopping trolley that does not have wheels?
We would need to exert a great deal of force to overcome the large friction
between the metal basket and the floor! Being circular in shape, wheels
greatly reduce the friction between the basket and the floor. A smaller force
can be applied to move the shopping trolley around.

Forces
 ball bearings
Il bea
Being spherical in shape, ball bearings are used to reduce friction
between moving parts of machines, cars and in-line skates (Figure
3.18). PIaced between moving parts, ball bearings roll around and
prevent moving parts from rubbing against each other. This reduces
the wear and tear to these oarts.

r Figure 3.18 In-line skates make use of ball bearings

to reduce friction between the wheels and axles.

Lub ants and polished surfaces

Applying a layer of lubricant, such as oil or grease, between surfaces
in contact can greatly reduce friction. Lubricants are frequently used
between the moving parts of an engine to reduce wear and tear. This
helps prolong the life of the engine, Polishing a surface removes surface
irregularities. This can also reduce friction between surfaces in contact.

Air cushion
Designed to move on a thin cushion of air, hovercrafts and magnetic
levitation (Maglev) trains can move faster because of reduced friction.

v A hovercraft floats above water

with the help of high-pressure air
ejected from its underside.

r A Maglev train floats above

the rail with the help of
electromagnetic repu lsion.
 How can positive effects of friction be enhanced?
ads
Friction is important to the motion of vehicles. Without friction, a vehicle
cannot move, as its tyres will just spin at the same spot. Friction enables
the tyres to grip the road surface and roll without slipping.

On a rainy day, a moving vehicle may skid on wet roads. lts tyres need to have
more grip on the road to prevent skidding. This is why tyres are designed with
treads grooves that quickly channel water out from underneath the tyres.
-
This improves the grip of the tyres on wet roads, thus preventing skidding.
r Treads on a car tyre
increase the amount
of friction between the
rachute tyre and the road, which
reduces the chance of
Air resistance is a type of friction in air. A skydiver in midair varies air skidding on rainy days.
resistance to change his speed. To speed up, he reduces air resistance by
adopting the head-first position. To slow down, he increases air resistance
by adopting a spread-eagle position. To achieve a safe landing, a skydiver
has to increase air resistance significantly. He does this by making use of
Recall what you learnt
the much larger surface area of an open parachute.
about the physics of
skydiving in Chapter 2.
alk
Rock climbers need to have a firm grip on the rock surface with their
hands and feet. They usually use chalk powder on their hands to absorb
perspiration and improve their grip.

chalk bag

r Rock climbers always carry a bag of chalk powder with them.

From what you have

Friction is the contact force that Can you lean against a wall
opposes or tends to oppose motion learnt so far, have you
without slipping if friction is
between surfaces in contact. found the answers to
absent? Explain your answer.
2. There are positive and negative 2. How can you reduce the effect of
Let's Explore (c)?
effects of friction. friction on the motion of a bodv?
Forces
 3.5 Free-Body Diagrams
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
identify the forces acting on a body and sketch a free-body diagram to
reoresent them.

Forces acting on a body and free-body diagrams

Throughout this chapter, we have been drawing simple block diagrams with
arrows to represent forces acting on individual objects. These diagrams are
cal led free-body diagtams.

When we solve problems about forces, we need to identify the forces acting
on individual objects. Drawing a free-body diagram of an object helps us
identify and visualise the forces and their effects on the object.

Figure 3.19 shows some examples of free-body diagrams. These examples

will give you an idea of how to identify forces when solving a problem.

$r*es en a !e sn tree r&n*:

r Weight Wof apple
. Tension force f by tree branch

or*es $r'! $alllej s lc

. Weight W of apple
o Air resistance R

rs s&n iv 9nfil t
o Wei9ht W of bird
. Lift L by wings
r Thrust f by wings
. Air resistance R

ilr€cs an a le at rest
. WeiEiht W of apple
. Normal reaction force F
by ground
 orked Cxample 3.4
A truck engine of mass 5000 kg pulls a trailer of mass 1000 kg along a level track
at an acceleration of 0.10 m s-2 (Figure 3.20). The resistances are 10 N per 1000 kg
for the truck engine and 5 N per 1000 kg for the trailer.

m = 1O0O kei
m = 5O0O kB

tow bar
e Figure 3.20

(a) Draw a free-body diagram of the engine and the trailer.

(b) Calculate the
(i) tension in the connectingtow bar between the engine and the trailer;
(ii) forward thrust exerted by the engine.
Solution
(a) acceleration a=0.10 m s-2 acceleration a = 0.10 m s-2
trailer truck engine

Figure 3.21 The free-body diagram of the trailer r, Figure 3.22The free-body diagram of the engine
^
(b) Let us assign the rightward direction as positive.
(i) Note: Examine all the forces acting on the trailer only. Referring to Figure
3.21, two forces are acting on the trailer
to the trailer. - tension f and the resistance R,
Forthe trailer, using F= rna, where Fis the resultant force on the trailer,
F= ffia
T - Rr= 1712

T= ft12* R,
=1000k9x0.10ms-2+5N
=105N
(ii) Note: Examine all the forces acting on the engine only. Referring to Figure
3.22,three forces are acting on the engine forward thrust F"exerted
by the engine, tension f, and the resistance-the
R.on the engine.

For the engine, using F= ma,

F"-T-R"=ff13
F.= tTtO + f + R
= 5000 kg x 0.10 m s-2 + 105 N + 5 x 10 N
=655N
 orked €xample 3.5
A box is dropped from a helicopter (Figure 3.23). The mass m of the box is 5.0 kg.
(a) Determine the resultant force on the box when
the total force opposing the motion of the box
helicopter
at a particular instant during its fall is 20 N. moving at
(b) Determine the resultant force acting on the constant
box when the box reaches terminal velocity. velocity
(c) Sketch a velocity-time graph to show the
motion of the box through air until it reaches
terminal velocity.
(d) Describe the motion of the box, in terms of the
forces involved.
(Takeg=10ms-2) r Figure 3,23

Solution
Let us assign the downward direction as positive.
(a) Given: mass m of the box = 5 kB
Let F= resultant force of the box at the instant when the total opposing force is 20 N.
Resultant force F= 50 N + (-20 N)
=30N
(b) When the box reaches terminal velocity, the acceleration becomes zero and the resultant force
is0N.
(c) Velocity/m s-1

Terminal velocity

Time/s

(d) . When the box is released from rest, the only initial force acting on the box is the weight of
the box. So, the box accelerates downwards at 10 m s-2.
a As the box falls, the air resistance it experiences increases. The resultant force is now less
thantheweightof the box. The boxstillaccelerates, butthe acceleration is lessthan 10 m s-2.
a Air resistance increases with the increase in velocity. Eventually, the air resistance balances
the weight of the box. The resultant force decreases to 0 N, and the box falls at terminal
velocity (i.e. zero acceleration).

Search the Internet for

Drawing a free-body diagram of an object helps us identify and visualise the
a simulation that shows
forces and their effects on the obiect.
how to draw free-body
diagrams for objects
undergoing different
types of motion. Use
keywords such as L. A force of 50 N is needed to keep a trolley of mass 60 kg moving at a
"construction of a
uniform velocity of 2 m s-1. What is the frictional force on the trolley?
free-body diagram". 2. A feather and a stone are released simultaneously from the same height.
Explain why the feather will hit the ground much later than the stone,
even though the acceleration of free fall is the same for both objects.

Chapter 3
 Newton's First Law of Motion Newton's Second Law of Motion Newton's Third Law of Motion
Every object will continue in its When a resultant force acts on an object of lf body A exerts a force Fou on
state of rest or uniform motion constant mass, the object will acceierate body B, then body B will exert
in a straight line unless a in the direction of the resultant force. an equal and opposite force
resultant force acts on it. Resultant force mass acceleration f,o on body A.
(N)

describes

resultantforce+0N

Balanced forces Unbalanced forces

Moving at a Accelerating Decelerating

constant velocity

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) , Wnen an object does not move, there is no force applied to it.

,,, Forces are produced bythe interaction

\-' , seoarated.:from each other.
tDt between two objects either in contact or

(c) the-combined effect of two forces on an object, we add the magnitude of the
Jo lil9 5,2
tnorvrdual Torces.

(d) The product of mass and acceleration is a force. i I 3.3

!31 ,_Y!?l ll"l"_ il: i_":::.T!:q "l r:!I":tr !!: _"?j::t

*1 3:::r::?_t:_: _ _ : li
?:1,
(f) r Newton's Third Law ensures equilibrium. I r 3.3
(g) i Friction opposes motion between surfaces in contac 3.4
(h) : A free-body diagram shows all the forces that act on a body. ?6

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions (b) Calculate the
L The figure below shows four forces acting on
(i) friction between the car on tow and
the road;
a block.
(ii) the forward tractive force of the tow
truck, given that the friction on the
tow truck is 750 N;
(iii) the resultant force acting on the
system of the tow truck and the car.
What is the resultant force?
A 5Ntotheleft 2. A car moves 4 km in an easterly direction and
B 6 N to the right then turns to move 3 km in a northerly direction.
C L1 N to the right By means of a graphical approach, find the
D No resultant force resultant displacement of the car.

2. In the figure below, object A and object B are

stacked one on top of the other. Given that Section G: Free-Response Questions
the masses of objects A and B are 3.0 kg
and 2.0 kg respectively, what is the horizontal 7.. Figure 3.24 shows cords supporting an object of
acceleration of object A when object B is pulled weight 100 N. Find the tensions T"and T,
by a horizontal force of 10 N? (Assume allthe
surfaces are frictionless.)

A Oms-2 B 2.0 m s-2

C 3.0 m s-2 D 5.0 m s-2 tFigwe3.24
3. A parachutist of weight 700 N falls at terminal 2. Figure 3.25 shows a light, smooth pulley with
velocity. Which combination gives the weight, air masses m, and m2 on opposite sides connected
resistance and resultant force acting on him? by a light, inextensible string hung over the pulley.
Find the acceleration a and the tension f in the
Weight
Air Resultant
string in terms of m7, m2, and the acceleration
resistance force due to gravity g.
A 700N ,700N
A downwards Tero
downwards LE
B o"l,?$)0, zero 700 N
downwards
.r 7O0 N 700 N
u downwards uowiros 7.
Lero

n 700N
- downwards 700N 700N
uowards downwards

Section B: Structured Questions

7,. A tow truck of mass 1500 kg is towing a small mtE
car of mass 1-000 kg. The horizontal force r Figure 3.25
exerted on the car by the truck is 1000 N, and
the system of the tow truck and the car has an
acceleration of 0.50 m s-2.
(a) Draw a free-body diagram of the
(i) tow truck; Worksheet 3
(ii) car.

Ghapter 3
 Recall what you have Which is heavier?
learnt about scalar and When we say an elephant weighs more than
vector quantities a cheetah, we are comparing the gravitational
in Chapter 2. forces acting on them. A weighing scale is
simply an instrument that allows us to measure
and compare the gravitational forces acting on
them. So, why do our weighing scales measure r The gravitational force acting on
in kilograms and not newtons? Are our common the elephant is larger than that acting
weighing scales wrong? You will find out later. on the cheetah.
Chapter 4
Tides
- evidence of the
Moon's gravitational force
There is a gravitational force of
attraction between Earth and the
Moon. We can see the effects of the
Moon's gravitational force on Earth
in the high and low tides of the seas.

a Low tide
Mass, Weight and Density
 How are mass and weight related?
The weight or gravitational force acting on an object is dependent on its
Characteristics of mass. The more mass an object has, the greater the gravitational force
gravitational force
Sir lsaac Newton, who
acting on it.
discovered gravity,
described gravitational We have learnt in Chaoter 3 that
force as having these fofce = maSS X acceleration
three characteristics:
1. All masses attract
one another with
\
this force. Weight is the gravitational Acceleration of free fall is
2. The larger the force acting on an object. constant (10 m s-2).
masses, the
stronger the force.
3. The smailer the We can see that, nearthe Earth, weight is directly proportional to the mass
distance between of an object, since the acceleration of the free-falling object is constant.
+L^ +L^
-^^^^^ We can write
e+rnndar iha fnrna

W - where liV= wei8ht (in N);

m = mass of the object (in kg);
g = gravitational field strength (in N kg{).

The acceleration of free fall (10 m s-2) is equal to the gravitational field
strength (10 N kg-l).

orked Cxample 4.1

A mobile phone has a mass of 75 g. Find its weight if g is 10 N kg-r

Solution
Mass of mobile phone = 75 g = 75 x 10-3 kg = 0.075 kg
Weight of mobile phone = mass of mobile phone x g
= 0.075 kg x 10 N kg-'= 0.75 N

What do common weighing instruments measure?

Common weighing instruments like the electronic balance (Figure 4.1),
spring balance and bathroom scale actually measure the weight of an object,
not its mass. These machines, however, are calibrated to give readings in
grams (g) or kilograms (kg).

ffiffi Using these instruments, an object will have different mass readings at
@@@@rsffi different gravitational field strengths. For example, if an astronaut steps on
a bathroom scale on the Moon, the reading will be lower than the reading
taken on Earth. This is because the gravitational field strength on the Moon
a Figure 4.1 The electronic (1.6 N kg{) is less than that on Earth (10 N kg-).
balance is a commonly used
laboratory instrument for
measuring mass. In actual This means that a weighing scale calibrated for use on Earth cannot be
fact, electronic balances used on the Moon. The weighing scale has to be calibrated to the Moon's
measure weight, but they are
calibrated to give readings gravitational field strength in order to give accurate mass measurements
for mass. on the Moon.

Chapter 4
 Earth
r The elephant 'loses' weight when it is on the Moon!

w rb mass measured?
To avoid having to calibrate weighing scales for different gravitational field
strengths, the mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance
(Figure 4.2).

A beam balance compares the gravitational force acting on an object with

that acting on standard masses. As both the object and the standard
masses experience the same gravitational field strength, the mass reading
taken for a given object, whether on Earth or on the Moon, will be the same.

vTable 4.1 Differences between mass and weight

. An amount of matter . A gravitational force

. A scalar quantity (i.e. has only . A vector quantity (i.e. has both
magnitude) magnitude and direction)
. Sl unit: kilogram (kg) . Sl unit: newton (N)

. Independent of the gravitational . Dependent on the gravitational

field strength field strength
. r Figure 4.2 A simple beam
Measured with a beam balance or a
calibrated electronic balance
. Measured with a spring balance balance used to measure mass

At a given place, the acceleration of free fall in m s-2 is equal to the You will learn more about how a
gravitational field strength in N kg-1. beam balance works in Chaoter 5.

Mass, weight and Density

 orkcd Cxample 4.?
The acceleration of free fall on the Moon is 1.6 m s-2. The acceleration
of free fall on Earth is 10 m s-2. A rock has a mass of 10 kg on Earth.
Calculate the weight of the rock on
(a) Earth;
(b) the Moon.
Solution
We know that
o the mass of the rock does not change whether on Earth or on the Moon;
. weiqht = mass x acceleration of free fall.
(a) 2
Therefore, the wei$ht of the rock on Earth = 10 kg x 10 m s = 100 N
(b) The weight of the rock on the Moon = 10 kg x 1.6 m s-2 = 16 N
(Note: lkgms-2=1N)

onked €xample 4.3

What happens to the (a) mass and (b) weight of a satellite as it is launched
from Earth into space?

Solution
(a) The mass of the satellite remains the same.
(The mass of an object does not change at different locations')
(b) Since the gravitational field strength is weaker in space than on Earth's
From what you have
surface, the weight of the satellite decreases as it moves from Earth
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
to soace.
Let's Explore (a)?

4.1
t. Mass is the amount of matter in a body. t. List four differences between mass and weight.
The Sl unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). 2. Why is the mass of a body not affected by
2. Weight is the force acting on an object changes in the physical environment, such
due to gravity. The Sl unit of weight is the as location?
newton (N). 3. The Moon has a gravitational field strength
3. The weight of a body is related to its mass one-sixth that of Earth's. lf a person has a
by the equation W = mE. mass of 60 kg on Earth, how much will he
4. Gravitational field strength g is the weigh on the Moon?
gravitational force acting per unit mass. 4. The gravitational field strength of Jupiter is
5. The gravitational field strength at a place in 22.9 N kg-1. An astronaut weighs 1200 N
N kg-1 is the same as the acceleration of on Earth. What will his weight on Jupiter be?
free fall in m s 2 exoerienced at the Assume the gravitational field strength of Earth
same otace. is 10 N kg-'.
6. The weight of an object varies according to 5. We have learnt that Earth's gravitational field
the strength of the gravitational field it is in. strength g (10 N kg-1) is the same as its
7. The mass of an object is a physical acceleration due to free fall, an (10 m s-2).
property of the object. lt does not change They are said to be dimensionblly the same
when there is a change in the gravitational even though their units are different. Prove that
field strength. N kg-1 is the same as m s-2.

Chapter 4
4.2 lnertia
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. define inertia. -

lmagine you are on a safari in Africa when a big elephant

suddenly comes charging at you. To escape the charging
elephant, should you run in a strai$ht line or in a zigzag
manner (Figure 4.3)?

The answer may seem obvious, but what is the reasoning

behind it? To explain it, we need to understand inertia and how
it is related to mass.
Figure 4.3 How would you
hat is inertia? ^
escape a charging elephant?

Mass is a measure of inertia. An object with a greater mass will have

greater inertia. In other words, the larger the mass of an object, the
harder it will be for the object to start moving, slow down, move faster or
change direction.

This explains why it is harder for an elephant to chase you in a zigzag

manner. In fact, if the elephant tries to do that, it will probably trip and fall!

Inertia also explains why people should wear seat belts. lf the driver
suddenly applies the brakes, he will continue to move forward due to his
inertia. Without a seat belt holding him back, he would crash into the
windscreen (Figure 4.4(a)). A seat belt provides the necessary opposing
From what you have
force that stops him (Figure 4.4(b)). learnt so far, have you
sudden stop found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)?

(a) Driver not wearing seat belt (b) Driver wearing seat belt
r Figure 4.4 Seat belts are designed to help prevent injury.

Try lt Out
You may have seen magicians pull a tablecloth from under a set of dishes without
causingthe dishes to fall. How do you explain this phenomenon? Use the Internet
to find out whether there are variations of this trick.

Mass, Weight and Density

v Table 4.2 Densities of
common substances 4.3 Density
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
-
. recall and apply the formula density- = #-to solve problems.
volumL

hat is density?
When we talk about density, we are talking about how much mass is
packed into a given space. The density of a substance is defined as its
mass oer unit volume.

In some cases, density can be used to identify substances. For example,

the density of pure gold is 19 300 kg rn-s. lf the density of a gold ring is not
1-9 300 kg m-t, then it is not made of pure gold
impurities in it. - it must have some
To calculate the density of a substance, we need to know its mass m and
its volume V. Density p (Greek letter'rho', pronounced 'row') is given by

P - where P= density;
/7? = mass of the object;

Y = volume of the obiect.

The Sl unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg m+).

lf mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and volume in cubic metres (m3),

the unit of density would be the Sl unit. However, if mass is measured in
grams (g) and volume in cubic centimetres (cm.), the unit of density would
be gram per cubic centimetre (g cm-t).

As most objects we handle daily have relatively small masses and volumes,
Take Note
the unit g cm-t is more commonly used. The densities of some common
To convert density substances are shown inTable 4.2.
values from g cm-3to
kg m-t, we simply
Substances that float on water have lower densities than water. Substances
multiply them by 1000.
that sink in water have higher densities than water.

turpentine WAICT mercury

p = 870 kg m-3 p = 1000 kg m-3 p= !3 600 kg m-3
r lce cubes placed in three different liquids. The density of the
liquid determines whether the ice cube floats or sinks.
Chapter 4
Why does a heavy steel ship float?
A small iron ball sinks in water, but a large and heavy ship (Figure 4.5)
floats! Why?

A large ship is an object that is made up of more than one material. In

addition to steel, it contains alarge volume of air in the various rooms and
cabins. Therefore, we will have to considerthe average density of the ship.
The average density of an object is calculated by dividing its total mass by
its total volume.

For example, a ship of mass 7,68 x IO, kg is 268 m long, 32 m wide and
13 storeys (or 25 m) high. What is the average density of the ship?

Assuming a cuboidal shape,

the volume of the ship = 268m x 32 m x 25 m = 2t4 400 m3;
the mass of the ship = 7.68 x tO? kg.

Therefore, the average density of the ship: v Figure 4.5 Why does a
large and heavy ship float,
t:u.9 while an iron ball sinks?
Average density = +g!l = 214 110'
volume 4OO m:1g
= 358 kg 6-e
The average density of the ship is actually less than the density
of seawater, which is about tO25 kg m-3. Therefore, the
ship is able to float!

i*stivs
To determine the density of a liquid

nrnt$c
Burette, beaker, electronic balance, retort stand
bu rette

v*s& il:'*
7. Find the mass m1 of a dry, clean beaker.
2. Run a volume Vof liquid from the burette into
the beaker (Figure 4.6).
3. Find the mass m2 of the beaker and the liquid.

r L!tr*l1
When reading the volume of the liquid, make sure that your
eyes are level with the base of the meniscus of the liquid.

Iri;! 1j rr
lf the masses are measured in g, and the volume in cm3,
then the density p of the liquid is
m -m
'# rf1 -rrl
O=
'V"V E cm-3 = "'2 ...."'r x 1OO0 kg m-3 r, Figure 4.6

Mass, Weight and Density

Investigation 4.A
Objective
To determine the density of regular objects (Figure 4.7)

Apparatus
Vernier calipers, metre rule, electronic balance

Frocedure
L Find the mass m using the electronic balance.
2. Determine the volume V by taking appropriate measurements
and then calculating the volume using the following formulae:
(a) Cuboid
. measure the length /, breadth b and height h
V=lxbxh
(b) Cylinder
. measure the diameter d and length /
v=\ftlxr
lnd2\

(c) Sphere
. measure the diameter d
spnere
v=
+"er t Figlwe 4.7
Precaution
Check the instruments used for zero error, and avoid parallax
error when taking readings. Practical Book Link
Calculation
How are the densities
lf the mass is in g and the volume in cm3, then
of regular and irregular
density =ffecm-3- kg6-a. solids determined?
ffxrcOO

orked €xample 4.4

An experiment was carried out to measure the density of air. A thick-walled bottle fitted with
a tap, as shown in Figure 4.8, was used. The readings obtained were recorded in Table 4.3.
v Table 4.3

Bottle containing air 4LO

Evacuated bottle 409

bottle
Bottle with water

What is the
(a) mass of water needed to fill the bottle;
(b) volume of the bottle;
(c) mass of air needed to fill the bottle;
(d) density of air?
Take the density of water to be 1 g cm-3.

Chapter 4
Solution
Note: Volume of air in bottle = volume of water needed
to fill the bottle
(a) Mass of water needed to fill the bottle
= 115O g- 4O9 E= 741 E

(b) Volume of the bottle

= volUme of water needed to fill the bottle
mass of -water
= density = .741 E, = 74! cm3
of water 1 g crn-'

(c) Mass of air used to fill the bottle = 4IO g- 4Og E= t g

(d) h_.-_:r.. -,.-= mass of air _ tg

_t air
- -"
- -"-'-J of
Density _
=4 oE ..
1.35 4t\_3 g
x 10-3 R cm-'
^^_?
volume of air 747 cm3

onked €xample 4.5

I
A cube of side 2.0 cm has a density of 6.0 cm-s. A hole of volume
1.0 cm3 is drilled into the cube. The hole is filled up with a certain
material of density 5.0 g cm-3. What is the density of this composite
cube in (a) g cm-3; (b) kg m-3?

Solution
(a) Mass of 1.0 cm3 of.the material of density 5.0 g cm-3
= 5.0 g cm-3 x 1.O cm3 = 5.0 g

Volume of cube after a hole of 1.0 cm3 is drilled

= (2.O x 2.O x 2.0) cm3 - 1.0 cm3 = 7.0 cm3

Mass of cube after a hole of 1.0 cm3 is drilled

= 6.0 g cm-3 x 7.0 cm3 = 42.O g

.'. Density of composite cube

mass
= volume ofofcomposite cube
composite cube
_ (42.O + 5.0) g
(7.0 + 1.0) cm3
= 5.9 €l cm-3

(b) To convertto kg m-3, recall that

1 kg = 1000 g (or 1 g = 10-3 kB)
Sincelm =100cm,
1 m3 = (100)3 cm3 106 cm3 (or 1cm3 = 10-6 m3).
=
Therefore,
1g cm3 =
**t = ## = looo ks m-..

Thus, 5.9 g cm-t = 5.9 x 103 kg m-3.

 1,. The inertia of an object is the object's reluctance to change its
From what you have state of rest or motion, due to its mass.
learnt so far, have you 2. Mass is a measure of inertia. The larger the mass of an object,
found the answers to the greater its inertia.
Let's Explore (c)? 3. The density of an object is defined as its mass per unit volume.
The Sl unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).
(Note: 1OO0 kg rn-s = 1 g cm-3)
4. Objects that are less dense than water will float on water.
Objects that are denser than water will sink in water.
5. The density of an object can be determined using the formula
mass
OenSlw =
' volume

-.
4.? E, 43
L. Two groups of people get into two identical cars. One group consists
of five sumo wrestlers, while the other group consists of five marathon
runners. Assuming both drivers step on the accelerator such that the
driving force for both cars is equal, state and explain which car
(a) takes off faster from resU
(b) will need a longer braking distance, once in motion.
2. Given that the density of water is 1OO0 kg m-t, what is the mass of
1 cm3 of water in grams?
3. (a) What is densitlQ
(b) How would you measure the density of an irregularly shaped
object that
(i) sinks in water?
(ii) floats in water?

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) Weightlessness means no gravity is present. 4.1,

l
(f) objects.
I ffre gravitational force is the same for all falling 1 : 4.7
I
(c) I The gravitational force acts on one mass at a time. 4.7

t,
(e) j Mass is a vector quantity, whereas weight is a scalar quantity. ; +.t
,r, Inertia is the reluctance of an object to change
.', : tts -- state of rest or motion, due to :
- o- its j
4.2
maSS.
its rllass. i
'-*'*--***- *i****-*i--
l

,o, lf': a
rE' :i the
{dt " block
:'-'':"'
of metal 's half
partI is
'l'"'"' is broken into two equal parts, the density of each vq' "q" ;1 i| Aa
4.3
density of the original metal block.
,:
Answers are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 4
 defined as

t5d
is related to measure of

The gravitational defined as defined as

force acting on
an object

by the by the
equation equation

W=mxE n-ffi
r- v

I
Gravitational field strength g , Gravitational field is a region in
is the gravitational force .--------> which a mass experiences a force
acting per unit mass. due to gravitational attraction.

Take the gravitational field strength to be 70 N k{t, unless otherwise stated.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 3. The mass of a measuring cylinder is 60.0 g. When

30 cm3 of olive oil is poured into it, the total mass
1-. Which of these statements is correct?
is 87.6 g. The density of olive oil in g cm-3 is
A The mass of an object can be measured
A 0.34
with a spring balance.
B The weight of an object can be measured B O.92
with a beam balance.
c 1.09
C The mass of an object does not change D 2.OO

with location.
4. A measuring cylinder contains 20 cm3 of water.
D The weight of an object can never change. When ten identical steel balls are immersed in the
water, the water level rises to 50 cm3. lf one ball
2. A rock on the Moon has a mass of 0.5 kg. lt is
has a mass of 27 g, what is the density of the steel
brought to Earth, where the gravitational field is
in g cm-3?
stronger. On Earth, the rock will have
A less mass and less weight
A 0.9
B less mass and the same weight
B 8.1
C the same mass and the same weight
c 9.0
D the same mass and more weight
D 1_3.5

Mass, Weight and Density

Section B: Structured Questions *5. Figure 4.9 shows a rectangular solid block of
dimensions 20 cm by 10 cm by 15 cm. lt has a
L. (a) Define the term density and state
cvlindrical hole bored at its centre.
its Sl unit.
(b) When solid A of mass 12 gis completely
immersed in a measuring cylinder filled
," a/
with water. it disolaces the same volume

a\
of water as does solid B of mass 8 g. What
15 cm
can be deduced about the densities of
solids A and B?

2. fable 4.4 shows the densities of several \__/

substances. 10 cm
v Table-4.4 20 cm
r, Figure 4.9

The mass of the block is 14.9 kg, and it is made

of a material that has a density of 5 g cm-3. What
is the cross-sectional area of the hole in cm2?

Platinum I 21.5 Section C: Free-Response Question

(a) Determine the volume occupied by 10.0 g 1-. (a) Explain the following observations:
of gold. (i) The mass of a piece of rock,
(b) (i) Determine the mass of a thin wafer measured using a beam balance, is
of platinum that measures 2.5 cm by the same on Earth and on the Moon.
1.0 cm by 0.2 cm. (ii) The weight of the same piece of rock,
(ii) The mass of another thin wafer of the measured using a spring balance, is
same dimensions is 4.45 g. Which different on Earth and on the Moon.
material could this wafer be made of? (b) Define the terms mass and inertia. How are
they related?
3. Taking the density of water to be 1000 kg m t, (c) A student was standing in the middle
answer the following questions: section of a travelling bus when the bus
(a) A boy made a model ship with a mass of driver suddenly jammed on the brakes. As
7.7k9 and a volume of 900 cm3. Will it float the bus came to a stop, a wooden box hit
on water? the student's legs. He claimed that the box
(b) The SAF operates the M113 Ultra APC. came from the front section of the bus. ls
This armoured vehicle has a mass of his claim true? Explain your answer.
7.II5 x 10o kg when loaded, but yet it is
able to floatl What can vou deduce about
its volume?

4. A breakfast cereal packet carries the label " Ihls

package is sold by weight, not volume. Some
settling of the contents may have occurred during
transport." lf settling occurs, what changes, if
any, will occur to the
(a) mass of the contents;
(b) weight of the contents;
(c) volume of the contents;
(d) density of the contents?

Chapter 4
How do you think a tightrope walker is able to walk the entire length of rope without
falling? How does he maintain his balance, and how does carrying a long pole help?
There is some interesting physics behind tightrope walking, which you will discover in
this chaoter.
 5.1 Moments
Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- You
. state that the moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of a force;
. relate the moment of a force to everyday examples;
o state the formula moment of a force (or torque) = force x perpendicular distance
from the pivot, and use it to solve associated problems.

Why does the boy require more effort to pull the doorknob when it is nearer
to the hinge (Figure 5.1)? To answer this, we need to study the turning
effect of a force.

Figure 5.2 shows the free-body diagrams of the door for the two situations
shown in Figure 5.1. When the boy pulls (i.e. applies a force to)the doorknob,
the door turns at the hinge. The hinge is a fixed point called the pivot,
represented by a small triangle.

ooor

hi
force A

(a) A small pull (i.e. force A) is applied on the doorknob that is

far from the hinge (i.e. pivot).

door
Figure 5.1 The force needed
^ pull a door open depends on
to
where it is applied.

force B

Recall what you have (b) A large pull (i.e. force B) is applied on the doorknob that
learnt about free-body is near the hinge (i.e. pivot).
diagrams in Chapter 3. r Figure 5.2 Free-body diagrams of a door being pulled open

Two factors determine the turning effect of the pull on the door:
. The magnitude of the pull on the door (i.e. force applied)
. The perpendicular distance of the pull from the hinge (i.e. pivot)
line of
action of F By finding the magnitude of the force applied and its perpendicular distance
I from the pivot, we can measure the turning effect of a force (i.e. moment of
a force) (Figure 5.3).

r Figure 5.3

Chapter 5
In symbols,

Moment of a force = Fxd where F= force (in N);

4 = perpendicular distance
from the pivot (in m).
The Sl unit of the moment of a force is the newton metre (N m).
The moment of a force is a vector quantity.
To describe the moment of a force, we need to state its
. magnitude, which has an Sl unit of N m;
. direction, which can be either clockwise or anticlockwise (Figure 5.4).

clockwise
moment about
the pivot

r Figlure 5.4 The moment of a force can be clockwise or anticlockwise. r

What happens when there is more than one force acting at different
points of an object? Will the forces cause the object to rotate clockwise or
anticlockwise? We will learn how to determine the moment in such situations
in Section 5.2.

orked Cxample 5.1

A student conducts an experiment on the turning 50 cm 40 cm 15cm Ocm

effect of a force, as shown in Figure 5.5. mark mark mark mark
(a) lf the weight W is placed at the 15 cm mark as
shown, determine its moment about the 40 cm
mark, where the half-metre rule is held. half-metre rule of
(b) The weight is then shifted to the 5 cm mark. As a negligible mass
result, the student feels that it is more difficult to weight W= 5 N
maintain the half-metre rule in a horizontal position
compared to (a). Why?
r Figure 5.5

Solution
(a) At the 15 cm mark, d=25cm
perpendicular distance d = 40 cm - 15 cm
=25cm=0.25m
Moment of Waboutthe pivot (i.e. thumb) = Wx d= 5 N x 0.25 m
=1.25 N m (clockwise)
(b) At the 5 cm mark, perpendicular distance d = 40 cm - 5 cm
35 cm = 0.35 m

Moment of Wabout the oivot = W x d= 5 N x 0.35 m

=t.75Nm(clockwise)
The moment of the weight at the 5 cm mark about the pivot is greater than that at the 15 cm
mark. This means that the turning effect at the 5 cm mark is felt more strongly.

Turning Effect of Forces

 From what you have
learnt so far, have you
t. A force applied to a body can cause a turning effect about a
fixed point called the pivot.
found the answers to 2. Moment of a force (torque) = force Fx perpendicular
lot'e trvnlnro iia\?
distance dfrom the oivot to line of action of the force. lt is a
measure of the turning effect of a force.
3. The Sl unit of the moment of a force is the newton metre (N m).
4. The moment of a force is a vector quantity. lt has two possible
Figure 5.6 shows the application directions: clockwise or anticlockwise.
of two equal forces on two lever
arms. Which force produces
a greater moment? 5.1
force
L. State two common real-life examples of the turning effect of
a force.
2. Why is it easier to open the lid of a container with a spoon
than with a coin?
force

5.2 Principle of Moments

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
r Figure 5.6 o -
state the Principle of Moments for a body in equilibrium;
o use the Principle of Moments to solve associated problems.

How does a beam balance measure mass?

We have learnt that a beam balance can be used to measure the mass of
Recall what you have an object. The beam is able to stay horizontal when the masses on each
learnt about the beam
side of the oivot are the same.
balance in Chapter 4.

weight of _ ..o
weight of an apple = mg -"b
stanoard masses

r Figure 5.7 A simple diagram showing the

forces acting on an equal-arm beam balance

For the equal-arm beam balance, the distance d between

each pan and the pivot is the same. We will let the
unknown mass of the apple be m kg. We want to find
the total number of standard masses needed to balance
the beam.

lf three standard masses, each of s kg, are required to

balance the apple, we can conclude that the mass m of
r A lady leans over a window ledge to put wet
the apple is 3s kg when the beam is horizontal.
 hat is the Principle of Moments?
lf the beam in Figure 5.7 is balanced (i.e. in equilibrium), what can we
say
about the clockwise and anticlockwise moments of the beam?

Hence, from the Principle of Moments, the clockwise moment of the

beam
must be equal to the anticlockwise moment.
Visit http://www.walter-
we can use the Principle of Moments to calculate the unknown mass of fendt.delph14ellever. htm
the
apple (Figure 5.7). to try out an applet on the
Principle of Moments.
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about the pivot,

weight _ perpendicular distance weight of perpendicular distance

of apple ^ from appre to pivot = standard x from masses to pivot
MASSES

mgd = 3sgd
m=3s
Thus, when the equar-arm beam is baranced, the mass m of the
appre is
equal to the total mass of three standard masses.

Vedfy the Principle of Moments using a compact disc (GD)

and two pairs of button magnets.
1. Draw a grid scale on a CD.
2. Place a pair of attracting button magnets on the two
surfaces of the CD, such that one magnet attracts
the other. magnet moved
3. Place the other pair of attracting magnets the same vertically
way as the first, equidistant from the centre of the CD. downwards
4. Insert a pen into the hole at the centre of the CD.
Allow the CD to balance on the pen.
5. Move one pair of magnets vertically downwards.
6. Does the CD remain balanced? Explain your answer.

pen
(i.e. p vot)

How do we verify the principle of Moments?

Turning Effect of Forces

 Link Conditions for equilibrium
We have learnt that for a stationary object, the forces acting on it are balanced
Recall what you have (i.e. the resultant force is zero). Similarly, we have just learnt from the
learnt about balanced
Principle of Moments that when an object does not rotate, the clockwise and
forces in Chapter 3.
anticlockwise moments acting on it are balanced (i.e. the resultant moment is
zero). Thus, an object in equilibrium must satisfy the following two conditions:
L The resultant force on the object is zero.
2. The resultant moment on the object is zero.

When we solve problems involving objects in equilibrium, always ensure that the
two conditions above are satisfied.

ork€d €xampl€ 5.e

A uniform metre rule balances horizontally about a pivot at its midpoint when a weight of 10.0 N is
suspended from the 20 cm mark and another weight of 8.0 N is suspended from the position R, as
shown in Figure 5.8.
Ocm 20cm 1OO cm

10.0 N
r, Figure 5.8 8.0 N

Find
(a) the moment of the 10.0 N weight about the pivot;
(b) the position R where the 8.0 N weight is to be hung such that the rule remains horizontal.

Solution
(a) At the 20 cm mark, perpendicular distance dr = 50 cm - 20 cm
=30cm
= 0.30 m
Moment of 10.0 N about the oivot = 10.0 N x 0.30 m
= 3.0 N m (anticlockwise)
(b) Note: To balance the rule, the 8.0 N weight must be placed on the opposite side of the pivot as
the 10.0 N weight to provide a clockwise moment.
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about the pivot,
sum of clockwise moments sum of anticlockwise moments caused
pivot
caused by 8.0 N about the by 10.0 N about the same pivot
8'0Nx dz=tO'O Nx0.30m
,J ^
d.=;m
'6
= 0.375 m
The position R of the 8.0 N weight is 0.375 m after the 50 cm mark
= 0.5 m + 0.375 m
= 0.875 m

Chapter 5
 onked €xample 5.3
Figure 5.9 shows a hand winch. The hand winch is used to move
a load of 3000 N. What is the minimum force required to turn the drum?

axis of drum

(not drawn to scale)

r Figlure 5.9

Solution
We draw a diagram to help us understand the problem. The
load L causes the hand winch to rotate clockwise about the axis
of the drum (i.e. the pivot), while the force F causes the hand
winch to rotate anticlockwise about the same axis. The minimum
force Foccurs when the clockwise moment caused by L is equal to
the anticlockwise moment caused by F.
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about the axis of
the drum, load L
= 3000 N
sum of clockwise sum of anticlockwise
the = moments caused by the
moments caused by
pivot force Fabout the same pivot
load L about the

perpendicular distance perpendicular distance

load L x = force py
trom axis of drum from axis of drum
3000Nx0.1 m=Fx2m
F= 150 N

Therefore, the minimum force required is 150 N.

orked €xample 5.4

Figure 5.10 shows a man of weight 1000 N standing on
a uniform board AB of length 4 m and weight 500 N. The
board is suspended from two ropes tied to its two ends.
I, and Trare the tensions in the ropes. To maintain the
board in the horizontal position, the man needs to be
a distance x away from end A.
(a) Determine the maximum and minimum values of
the tensions I, and T, for values of x in the range r Figure 5.10
0m< x<4m.
(b) For what value of x will T"

Turning Effect of Forces

Solution
(a) To maintain the board in the horizontal position, the resultant (b) Given I, = 900 N,
moment should be zero. From equation (*) in (a),
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about A, (rr-250) Nm
X=
sum of anticlockwise sum of clockwise 250 N
moments about A moments about A _ (900- 250) N m
250 N
moment of Tr+ _ moment of weight of man +
moment of 11 moment of weight of board
650Nm
250 N
(I,X4 m) + (I,)(0 m) = (1000 N)(x)+ (500 NX2 m) =2.6m
(4Tr- (500 x 2)) N m (I,-250) N m
X= I, is 9OO N for x = 2.6 m.
1000 N 250 N
(T2- 25O) Nm
Since O m < x < 4 m, then 0 m < <4m
250 N
+0N.(Tr- 250) N<1000N
+25ON<7^<1250N

Since the range of x is the full length of the board,

by symmetry,25O N . I, < 1250 N.

orked Cxampl€ 5.5

Figure 5.11 shows a man of weight 600 N walking on a uniform plank of length 20 m and weight 250 N.
The plank is resting symmetrically on two supports, P and Q. The distance between P and Q is 10 m,
At any particular instant, the man is at a distance xfrom Q.
(a) lf upward forces exerted at P and Q are F, and Fo <- walkins direction
respectively, find the two equations expressing Fp and Fa
as functions of .r.
(b) Draw a diagram showing the position of the man when the
plank just loses contact with support Q.
(i) What is the distance the man needs to walk from Q?
(ii) Calculate the magnitude of the upward force Fr.
Solution r Figure 5.11
(a) Sketch a diagram as shown.

. Make sure the

units for forces
and distances are
consistent.
. In Worked Example
5.5, we could also
Taking moments about Q, take moments about
sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments P, instead of Q, to find
Fo. Check whether
250x5+600x=Fpx10 you can find the same
.'. f = 60x+ !25-- ---(1) equation for Fo.

Chapter 5
 Since the plank is also in equilibrium,
sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces
Fo+ Fr= 600 + 25O - - - - - (2)
Substituting (1-) into (2),
.'. Fo = 850 - F, = SsO - (60x + I25) = -6ox +

(b) For the olank to lose contact with

support Q, the man must walk
=0N
beyond P. When the plank leaves Q,
Fo=ON'

Modify the diagram sketched earlier.

(i) Substituting Fo = O N into (3),

0=-60x+725
6Ox = 725
x= 121-m (ii) Substituting Fq = O into
.'. He needs to walk 12.L m from 0. F^=850N

1-. The Principle of Moments states that when a body is in equilibrium,

the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of From what you have
anticlockwise moments about the same oivot. learnt so far, have you
2. The following steps will help you apply the Principle of Moments to found the answers to
solve oroblems: Let's Explore (b)?
(a) Draw a simple model to help you visualise the problem.
(b) ldentify the pivot.
(c) ldentify all the forces, including their directions and
perpendicular distances from the pivot.
(d) lf the system is in equilibrium, apply the Principle of Moments.

L. State the Principle of Moments. Discuss how this principle may be used
to balance a see-saw by two persons of different weights.
2. Ali and his father sit at the ends of a see-saw, 2 m lrom the pivot, as
shown in Figure 5.12. Where should Ali's mother sit in order to balance
the see-saw?
Father
Ati Mother 700 N
400 N 600 N

o
l-l

2m
r Figure 5.12

Turning Effect of Forces

 5.3 Centre of Gravity
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
explain what is meant by lhe centre of gravity of a body

Why does a uniform metre rule balance only at the

50 cm mark?
The weight of an object acts downward towards the ground. When the object
is pivoted near its edge, its weight causes a turning effect about the pivot.
However, if you place the pivot at a particular position, its weight has no
turning effect. Where is this position?

Think about the two ouantities that determine the moment of a force
-
force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the
force. Under what conditions will the moment of a force be zero? Let us
consider a uniform metre rule.

))
fr-

< Figure 5.13 At which point can you

balance the ruler on the tip of your finger?

When the pivot is at the 50 cm mark, the rule

balances (i.e. the moment of W about the pivot is
zero). This is because the perpendicular distance
between the oivot and the line of action of the
weight W is zero (Figure 5.14(a)).

r Figure 5.14(a) Balanced oosition of the metre rule

When the uniform metre rule is not oivoted at the

50 cm mark, its weight Wwill cause a turning effect
(Figure 5.14(b)). The moment of the weight of the
ruler W about the pivot is not zero. This causes
the ruler to turn.

r Figure 5.14(b) The rule is unbalanced when it is not pivoted at its centre

hat is the centre of gravity?

lf the metre rule is uniform, the entire weight of the ruler can be considered
to be acting through a point at the 50 cm mark. We call this point the centre
of gravity of the rule.

Chapter 5
How to find the centre of gravlty
For an object of regular shape and uniform density, the centre of gravity
is at its geometrical centre. Examples of regular shapes are rectangles,
triangles, circles, cuboids, spheres and rings. The centre of gravity of an
object may also lie outside the object (e.9. the centre of gravity of a ring)
(Figure 5.15).

t\
l1
)<
l' *a-
aa
t'- rI='-
\
t

r Figure 5.15 The blue dots represent the centres of gravity of regular-shaped objects

For a plane lamina (i.e. sheet object) of irregular shape and/or non-uniform
density, we can conduct Investigation 5.1to find its centre of gravity.

8m €st, t' m "l

cetive
To find the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane lamina

pparatus
Retort stand, plumb line, pendulum bob, split-cork, pin,
irregularly shaped lamina

r0ce ure
1. Make three small holes near the edge of the lamina. The holes
should be as far apart as possible from one another.
An example is given for reference (Figures 5.16(a)).

retort stand
irregularly shaped
lamina

plumb line

pendulum bob . When locating the

centre of gravity of a
lamina by the plumb
r Fiture 5.16(a) r Figure 5.16(b) line method, two
lines are sufficient;
the third line serves
as a check.
2. Suspend the lamina freely from a pin. . The centre of gravity
5. Hang a plumb line from the pin in front of the lamina. is usually located
4. When the plumb line is steady, trace the line on the lamina. near the region that
5, Repeat steps 2 Io 4 for the other two holes. has more mass.

Turning Effect of Forces

 Precautions
1. The holes must be small so that nottoo much of the lamina is removed.
2. fhe lamina should be free to swing about its point of suspension.
Conclusion
The ooint of intersection of the three is the oosition of the centre
of gravity.

When we solve problems involving forces and objects, we have to note the
positions of the centre of fravity, the pivot, as well as the forces applied.
Unless the weight of an object is very small and can be ignored, or the pivot
is vertically aligned with the centre of gravity, the moment of the wei$ht of the
object, acting through the centre of gravity, must be included in calculations.

5.4 Stability
Learning Outcome shOuld be able to:
- Youbetween
. describe the relationship the position of the centre of gravity of an object
and its stability.

Let us consider a book. lt has six faces two broad and four narrow faces.
-
Suppose we make it stand upright on one of its narrow faces. lf we give it a
slight push, the bookwilltopple (Figure 5.L7). Hence, the book is unstable.

r Figure 5.17 A book standing on one of its narrow surfaces is unstable. r Figure 5.18 A book lying flat on its
broad surface is stable.

However, if we lay the book flat on one of the broad faces and give it a
slight push, the book will not topple but it will stay in its original position
(Figure 5.18). lt is considered to be stable.

Chapter 5
 pes of equilibrium
We can use a paper cone to show how stability is related to the centre of
gravity and the moment of a force. In Table 5.1, we try to balance a paper
cone in three ways. The two forces acting on the cone are its weight W and
the contact force R.

v Table 5.1 Types of equilibrium

Before being After being Before being After being Before being After being
tilted tilted tilted tilted displaced disPlaced

lf the cone is slightly tilted, lf the cone is slightly tilted, lf the cone is slightly displaced,
r its centre of gravity rises before o its centre of gtavity drops; . its centre of glavity remains
returning to its original height; . the line of action through its at the same height;
. the line of action through its weight W lies outside its base; . the lines of action through its
weight t/ystill lies within its base; . the moment of its weight weight Wand contact force
o the moment of its weight about about the contact point C R coincide;
the contact ooint G causes the causes the cone Io topple. o the moment of its weight
cone to return to its original about the contact ooint C is
position. zeroi il stays in the position to
which it is displaced.

From the above discussion, we can conclude that to increase the stability
of an object,
o ils centre of gravity should be kept as low as possible (i.e. more mass
packed at its bottom);
. its base area should be keot as wide as oossible.
By ensuring that the object fulfills the two conditions above, the line of
action through the centre of gravity of the object will lie within its base, v Figure 5.19 A racing car in
unless the object is tilted by a large angle. Singapore's Formula 1 race
has a broader base and lower
centre of gravity compared to
The two conditions for increased stability also explain why most vehicles on the road.
a more passengers are allowed on the lower deck of a double-decker bus;
a racing cars (Figure 5.19), Bunsen burners, table lamps and standing fans
are designed with large bases and low centres of gravity.
 orked Cxample 5.6
Figure 5.20 shows the rest position and the displaced position of a weighted toy, lts centre
of gravity is indicated by the letter G. Explain briefly why the toy eventually returns to its rest
position after being released from its displaced position.

r Figure 5.20

5olution
The centre of gravity is the point through which the weight of
an object acts. When the toy is at rest, its centre of gravity G is
directly below the pivot (i.e. its beak).

When the toy is displaced (Figure 5.20(b)), G is displaced

upwards and to the right, as shown. lts weight now has a turning
effect about the pivot. The moment of the weight about the pivot
causes the toy to rotate clockwise towards its rest position.

orked Cxample 57
Figure 5.21 shows a boy on a rocking horse. The boy
can stay balanced, or rock himself back and forth
by moving his arm. Explain how he is able to do so.

5olution
Before moving his arm, the weight of the boy (acting
through his centre of gravity) passes through the
point of contact between the rocking horse and the
(a) Boy stays balanced (b) Boy rocking
ground. Therefore, there is zero moment, which
explains why he stays at rest. r Figure 5.21

However, when the boy moves his arm towards his

head, the centre of gravity shifts backwards. His
weight, which acts through this new centre of gravity,
creates an anticlockwise moment about the point of
contact between the rocking horse and the ground.
Hence, he rocks backwards.

When the boy moves his arm forwards, his centre

of gravity shifts forwards, producing a clockwise
moment about the point of contact. This causes the Before the boy After the boy
boy to rock forwards. moves his arm moves his arm

Chapter 5
 gravity of a body is defined as the point through which its From what you have
entire weight appears to act. learnt so far, have you
2. Stability is a measure of the ability of an object to return to its original found the answers to
position after being displaced. Let's Explore (c)?
3. An object can be in
r stable equilibrium (i.e. if it returns to its original position when slightly
displaced);
. unstable equilibrium (i.e. if it topples when slightly displaced);
. neutral equilibrium (i.e. if it stays in the position to which it is
displaced).
4. An object can be made more stable if
. its centre of gravity can be made lower;
r its base area can be made larger.

t. ls the centre of gravity of an object the same whether it is near the

surface of the Earth or the Moon?
2. Flat-dwellers in Singapore usually hang their laundry out to dry on
bamboo poles. These bamboo poles have to be lifted out of the window
and stuck into specially built, short, hollow pipes. With wet laundry on
it, a lot of effort may be needed to lift the pole up at one end. What
advice can you give to reduce the required effort? (Hint: Some factors
to consider are the turning effects of the weight of the pole and the wet
laundry, and the distribution of wet laundry on the pole.)
3. ls it wise to place heavy loads onto the roof rack of an empty minibus?
Explain your answer.
4. What are the features we need to consider in designing a stable
table lamo?

> A surfer surfing on the ocean waves needs to

balance himself. By bending his knees, he lowers
his Centre of gravity. By spreading his legs, he has
a larger base area. Would you be able to balance
yourself on a surfboard?
 What is the physics behind tightrope walking?
Remember the tightrope walker we talked about at the
start of the chaoter? For him to maintain his balance and
not fall off the rope, he needs to position his centre of
gravity directly above the rope. lf not, the moment of his
weight about the contact point will cause him to fall off.

Carrying a long pole helps lower the centre of gravity

of the tightrope walker and make him less likely to fall.
To increase his stability further, the tightrope walker can
use a long drooping pole with weighted ends. This allows
the centre of gravity of the tightrope walker to be lowered r Carrying a long pole with weighted ends lowers
below the rope. the centre of gravity of a tightrope walker.

also known as

which can be

Clockwise Anticlockwise

for a body in equilibrium

Y
Principle of Moments
sum of clockwise sum of anticlockwise moments
moments about a pivot about the same pivot

*"0 ."
J'"
Stability of an object

is affected by its

Centre of gravity Base area

Chapter 5
A balancing trick
Search the Internet for a video on the trick of balancing nails. Use search words such as "experiment",
"balancing", "nails" and "trick".

1,. From what you have learnt, can you explain how the centre of gravity is critical in carrying out the
trick successfully?
2. For the unsuccessful attempts, explain what went wrong.

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) i The moment of a force about a pivot is zero if the force acts through the pivot.

(ol ii The
,., beam balance readingofthe mass of an objectwill
u" on the Moon.
same on the Earth
obiect will be the san

,^, jj To apply the Principle of Moments on any object in equilibrium, we need topivot.
find the
5.2
'-' sums of clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about the same * F
:
-**.**-
5.3

A/l

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Turning Effect of Forces

Section A: Multiple-Ghoice Questions 4. The figure below shows a uniform beam pivoted
at its midpoint. An object of 60 N is placed
L. A minimum moment of 32.5 N m is reouired to
30 cm to the left of the midpoint of the beam.
ooen a door.
its'(:+l so.r i

60N
The beam will be balanced by a force of
A 30 N downwards, applied 60 cm to the
right of its midpoint
B -.
30 N upwards, applied 60 cm to the right of
What is the minimum distance Xbetween the
handle and the hinges if the force used to pull its midooint
the door open is to be less than 50 N? C 50 N downwards, applied 40 cm to the
A 0.33 m B 0.65 m right of its midpoint
C O.77 m D 1.54 m D 50 N upwards, applied 40 cm to the left of
its midooint
2 A driver's foot presses on a car pedal with
a force of 20 N as shown. 5. The figure below shows a gauge that measures
the amount of liquid in a tank. At which point,
A, B, C or D, should the pivot be positioned
so that the pointer turns through the largest
possible angle as the tank is emptied?

empry

z+U cm OiVOt

How much pulling force is exerted on the spring?

A 2.5N B 1OON
c 160N D 800N

3. A non-uniform rod is balanced as shown.

6. Which of the following diagrams shows a sphere
in stable equilibrium?

AT I

B
809
Given that the centre of gravity of the rod is
14.0 cm from the end marked A. what is the c
mass of the rod?
A 4Og B 1009
C 1000 g D t74og
D .8*

Chapter 5
7. The figures below show the cross-section of four (b) the distance of the block from the pivot, if
solid objects. Which object is most stable? the block is to balance a load of 1800 N.

4m 1Om

r Figure 5,23

3. Figure 5.24 shows a barrel of weight 1500 N

and radius 0.5 m that rests against a step of
height 0.2 m.

Section B: Structured Questions

1. (a) (i) What is meant by the moment of
a force?
(ia) How can it be measured?
(b) Figure 5.22 shows the top view of a door
t Fi{ure 5.24
hinged at A.
What is the smallest horizontal force Fthrough
the centre O needed to oush the barrel over
the steo?

Section C: Free-Response Questions

1,. A uniform rule of 10 cm balances horizontally
about a pivot at its midpoint when a weight of
x 7 N is suspended from the 1.4 cm mark and
t Fiture 5.22 another weight W is suspended from the 9 cm
mark, as shown in Figure 5.25.
(i) lf a man applies a force Fof 40 N
at the end marked B, calculate the
moment of this force about A.
(ii) What is the minimum force Xthat
7 N pivot W
must be applied at C in order to stop
the door from turning? r Figure 5.25
(iii) State the principle applied to solve
this problem. (a) Calculate LV.
(b) Why is the weight of the rule not necessary
Figure 5.23 shows a load of 3000 N balanced in finding LV?
by a concrete block of weight W on the jib of a
(c) The weight of 7 N is replaced by a 4 N
crane. The concrete block can be moved along weight. Indicate on the diagram how the
the jib. ruler will begin to move, and explain
your answer.
Calculate
(a) the weight of the concrete block W
when the crane is balanced, as shown
in Figure 5.23;

Turning Effect of Forces

2. Figure 5.26 shows a design for a toy balance 4. Figure 5.28 shows a non-uniform rod ABCD
that a manufacturer sends for safety testing. resting on a rough peg at C. R. and R, are the
When water is poured into a plastic bucket, normal reactions on the rod by the peg and the
the oointer moves over the scale. wall respectively. Fis the frictional force exerted
(Density of water = 10OO kg m-t) by the peg on the rod. W is the weight of the rod.

scate

smooth
wall
plastic steel
bucket of spring
mass 1OO g

(not to scale)

r Figure 5.28

r'Figure 5.26 (a) Explain why Fhas no turning effect on

the rod.
(a) When the total mass of the bucket and (b) lf the length AB is x and the length BC is y,
water is 1 kg, the beam is horizontal, as and the acute angle between the rod and
shown in Figure 5.26. Calculate the force the smooth wall is 0, express R, and R" in
that the beam exerts on the spring. terms of x; y, e and W.
(b) The bucket has a uniform cross-sectional
area of O.OI2 m2 and a depth of 0.10 m.
Calculate the mass of water needed to fill
the bucket. '/ir'\-
(c) Without changing the spring, how can the (!f Workbook Llnk
manufacturer reduce the vertical distance
moved by the pointer when there is a given
load in the bucket?

3. (a) State the Princiole of Moments.

(b) Figure 5.27 shows a uniform ladder AB of
mass 60 kg and length 4 m. lt is resting
with its end A on a smooth vertical wall
and its other end B on rough ground.

smooth
vertical
wall

r Figute 5.27

(i) ldentify and mark on Figure 5.27

all the forces acting on the ladder.
( ii) By taking moments about B, calculate
the reaction force at the wall.
(Take acceleration due to gravity as
10 m s-2.)

Chapter 5
Battlestar Galactica: Human versus Cylon at the Universal Studios, Singapore, is the
tallest duelling roller coaster in the world, at 42.5 metres. The two roller coaster trains
are launched from high positions, and thus possess a large amount of gravitational
potential energy at the staft. The amount of gravitational potential energy decreases as
the trains start to move. Whv? We will find out in this chapter.
6.1 Energy
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
identify different forms of energy;
a state the Principle of Conservation of Energy and use the principle to solve problems;
a use the formula efficiency =

to calculate the efficiency of an energy conversion.

hat is energy?
What does the term energy bring to mind? Dancing to the vibrant beats of
music? Waves crashing against the shore? You would probably associate
energy with strong forces that produce motion. In Physics,

The Sl unit of energy is the joule (J).

Work usually means making a body or machine move to achieve a purpose.

For example, when a person rows a boat, work is done. (The concept of work
will be discussed in Section 6.2.) In order to do work, energy is transferred
between objects or converted from one form to another. Figure 6.1- shows the
different forms of energy.

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of a body
due to its motion. Thus, wind has kinetic
energy and so do sea waves, a spinning
Frisbee and a rolling soccer ball.

Kinetic energy can be used to do work.

For example, wind and sea waves can
be used to turn turbines, which convert
kinetic energy to electrical energy.
Fs{entia& energy
Potential energy is the stored energy in a system. This form of energy
is due to the state, shape or position of the system. There are different
types of potential energy. Each of these types of potential energy can be
converted into other forms of energy.

hemrc*tf cfes* i er;e

Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in a substance due to the position
of the atoms or electrons in the substance. Some sources of chemical potential
energy are listed below:
(a) Food
For example, chemical
potential energy is found
Light energy from the Sun
in the plants that we eat.
is converted to chemical
potential energy in plants
through photosynthesis. . '=:

When humans or animals consume the plants, they

convert the chemical potential energy to other forms
of energy (e.g. kinetic energy for running).
(b) Fossil fuels
Power stations in Singapore make use of fossil fuels such as oil
and gas to generate electricity.
(c) Batteries
Batteries store chemical potential energy that can be converted
to electrical energy when connected to an electric circuit.

sfic pelfenf f ene

Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in
a body due to its e/astic deformation A spring
or rubber band possesses elastic potential
energy when it is compressed or stretched. This
energy can be converted to kinetic energy when
the spring or rubber band is released.

> An archer makes use of the elastic potential

energy stored in the bow to propel arrows. A fully
flexed bow stores about 300 J of energy.

- yifafrona/ siesff;l{ ene

Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in a body due to its
height from the ground. An object has gravitational potential energy when
it is raised to a height above the ground. When the object is released, its
gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as it falls.

> Hydroelectric dams convert the gravitational

energy of water to the kinetic energy of tuiiilnes.
 There are other forms of energy, such as electrical energy, light, thermal
energy and nuclear energy.

leetrieal ener y
Electrical energy is the energy of an electric
charge due to its motion and position.ltis
used extensively in our everyday lives.

You will learn more about electricity and its

sources in Chapters t7 and 19 respectively.

Light
Light is an electromagnetic wave that
is visible to the eye. lt is made up of
electric and magnetic fields oscillating at
a certain range of frequency within the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Natural sources of light energy include

the Sun and fires. Artificial sources of
light energy include incandescent bulbs,
fluorescent lamps and light-emitting
diodes (LEDs).

Tlrerrr'ral energy
Thermal energy is the energy stored in a
body due to its tempe rature. The particles
of a hotter body possess more thermal
energy than those of a colder body.
Thermal energy is transferred from the
hotter body to the colder body.

uelear energy
Nuclear energy is the energy released
during a nuclear reaction. There are two
types of nuclear reactions nuclear
fission and nuclear fusron. -
(a) Nuclear fission
A heavier nucleus splits up into two
or more lighter nuclei.
(b) Nuclear fusion
Two or more lighter nuclei fuse
together to form a heavier nucleus.

Chapter 6
Principle of Gonservation of Energy 20 J energy in one form
lf you stretch a rubber band and quickly place it on the top of your lip, you will
notice that the rubber band feels warm. Why? Some of the elastic potential v
energy in the rubber band is convefted to thermal energy. When work is done, 20 J work done
energy is converted from one form to another. The total amount of energy
before and after the conversion is the same (Figure 6.2).
v
20 J energy in other form(s)

r Figure 6.2 When energy

is convefted from one form
to another, the total amount
remains constant.

(a) Hammering a nail

Figure 6.3 shows the energy conversion when a nail is hammered.

r possesses gravitational hammer falls, the gravitational potential

energy in its raised position. is converted to kinetic energy.

The kinetic energy is used to

do work (drive the nail into
the wooden block). In the
process, sound and thermal
energy are also produced.

r Figure 6.3 Hammering a nail involves several energy conversions.

(b) Burning of fossil fuels

Figure 6.4 shows the energy conversion when charcoal, a type of fossil
fuel, is burnt.

@ Fossil fuels, such as As charcoal burns, the chemical The thermal

charcoal, contain chemical potential energy is converted to energy is used
potential energy. thermal and light energy. to cook food.

> Figure 6.4 Burning charcoal

emits thermal energy.

v Solar park at
Marina Barrage

Harvesting solar energy

The 405-panel solar park at Marina Barrage, Singapore, converts
solar energy into electrical energy to supplement the daytime power
requirements of the site. Electrical energy generated from solar
energy is environmentally friendly.

Would it be possible for the whole of Singapore to be powered

solely by solar energy? What about other countries? State the
information that you need to answer these questions. Search for
the information on the Internet and answer the ouestions.
 To illustratethe Principle of Conservation of Energy, we use an idealpendulum
(Figure 6.5). An ideal pendulum will swing forever, with its gravitational
potential energy converting to kinetic energy and vice versa. Since the total
amount of energy is conserved, energy is not lost from the pendulum, and
hence it does not stop swinging.

The oendulum bob is When it is released, it As it swings to the other side,

displaced to a height x swings downwards, and its kinetic energy is converted
above the horizontal level. the gravitational potential back to gravitational potential
energy is converted to energy.
It gains gravitational
potential energy as it is at kinetic energy. The gravitational potential
a height above its original Since energy cannot be energy gained is converted
oosition. created or destroyed, the from the kinetic energy lost.
kinetic energy gained must Thus, the pendulum bob
have been converted from slows down as it gains height.
the gravitational potential At the maximum height,
energy lost.
it only has gravitational
The swinging pendulum potential energy.
bob has maximum kinetic
This gravitational potential
energy when it reaches its
energy is converted to kinetic
original position.
energy when it swings to its
original position again.

original position

r Figure 6.5 Energy conversion

in an ideal pendulum

In the real world, an oscillating pendulum will eventually come to a

stop. Why? Does this mean energy is not conserved in the real world?

As the pendulum swings, some of its energy is converted to thermal

energy, due to the presence of frictional forces. This thermal energy
cannot be converted back to kinetic or gravitational potential energy
of the pendulum. As a result, the pendulum bob does not reach the
r Fiture 6.6 Height gained y is same height with every swing (Figure 6.6). When all of its energy has
lower than the original height x,
because some of the energy has been converted to thermal energy, the pendulum stops swinging.
been converted to thermal energy Thus, in the real world, the simple pendulum still obeys the Principle
that is lost to the surroundings. of Conservation of Energy, even though it eventually comes to a stop.

Ghapter 6
 orked Cxample 6.1

A boy lifted a ball from point A to point 81 and pushed it

horizontally forward. The ball left the boy's hand at point
82 and hit the ground at point C. lt bounced a few times
before rolling to a rest at point H. Figure 6.7 shows the
oath of the ball. CEGH
State the energy changes for the ball between points r. Figure 6,7
(a) A and B1-;
(b) Btand82;
(c) 82 and C;
(d) C and H.
5olution
(a) When the ball was lifted from point A to point 81, chemical potential energy from the boy was
converted to the gravitational potential energy of the ball.
(b) When the boy pushed the ball forward from point 81 to point 82, chemical potential energy
from the boy was converted to the kinetic energy of the ball (i.e. the ball started moving from
its stationary position at Bl towards B2).
(c) From point 82 to point C, the gravitational potential energi of the ball was converted to the
kinetic energy of the ball.
(d) . At points C, E and G (the points where the ball hit and bounced off the ground), some of
the kinetic energy of the ball was converted to sound energy and thermal energy.
. From points C to D and E to F, the kinetic energy of the ball was converted to gravitational
potential energy. The maximum height reached after each bounce was lower than the
previous maximum height. This is because energy was lost on the ball's impact with the
ground, and work was done against air resistance as the ball moved.
o From G to H, the kinetic energy of the ball was converted to thermal energy.

No, it's converted

to both thermal and
sound energy. You
do hear the ball going
'bonk' on rebound,

Energy, Work and Powel

 From what you have
capacity to do work. lt can exist in many forms, including
learnt so far, have you kinetic, potential (chemical, gravitational or elastic), light, thermal,
found the answers to electrical and nuclear.
Let's Explore (a) and 2. Energy can be converted from one form to another.
(b)?
3. The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. lt can only be converted from one form to another.
The total energy in an isolated system is constant.
4. The efficiency of energy conversion can be found by the formula
useful energy output
Efficiency = x IOO%
total energy input
A series of energy
conversions
When the trains of
Battlestar Galactica:
Human versus Cylon
L. A softball player throws a ball into the air and catches it on the way
are set in motion from
down. lgnoringthe air resistance that acts on the ball, state the energy
high positions, their
conversions that take olace.
gravitational potential
2. State the energy conversions that take place when
energy is converted (a) water is boiled using an electric kettle;
to kinetic energy and
other forms of energy.
(b) a light bulb is connected to a dry cell.
3. A ripe mango hangs from the branch of a tree. Using the Principle of
Since energy cannot be
Conservation of Energy, explain what happens to the mango's
destroyed or created, gravitational potential energy when it falls to the ground.
how do the trains first
4. What is the efficiency of a machine that produces 35 J of useful output
obtain their gravitational
energy for every 50 J of total energy input?
potential energy?

Ghapter 6
6.2 Work
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. state and use the -following formulae to solve problems:
- work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force:

- kinetic energy fn=

!mv";
- gravitational potential energ)/ Ep= mEh.

hat is work done?

In Figure 6.8, are both the boy and the lady doing work?

ln Physics, work is done only when an object moves under the influence of
a force. Therefore, in Figure 6.8, the lady is doing work, but the boy is not.

B
direction of motion

i distance s moved in the direction of the force i < Figure 6.9

Using Figure 6.9, we can represent the work done LV by the force F in
moving the object from point A to point B with the following equation:

W= FX s' where W = wo(k done by a constant force F(in J);

F= constant force (in N);
s = distance moved by the object in the direction of
the force (in m).

The Sl unit of work is the joule (J). Both work done and energy have the same
unit joule. This is because work done is equal to energy transformed.
-
From the equation, we can deduce that one joule is the work done by a force
of one newton, which moves an object through a distance of one metre in
the direction of the force.
Energy, Work and Power
 The two students in Figure 6.10 are each carrying a heavy pile of books.

.........-----------
direction
of motion

a Figure 6.10 The two students in the library are not doing work in the upward direction.

ln both cases, the distance moved in the direction of force F is zero.

Therefore, the work done in the upward direction is zero. From Figures 6.8
How much work is done and 6.10 we can see that no work is done when
when you lift a 50 N . force is applied on an object (such as a wall or a pile of books), but the
bag from the floor to object does not move;
a height of 1.5 m? . the direction of the applied force and the direction in which the object
moves are perpendicular to each other.

How is work related to energy and force?

Figure 6.11 summarises the relationship between work, energy and force.

is done when an object moves

is needed to do under the influence of a
Energy Work Force

I
I examples
+
, . Moving a box across the floor
. Climbing a flight of stairs

r Figure 6.11 Work, energy and force are related concepts.

Chapter 6
 orked Cxample 5.?
A librarian pushes a trolley of books for shelving.
lf the force F exerted by the librarian on the
trolley is 8 N and the trolley moves a distance
of 5 m in the direction of the force, calculate
the work done on the trollev.

Solution
Given: force F= 8 N
distancemoveds=5m direction of motion

WorkdoneW=Fxs
=8Nx5m
=40J

How is work done related to kinetic energy?

An object that is stationary does not have kinetic energy, whereas a moving
object does. A force needs to be applied to make a stationary object move.
lf the force moves the object, it does work. Hence, an object gains kinetic
energy because of the work done on it by a force.

tat
When a body of mass rn moves at a speed y, its kinetic energy E" is given by
1^
L,- rrihara F kinetic energy (in J);
;,'' YYrrvrv Lh --
m- mass of the body (in kg);
speed of the body (in m s-').

From the equation, we can see that for two objects of

. the same mass moving at different speeds, the faster object has greater r The bus and motorcycle
are moving at the same
kinetic energy; speed. Since the bus has a
. different masses moving at the same speed, the object of greater mass greater mass, it has greater
has greater kinetic energy. kinetic energy.

How much energy is needed to swim across the English Ghannel?

In 2005, former national swimmer Thum Ping Tjin was the first
Singaporean to swim across the English Channel. In 12 hours and
24 minutes, he achieved his dream of swimming solo from England
to France. The total amount of energy that he used to cross the
Channel is about the same as that contained in 44 bowls of rice.

) Map of the English Channel English Channel

CHANNEL ISLANDS
Aurnq'
tu Ki
t,6t,
iu {)

Energy, Work and Power

 How is work done rela d to gravitational
potential energy?
An object held above the ground has gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.).
This form of energy is due to the position of the object above the ground. Once
the object is dropped, its G.P.E decreases and its kinetic energy increases.
That is, the object's G.P.E. changes to kinetic energy.

To findthe G.P.E. of an object near the surface of the Earth, we consider the
work done in lifting an object of mass m vertically, at constant speed, from
the ground to a height h (Figure 61-2).

F
The work done W(by the force Fto lift the object to
height h) = Fx h.
Since the object is lifted at constant speed, the force F
is equal in magnitude to the weighl mg of the object.
Hence, W= Fx h
mg
= mEh

ground level < Figule 6.12 An object of mass m raised to a height h

above ground level possesses G.P.E. of mgh.

lf we allow the object in Figure 61-2to fall freely from height h to drive a stake
into the ground, the object can do an amount of work on the stake that is
equal to mgh.We define the G.P.E. of a body near the surface of the Earth as
the product of its weight mg and its height h above the ground. Gravitational
potential energy is given by
f,
Eo= where 5- = gravitational potential energy (in J);
m = mass (in kg);
g = gravitational field strength (in m s-2);
h = heiElht (in m).

onked €xample 6.3

A boy accidentally drops a 10 g marble from his apartment window. lf
A speed of 36 m s-1 is
the height from which the marble is dropped is 65 m, what is the speed
equivalent to 130 km h-1.
of the marble just before it hits the ground? Assume that air resistance
Can you imagine what
would happen if a falling can be neglected and g = 10 N kg-l.
marble were to hit a
person at that speed? Solution
lrresponsible acts of Mass nr of marble = 10 g = 10 x 1-0-3 kg = 0.01 kg
throwing litter out of
Eo of the marble = mEh = (0.01 kgx10 N kg-1x65 m) = 6.5 J
the windows of high-rise
buildings have resulted
Since air resistance can be neglected,
in numerous accidents. gain in kinetic energy E" = loss in gravitational potential energy E^
I
Read about them on the
lnternet.
lmv'= 6.5 J
2
2x6.5J
Since most Singaporeans m
live in high-rise buildings.
v ^ 2x6.5 )
--
what are our civic 0.01 kg
responsibilities with v= 36 m s-1
regard to killer litter?
Hence, the speed of the marble just before it hits the ground is 36 m s-1

Chapter 6
 orked €xample 6.4
A policeman fired a pistol at a stationary wooden target
(Figure 6.13). The bullet of mass 10.0 g left the pistol horizontally
at a speed of 500 m s-1. When the bullet hit the target, it got
embedded in the target. The mass of the wooden target is 1.0 kg.
Upon hitting the wooden target, the bullet moved together with
the wooden target at a horizontal speed of 5.0 ffi s-1, and swung
upwards to a vertical height of h from its initial position before
stopping momentarily.
gure 6.13
(a) What was the initial kinetic energy of the bullet when it left
the oistol?
(b) What was the final kinetic energy of the wooden target and embedded bullet immediately after
the bullet hit the target?
(c) By comparing (a) and (b), what was the loss in kinetic energy? Account for this loss.
(d) Taking the gravitational field strength to be 10 N kg-t, calculate the vertical height h. State any
assumptions you made to get your answer.

Solution
(a) Given: mass m of bullet = 10.0 x 10-3 kE = 0.01 kg
initial soeed u of bullet = 500 m s-1
lnitial kinetic
' =
energy of bullet 1

i.^u'
= x 1o-3 r<g)(soo m s-')' = !.25 x 103 J
|(to.o
(b) Given: speed vof system of wooden target and bullet = 5.0 m s-1
Mass M of system of wooden target and bullet = (1.0 + 0.01) kE= t.Ot kE
Therefore, final kinetic energy of wooden target and embedded bullet
= LMu,
2
4
= *(1.01k9X5.0 m s-t)' = 12.6 J
z
,_\ The loss in
(c) initial kinetic final kinetic energy of
kinetic energy= ofbullet wooden target and bullet
"nergy
- 12 6 r
13:j
=I3Z:
The loss in kinetic energy is due to the work done in driving the bullet into the wooden target.
This work done is manifested mainly as the gain in thermal energy of the wood and bullet, and
sound energy.
(d) Using the Principle of Conservation of Energy, at height h,
gain in G.P.E. of wooden target and bullet = final K.E. of wooden target and bullet
1
Mgh = *Mv'
z
4
:vz m s-')'
h_
,t
2 ]ts.o = 7.25 m
- -
ts 10 N kg-l
-
Assumption: The work done against friction (at the hinge) and air resistance (as the system
swings upwards) is negligible.

EnergY, Work and Power

 orked €xample 6.5
A ball of mass 0.23 kg is released from a certain height 6
Velocity/m s 1

at a soeed of 2 m s-1 and allowed to fall downward.

5
Figure 6.14 shows how the velocity of the ball varies
with time t. The ball is released at t= 0 s and hits the 4
ground att=O.32 s. When the ball hits the ground, it 3
rebounds with 50% of the soeed with which it hits the a
grouno.
(a) State the maximum velocity of the ball. 1,

(b) Show that the acceleration of free fall is 10 m s-2. 0 Time,/s

(c) Determine the velocity of the ball just after it -1,
rebounds.
(d) Calculate the loss of kinetic energy of the ball as -2
it hits the ground and rebounds. -3

Solution r Fiture 6.14

(a) From Figure 6.14, the maximum velocity of the ball
(b) BffF,tgLr-d.6.1-4, the change in velocityfrom t= 0 s to t= 0.32 s is
6y = (5.2 - 2.O) fl't S-1 = 3.2 m s 1.

change
Acceleratlon= - in velocity 3.2 m s 1

time taken
=-=0.32 s l-0 m s-2 (shown)

(c) The ball will have maximum speed just before it hits the ground. Since it rebounds with 5O%
of the speed, the speed of the ball after it rebounds '.
5'2 T s-1
= 2.6 ms-l . The velocity of
z
the ball just after it rebounds is -2.6 m s 1.

(d) Kinetic energy of the balljust before hitting the ground

11 1(0.23
= !.mv2 = kg) x (5.2 m s-t), = 3.II J
zz
Kinetic energy of the ball just after rebounding
1-1
- *mv'
22 = +(O.23 kg) x (2.6 m s-t)' = 0.777 )
Loss in kinetic energy = 3.tI J - O.777 J = 2.33 J

Making one's own classroom

What would you do if all the schools in Singapore were to suddenly
close down? How would you ensure your continued learning? ls it
important to you that you continue learning? Why?

While the schools in James Prescott Joule's town did not suddenly
close down, he could not attend university, because he had to take
over his father's business when his father fell ill. This unfavourable
circumstance did not extinguish Joule's desire to learn. In fact, he
went as far as to set up a laboratory in his home so that he could
carry out experiments before and after work! Joule's passion,
dedication and hard work led to the development of the Principle of
Conservation of Energy. The Sl unit of energy, the joule, was named
in his honour.
> James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)

Chapter 6
 1-. Force, work and energy are interrelated. From what you have
2. work done wby a constantforce Fis given bythe product of the force ano learnt so far, have you
the distance moved s in the direction of the force, i.e. W= Fx s. found the answers to
3. The Sl unit of work is the joule (J), which is the same as the sl unit of energy. Let's Explore (c)?
4. No work is done when the
'
direction of the applied force and the direction in which the object moves
are perpendicular to each other;
o force is applied on the object, but the object does not move.
5. Moving objects have kinetic energy. The kinetic energy
e of an object of
mass m and speed vis given by En = *rrt.
6. An object of mass m at height h has gravitational potential energy E^.
p
The gravitational potential energy is given by E = mgn,wnere gii
the gravitational field strength.
7. lgnoring friction for a pendulum or a free-falling body,
o total energy = gravitational potential energy E + kinetic energy
E
= mlh + !mv'
z
. maximum q = maximum Ek

mgh^",= |mv^u^z
2

6.e
t. (a) Define the joule.
(b) Complete Table 6.1 with the correct corresponding values.
v Table 6.1

2. A 5 kg package is lifted 10 m vertically at a constant speed. Taking the acceleration due to gravtty
2,
to
be 10 m s what is the gravitational potential energy gained by the package?
3. A 4 kg block, which is initially at rest at the top of a
frictionless slope, slides 30 m down a frictionless slope
(Figure 6.15). What is the kinetic energy of the block at
the bottom of the slope, just before it hits the ground?
4. lf the speed of a springboard diver decreases by half
upon entering the water, by what percentage will his
kinetic energy decrease?
5. No force is acting on a rock that moves freely through
r, Figure 6.15
outer space at a constant speed. ls there any work done
on the rock? Exolain.
 6.3 Power
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
- work done
o state and use the formula power=
' to solve problems.
time taken

To explain what power is, we consider the two scenarios in Figure 6.16.
Two boys have to climb up the stairs, as the lift is out of order.

Scenario 1 Scenario 2
. Boy A and boy B have . Boy A has a larger mass than
equal mass; boy B;
. Boy A reached the fourth . Boy A and boy B reached the
storey before boy B. fourth storey at the same time.

The two boys are of equal mass Since boy A has a larger mass,
and travel the same distance. he has lo do more workto carry
Therefore, they do the same himself up the four storeys.
amount of work.

However, since boy A took In other words, boy A is able to

a shorter time Io reach the do more worklhan boy B in the
fourth storey as compared same amount of time as boy B.
to,:boy B, we say that boy A Therefore, we say boy A has
Scenario 1 has more power. more Dower.
r Figure 6.16 The amount Boy A has more power than
of work done by the boys boy B because he can do
and the time taken to do the same amount of work
the work determine who more quickly.
nas more power.

Quick Gheck
What are the energy In equation form,
conversions occuring in
the scenarios described o-w-E
tt
where p = power (in W);
in Figure 6.16? W=work done (in J);
E= energy converted (in J);
t = time taken (in s).

The Sl unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is defined as the rate of work
done or energy conversion of one joule per second, i.e. 1 W = 1 J s-1.

Note that the product of power P and time taken ttells us the amount of work
done or the amount of energy being converted from one form to another.

Chapter 6
 onked €xample 6.6
Eugene, who weighs 450 N, runs up a flight of steps. lf there is a total of ten steps and each
step is 0.20 m high, calculate Eugene's power if he takes five seconds to run up the flight of
steps at constant speed.

Solution
The upward force Fexerted by the muscles to balance Eugene's weight = 450 N
The upward distance s moved by Eugene = height of steps = O.20 m x 10 = 2.0 m
Using LV= Fxs,
work done !V by Eugene = 450 N x 2.0 m = 900 J
w
Using P= -14, Eugefle's power =
900J 180 W
=
ff

orked Cxample 6.7

A filament bulb, rated at 40 W, converts 10% of its electrical energy supply to light energy.
Calculate the quantity of light energy emitted in five minutes.

Solution
But the Princiole of
Given: power P = 40 W
Conservation of Energy states
time t= 5 x 60 s = 300 s that energy cannot be destroyed! It is converted to
Energy used by bulb in five minutes What happens to the other 90% thermal energy. The
=Pxt of electrical energy? bulb becomes hotl
=40Wx300s
=t.2xLOaJ
Since 10% of this energy is converted to light energy,
the amount of light energy emitted in five minutes
10 x!.2xhoa-J
= 100
= !.2 x 1,O3 J
= 1.2 kJ

Try lt Out
An Archimedean screw is a device that is used to draw water from water bodies,
such as rivers. Several of these devices can be found at Katlang Waterfront,
Singapore. Use these devices to find out who is the most 'powerful' among your
group of friends! Rotate the screw to draw water from the river. The person who
can draw the most water in one minute is the most oowerful.

Use the Internet to find out how an Archimedean screw works. In groups of four,
build models of the device and see which group's device is the most effective
in drawing water.

> Archimedean screw

Energy, Work and Power

 From what you have ate of work done or the rate of energy conversion.
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
2. The Sl unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is the rate of work done or
energy conversion of one joule per second.
Let's Explore (d)?

L. (a) Define the terms power and watt.

(b) In the following situations, calculate the power involved.
(i) A force of 50 N moves an object through a distance of
10min5s.
(ii) An object of mass 1 kg is lifted up vertically through
I
5 m in 10 s. (Take = 10 m s-2)
2. An electric motor in a washing machine has a power output of 1.0 kW.
Find the work done in half an hour.
3. The same amount of water was poured into two electric kettles, one
rated at 500 W and the other at 1000 W. Comment on the time that
the kettles will take to boil the water.

is the capacity to do

is governed by is defined as
are related to

is defined as

o Light energy
o Electrical energy
o Thermal energy
a Nuclear energy Efficiency of an energy conversion can be
a Kinetic energy calculated using the following formula:
1
useful energy output
"2 Efficiency =
total energy input
x tOO%
Potential energy
- Gravitational potential energy
E =meh
- Chemical potential energy
- Elastic potential energy

Chapter 6
 state whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s).
Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) i When the pendulum is released from the original position, all the gravitational
to
-: 99,1 : l ll 1l_9i gle_y- : l Tl"-dl?_t: LI _.9 1y,",,'-t :9 k n et c e n e rsy.
, i
i i

(b) I
A 7OO% efficient machine is a machine that converts all the input energy into :
, useful output energy.
:
o. -L

(c) when the speed of a bus is increased twofold, the kinetic energy of the bus
-1
increases twofold as well.
--..--' '-.'-
i 62

(d)
i when a pendulum is held at height h above the ground, its gravitational potential
a ^^^-a,,:^
energy is +L^
the product
^
of its mass, the height n, and the gravitational acceleration.
:

: 62
: A 10 N force is used to push an object up an inclined plane. Given that the
(e) : difference in the vertical height before and afterthe force is applied is 2 m, the
6.2
; work done by the force is 20 J.
(f) i Power is a measure of the amount of energy an object or person possesses.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Take gravitational field strength to be 70 N k{1 unless otherwise stateo.

Section A: Multiple-Ghoice Questions 3. What is the work done by the 250 N force, shown
1-. A car screeches in the figure below, when the box reaches the too
to a stop to avoid colliding
with a van. Assuming that the road is lever, of the inclined plane?
what energy changes have occured?
A Kinetic energy ---> sound energy 2.O m
B Kinetic energy ---> heat and sound energy
C Potential energy ---> heat, sound and
kinetic energy 250 N
D Kinetic and potential ---> heat and souno
energy energy -.t'

A 25OJ
2. A 0.8 kg brick is accidentally dropped from a B 4OOJ
building. lt reaches the ground with a kinetic c 500J
energy of 24O J. How tall is the building? D 8OOJ
A 19m
B 30m 4. A machine is able to lift 200 kg of bricks vertically
C !92m up to a height of 30 m above the ground in 50 s.
D 3O0m What is the power of the machine?
A 0.12 kW
B 1..2kW
c 6.0 kw
D 300 kw

Energy, Work and Power

Section B: Structured Questions Section C: Free-Response Questions
t. A cyclist pedals up to the top of a hill. L. A roller coaster train at an amusement oark has a
(a) What kind of energy is being used to do mass of 1500 kg. lt descends from point P, which
work against gravity? is 30 m above ground, to point Q, which is 10 m
(b) State the type of energy the cyclist has above ground.
when he stops at the top of the hill. (a) Calculate the loss in the gravitational potential
(c) When the cyclist moves downhill without energy of the train when it moves from point P
pedalling, what type of energy does he gain? to point Q.
(b) lf 20% of the gravitational potential energy lost
2. A simple pendulum consists of a string of length is dissipated, calculate the
50.0 cm and a pendulum bob of mass 10 g. The (i) kinetic energy of the train at point Q;
string hangs vertically from a fixed point O with (ii) speed of the train at point Q.
the oendulum bob attached to its lower end at (c) In what form is energy dissipated when it
point P (Figure 6.17). moves from point P to point Q?
(d) Suggest a way to reduce the amount of
dissipated energy.

2. The energy input and useful energy output

(i.e. electricity) for five power stations were
50.O cm measured. The results are listed in Table 6.2.
v Table 6.2

32.8
r Figure 6.17
2r.3
The pendulum bob is displaced to point R, 2.0 cm LO.t
above P and released from rest. Assuming air
resistance is negligible, calculate the 2.O 4t
(a) gain in potential energy of the pendulum
bob at ooint R: (a) Each of the stations uses a different method
(b) kinetic energy of the bob at point Q, 0.5 cm to produce electricity.
above P. (i) Calculate the efficiency of each
power station.
3. A model car of mass 1.5 kg, with a string (ii) lf you had to build a power station, which
attached to its front end. is olaced on a power station would you choose to base
slope (Figure 6.18). A 10 N force is applied the design of your power station on?
on the string to move the car up the slope whv?
at a constant velocity. The force is applied in (b) Assuming that the values in Table 6.2 are
a direction that is parallel to the slope. the energy outputs of each power station per
day, what is the power generated by power
tab e station S?
(c) Why is there a difference in the energy input
and useful energy output?

*3. A bowling ball and a tennis ball were dropped in a

r, Figure 6.18 vacuum at the same time.
(a) ls the ratio of the kinetic energy they possess
(a) With the aid of a diagram, describe how the as they fall constant, or variable?
force in the string can be measured. (b) Suppose the two balls were dropped in air,
(b) Calculate the from a helicopter flying high above ground,
(i) gain in the car's potential energy as and allowed to reach terminal velocity. Would
it moves from the floor to the table; the ratio of their kinetic energies be constant?
(ii) work done by the force as it moves Explain your answer.
the car up the slope from the floor
to the table;
(iii) efficiency of this arrangement for
raising the car.
Wotksheet 6
Chapter 6
It is easier to walk on soft snow in snowshoes than in shoes with high heels. How do
snowshoes enable people to walk on soft snow without sinking? Can we use Physics
to answer this ouestion? We will soon find out.

;ai'

*.
 7.7- Pressure
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
explain what pressure means in terms of force and area;
. recall and use the formula pressure =:E to solve problems.

High heels have a What is pressure?

^
smaller area in contact lf a woman wearing high heels walks on muddy ground, her high heels will
with the ground. Hence, sink easily into the ground. She can avoid this by wearing a pair of sneakers
they exeft a greater (flat-soled shoes). Can you explain why?
pressure on the ground
than flat-soled shoes.
Whether the woman wears high heels or sneakers, her shoes exert the
same downward force on the ground, since this force is due to her weight.
When the woman wears high heels, her weight acts on a smaller area
compared to when she wears sneakers, Thus, the high heels sink more
easily into the ground. The pressure exerted by the high heels is greater
than that bv the sneakers.

,
tr
where p = pressure (in Pa);
F= force (in N);
A = area (in m'?).

The Sl unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N m-'), also known
as the pascal (Pa).

Fill a plastic bag with some heavy books. Next, hold Now, wrap the handles of the plastic bag with a towel.
this plastic bag by its handles with one hand for a few Then, hold the same plastic bag of books with the same
minutes. Do your fingers hurt after a while? hand for the same length of time. Do you find it easier to
hold the plastic bag? Do your fingers hurt less? Why?

t
'gi
r Handles of plastic bag without padding r Handles of plastic bag with padding

Ghapter 7
Investigation 7.1

Objective
To investigate the relationship between pressure and area

Procedure
1-. Prepare two pieces of soft plasticine of approximately the
same volume and shape. r Figure 7.1(a) Brick resting
2. Place a brick on one of the pieces of soft plasticine, with on soft plasticine. with its
its largest side facing downwards (Figure 7.1,(a)). largest side facing downwards
3. Remove the brick and observe the depression formed on
the plasticine.
4. Next, place the brick on the second piece of soft
plasticine, this time with its smallest side facing
downwards (Figure 7.1(b)).
5. Remove the brick and observe the depression formed on
the plasticine..
6. Compare the depressions formed on the two pieces
of plasticine.

Observation
r Figure 7.1(b) Brick resting
The depression on the plasticine in Figure 7 .1,(b) is deeper than on soft olasticine. with its
that in Figure 7.t(a). smallest side facing downwards

Discussion
The weight of the brick is'spread over a smaller area
in Figure 7.7(b). Since pressure = the brick exerts greater
#,
pressure on the plasticine in Figure 7.1(b) than in Figure 7.1(a).

orked Cxample 7.1

Calculate the pressure exerted by a girl on the ground if her mass is 50 kg and the area
of her shoes in contact with the ground is (a) 150 cm'z (high heels); (b) 400 cm2 (flat
soles). (Take gravitational field strength g = 10 N fg-t1

Solution
(a) Given: mass m of girl = 50 kg
weight W of girl - mg = 50 kg x 10 N kg-t = 500 N
Area A" of high heels = 150 cm2 = 0.015 m2
_FW
Pressure P. = -;- =
.I A^ -A"
500 N
= 3.33 x 104 Pa
0.015 m2
(b) Area A, of flat soles = 400 cm2 = 0.04 m2
500 N 1 .25 x
' z = Y-
Pressure p"
A2- O'O4m2 -=
L'1r ' 1Oa Pa
We can see that the pressure exerted by the girl when she wears high heels is much
greater than the pressure exerted when she wears shoes with flat soles.

Pressure
 onk€d CxamPle 7.?
A rectangular block with the dimensions shown in Figure 7.2 has a
density of 2.OO g cm-3. Given that the gravitational field strength g is
1_ON kg-1, determine the maximum and minimum pressure that can be
exerted by the block when it is placed on one face.

10 cm

20 cm
t Figwe 7.2

e = force,
a(ea
and the force (i.e. weight of the block) is
tmum oressure is exerted when the block stands on the
face with the smallest area, and minimum pressure is exerted when the
block stands on the face with the largest area'
Mass m of block = density p x volume V
= (2.00 g cm-3) x
(20.0 cm x 10.0 cm x 5.0 cm)
=2.OxtO3E
= 2.O kg
Weight W of block = mE
=2.Okg x 10 N kg1
=20N
Area of smallest face of block = (10.0 x 10-'z m) x (5.0 x 10-2 m)
= 5.0 x 10-3 m2
Snowshoes distribute a Area of largest face of block = (10.0 x 10-2 m) x (20.0 x 10-2 m)
person's weight over a = 2.O x !O-2 m2
larger area. Thus, the 20N
.'. Maximum pf€SSUfe =
pressure exerted by the 5.0 x 1O-3 m2
snowshoes is lower than = 4.O x 103 N m-2 (or Pa)
the pressure exerted 20N
by ordinary shoes, and Minimum pressure =
this enables the person
2.O x !O-2 m2
1.0 x 103 N m-2 (or Pa)
to walk on soft snow
without sinking.

From what you have I

e force acting per unit area. In symbols, p = A'
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to 2. The Sl unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N m-2) or the
pascal (Pa).
Let's Explore (a)?

1-. Why does the cutting edge of a knife need to be very thin?
2. A rectangular glass block of dimensions 8.0 cm by 15'0 cm by 3.0 cm
weighs 10.5 N. Calculate the minimum and the maximum pressure the
block can exert when it rests on a horizontal table.

Ghapter 7
7.2 Pressure in Liquids
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o -
use the formula pressure due to a liquid p= hpglo solve problems;
. describe and explain how pressure is transmitted in hydraulic systems.

When we are underwater (Figure 7.3), we feel the pressure of water on our a Figure 7.3 In a
eardrums. How do we explain this? The Earth's gravitational pull acts on swimming pool, we feel
all objects, including liquids. This causes liquids to have weight. A body of greater pressure near the
liquid (e.9. a pool of water)exerts pressure on an object (e.9. our eardrums) bottom than at the surface.
placed in it because of its weisht.

The amount of pressure inside a body of liquid Increases with depth. At

greater depths, the weight of the liquid above is greater. Therefore, the
pressure is greater. This is shown in Figure 7.4.

Water sourts fafther and faster from outlet 2

than outlet 1. This shows that liquid pressure
increases with deoth.

Water spurts out the farthest and fastest from

outlet 3, the lowest tube. This shows that liquid
nraqerrra ic dra2iac+ ai tha lnraroct dpnih

> Figure 7.4 A tall vessel of water with

side tubes fitted at different depths

How do we determine pressule at a certain depth

of liquid?
Figure 7.5 shows a column of liquid of height h, base area A and density p.

The volume Vof the liquid is given by V= Ah

The mass m of the liquid is given by m = pV

The weight Wof the liquid column is given by W= mg= (pV)[= p(Ah){

The pressure p at the base of the liquid column is given by

n_ F _W _p(Ah)g
'- A- A- A

Therefore, p = hp{ where h = height (in m);

p = density (in kg m-3);
g = gravitational field strength (in N kg-1) r Figure 7.5 A liquid
In words, coluinn of height h, base
pressure due to _ height of
, density x gravitational area A and density p
a liquid column column of liquid field strength

Pressure
 From the equation p= hpg, we can see that the pressure in a liquid increases
with the depth and density of the liquid. lt does not depend on the volume
or cross-sectional area of the liquid.

An apparatus called Pascal's vases demonstrates that pressure in a

liquid only depends on the vertical heisht h of the liquid column above
it (Figure 7.6).

@ At any point along the same @ Thus, at equilibrium,

vertical height h (e.9. points P, the liouid level in all
Q and R), the pressure is the the columns is at the
same. same height.

g This is because the oressure

in a liquid depends only on
the vertical height of the < Figure 7.6 The pressure at
liquid column, and not on the any point in a liquid depends
volume, cross-sectional area only on the height of the liquid
or shaoe of the column. column above it.

ln Figure 7 .6, if the height of the water were different across the columns,
the pressure difference would cause the height of each column to drop or
rise until a common level was reached.

In which oond does the fish exoerience

greater pressure? Explain your answer.

T
2m
t
a A large but shallow pond r, A small but deep pond

orked Cxample 7.3

A rectangular block has a base area A of 25 cm2. lt is
submerged in water of density 1000 kg m-3 (Figure 7.7).
(Take gravitational field strength g= 10 N Xg-t1 Pr

(a) Find the

(i)pressure p, due to the water acting on the top
surface of the block;
(ii)
pressure p, due to the water acting on the bottom
surface of the block. P2
(b) Calculate the force exerted by the water on the
(i)
top surface of the block; t Figute 7.7
(ii) bottom surface of the block.

Chapter 7
 Buoyancy
Pressure in a liquid
increases with depth.
It acts in a direction
perpendicular to the
surface of a submerged
object. In Worked
Example 7.3, we found
that the pressure on
the bottom of the block
is greater than the
pressure on the top.

This difference results'

in a resultant upward
force known as
buoyancy or upthrust.
You can float when you
are swimming due to the
upthrust acting on you.

Transmission of pressure in liquids

lf you visit a car workshop, you will probably see the machines shown in Figure
7.8. Such machines are called hydraulic machines. Hydraulic machines
enable heavy objects like cars to be lifted with a small amount of effort.

(a) A hydraulic car jack (b) A hydraulic garage lift

r Figure 7.8 Hydraulic machines make lifting heavy objects easier.

How do hydraulic machines work? They use liquids to transmit pressure.

lfpressure is applied to an enclosed liquid, the pressure is transmitted
equallyto all other parts of the liquid. This is known as Pascal's Principle.

Pressure
 The ulic press
The hydraulic press is a type of hydraulic machine. Figure 7.9 shows how a
simple hydraulic press works. Note that the liquid is enclosed within the hydraulic
press. The car represents the large load that the hydraulic press can lift.

@ Wfren a force F* acts @ ftre pressure p* is @ fnus, the pressure below

on oiston 1. the transmitted equally to piston 2 is equal to the
pressure at point X in every part of the liquid. pressure below piston 1. The
the liquid is given by pressure py at point Y is equal
tr
p.. = 1. where A" is to the pressure p* at point X.
' Av'
the area of piston 1. Pv= Px
F,
. =F*
"AY Ax

Since Av > Ax,

therefore F", F*.

This means that when a small

force is applied on the small
piston, it results in a larger
force acting on the bottom of
@ piston 1 the larger piston. This allows
with area A, piston 2
large loads to be lifted with a
with area A"
relatively small force. Thus,
the hydraulic press works like
liquid a lever by multiplying a force.
r Figure 7.9 A simple hydraulic press

Link The Principle of Conservation of

Energy applies in the hydraulic press.
Assuming there is no friction, the work done by a smaller force F* over a longer
Recall what you have distance d* on piston 1 is equal to the work done by a larger force F, over a
learnt about levers
shorter distance d, on piston 2 (Figure 7.10), i.e.
and the Principle of
Conservation of Energy
in Chapters 5 and 6 F*x4=Fvxdv
respectively.

rx

piston 1
with area A,
1
tq.
t" piston 2
liquid with area A,

r Figure 7.10 By using a hydraulic press, a small

force can be applied to lift a heavy load.

Chapter 7
 orked Cxample 7.4
Figure 7.11 shows a simple hydraulic press. Make your own
A 15 N force is exerted on oiston X of area hydraulic machine!
0.025 m2. Piston Y has an area of 0.50 m2. In small groups, obtain
(a) Calculate the materials such as
(i) pressure exerted on the liquid by wood, metal nails,
syringes and flexible
oiston X: rubber or plastic tubes.
( ii) pressure exerted on piston Y; Use coloured water so
( iii) force exerted on piston Y; that others can see
(iv) maximum weight of load L that can how your hydraulic
be lifted, if piston Y weighs 50 N. machine works.

(b) What is the distance moved by the small piston X if the distance d" Demonstrate how your
moved by the large piston Y is 0.15 m? (Assume the effects of friction hydraulic machine
are negligible in this system.) works to the rest of
the class. Your class
will then vote for the
Solution most creative
(a) Given: F, = 15 N hydraulic machine.
A, = O.O25 m2
Av=0.50m2 F 4trNl
(i) Pressure p*on liquid by piston X =
Z:= O.-#;z = 600 Pa
(ii) Pressure p,,on piston Y = 600 Pa
(iii) Force Fron piston Y = Pv X A, = 600 Pa x 0.50 m2 = 300 N
(iv) Maximum weight of load L = 3OO N - 50 N = 250 N

Note: The force on the large piston Y (300 N) is much larger (20 times)
than the force on the small piston X (15 N).

(b) Given: dv = 0.15 m

Using the Principle of Conservation of Energy,
work done bY F, = work done bY F,
F*x d* = Fy X dv where dx = distance moved by the small piston X
tr
... d*=
it 0,,

300 N
= 15N xO.15m=3.0m
Note:The distance moved bythe small piston X (3.0 m) is much longer
(20 times) than the distance moved by the large piston Y (0.15 m).

Hydraulic machines
Did you know that hydraulic machines are used in the construction
industry? Shovels, cranes, forklifts and bulldozers are just some
examples of hydraulically operated machinery.

The amount of force generated by a shovel allows it to scoop more

than a cubic metre of dirt at a time, which is approximately 1.5
tonnes in weight! lmagine that!
r Many of the construction machines
you see are hydraulic machines.

Pressure
 An important application of hydraulic pressure is the car hydraulic disc
brake system. This system allows a driver to control the speed of the
When the driver steps on
car or stop it.
the brake pedal, a force
is exerted on the small
master piston. This in Figure 7.12 shows how the car hydraulic disc brake system works.
turn exerts pressure on
the liquid in the brake The pressure is : l At each wheel, the
system (brake fluid). transmitted uniformly ,
pressure is transmitted
throughout the liquid. ' : to large pistons. Thus,
large forces are exerted
------>force by the pistons on the
brake oads. The brake
pads press on a large
small master disc connected to the
piston wheel. The resulting
large pistons (with
brake pads in contact friction slows down the
to other brakes with the large disc) wheel and hence the car.

As pressure is transmitted
uniformly, the same
pressure is applied to large disc
other brakes in the car. < Figure 7.L2 The
hydraulic disc brake system

From what you have lf each large piston at the disc has twice the area of the small master
learnt so far, have you piston at the pedal, each large piston will exert twice the force that
found the answers to the driver applies on the brake pedal. The force applied by the driver is
Let's Explore (b)? multiolied when the area of the oistons increases.

Pressure due to a liquid The base of a rectangular aquarium measures 100 cm by 200 cm.
column = height of Water is poured to a depth of 20 cm. Taking the density of water to
column x density of the be 1000 kg 6-s and gravitationalfield strength gto be 10 N kg-1,
liquid x gravitational calculate the pressure on the base, and the force acting on the base.
field strength, or p = \pg 2. Figure 7.13 shows a simplified form of a hydraulic press. A force Fis
2. An enclosed body of applied to the small piston of area a and negligible weight. The large
liquid transmits an piston of area A and weight Wsupports the load L.
applied pressure equally F
throughout the liquid. ge piston of area
3. Hydraulic systems, A and weight l,V
such as the hydraulic small piston
press, make use of the of area a
liquid
transmission of pressure
in liquids to do work. < Figure 7.13

Write formulae to express the

(a) pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston;
(b) pressure exerted on the large piston by the liquid;
(c) force L exerted downwards by the load.
Explain what happens to the energy used in pressing down the
small piston.
Chapter 7
 hy does atmospheric pressure not crush us?
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level is 1.013 x 105 Pa. This
value is commonly referred to as 1 atmosphere. This pressure is almost
equivalent to placing a t kg mass (10 N weight) on an area of 1 cm2. lf
atmospheric pressure is so great, why is it that we cannot feel its effects?

The natural pressure within our bodies is also about 1 atmosphere. Thus,
the internal pressure of our bodies is equal to the atmospheric pressure that
acts on us. lf this natural pressure were not present within our bodies, we
would be crushed to death by the atmosphere.

v Figule 7.15 Some Applications of atmosphedc pressure

applications and effects of
Figure 7.15 shows how atmospheric pressure affects daily life.
atmospheric pressure

rlnkin it a straw Fiili*l a syrin e 0arre I

. When we suck through a straw, . A syringe works in a similar way ,t

we lower the air oressure in to a straw. To fill the syringe
the straw. with liquid, we pull the plunger
. Atmospheric pressure, being uoward. This decreases the air
greater than the pressure of oressure in the barrel.
the air in the straw, pushes on . The atmospheric pressure atmospheric
pressure
the surface of the liquid in acting on the liquid surface is
the cuo. greater than the air pressure in
. This forces the liquid to rise up the barrel. YY
the straw and into our mouths. . This pushes the liquid up the
needle and into the barrel.

uetf&n eaps
. Suction caps are commonly used for hanging up
household items.
When a suction cap is pressed against the wall, most
of the air underneath the suction cap is squeezed out.
This creates a oressure difference between the
atmosphere and the trapped space under the
suction cao.
The higher atmospheric pressure acts on the
suction cup, holding it firmly against the wall.
E cts of atmospheric pressure
The pressure of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude.

Our bodies are unable to At high altitudes, passengers on

adjust quickly to changes in an airplane are at risk of suffering
atmospheric pressure. from the effects of low atmosoheric
lf we travel to higher oressu re.
altitudes and the drop in To protect the passengers, air is
pressure is too great, we pumped into the airplane cabin as
may suffer from a condition the airplane ascends.
called altitude sickness. . This reduces the drop in pressure
inside the cabin and prevents the
passengers from experiencing a
great pressure change.

€xample 7.5
Find the pressure acting on a diver when he is (a) at the surface;
(b) 10 m underwater. (Density of water p = 1000 kg m t; gravitational
field strength g= 10 N kg-t; atmospheric pressure P^= t.O! x 105 Pa)

Solution
(a) At the surface, only atmospheric pressure p" acts on the diver.
Po = 1.01 x 105 Pa
(b) When the diver is 10 m underwater,i.e. h = 10 ffr, the pressure p
actingonhimisp=p +hpg
= p;* 10 m x 1OOO kg m-3 x 10 N kg!_'
= t.Ot x 105 Pa + 1.00 x 1-05 Pa
= 2.Ot x 105 Pa

Note: The pressure acting on the diver when he is 10 m underwater

is about twice the atmospheric pressure. This is because 10 m
of water gives a pressure of about 1.00 x 105 Pa, which is about
1 atmosphere.
 Measuring atmospheric pressule using a simple
merculy barometer
The barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric oressure.
Figure 7.16 shows the parts of a simple mercury barometer and how it works.

A vacuum ensures that no

, The mercury is contained in a pressure is exerted on the
, thick-walled glass tube about column of mercury.
, 1 m long.

A metre rule measures

Atmospheric pressure acts on the the rise or fall in the
surface of the mercury in the trough. mercury level.
This supports the mercury column in
the glass tube.
The height h of the mercury level above < Figure 7.16 A simple
the surface of the mercury in the trough mercury barometer
indicates the atmospheric pressure.

At equilibrium, the pressure on the surface (i.e. along line ABC) is equal to
the atmospheric pressure. This means that the pressure at B is equivalent
The earliest barometers to the atmospheric pressure.
were constructed using
water, but these were not
We have learntthatthe atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.01_3 x 105Pa.
very practical due to their
large size.
What is the mercury level at this atmospheric pressure?
(a) lf the density of
water is 1OO0 kg m 3 We know that the pressure pB at B is due to the pressure exerted by the
gravitational field column of mercury. Height h is expressed in m. lf we take gravitational
strength is 10 N kg-1 field strength to be I = 9.8 N kg-r and the density of mercury to be
and atmospheric p = 1.3.6 x 103 kg m-t, we have
pressure rs
1.013 x 105 Pa,
calculate the height of
n
YB = hp{ 1.013 x 105 Pa
n
the water column in a 1.013 x 105 Pa
h--
0.760 m = 760 mm
water barometer. pg (13.6 x 103 kg m-') x (9.8 N kg{) =
(b) Why is the column of a
water barometer much Hence, at atmospheric pressure at sea level, the mercury column has a
taller than that of a height of 760 mm.
mercury barometer?
(9.8 N kg-t is a more accurate value of the Earth's gravitational field strength.
However, in this book, we often use 10 N kg-1for ease of calculation.)

The vertical height of the mercury

depends only on the atmospheric
pressure outside the tube. Even if the
column is tilted (Figure 7.17(b)) or the
cross-sectional area of the tube is varied,
the vertical height of the column remains
the same.
> Figure 7.L7

Chapter 7
Often, atmospheric pressure is not expressed in terms of pascal
(Pa). Instead, it is expressed as the height of the mercury column Take Note
in the barometer. For example, we can express 1 atmosphere as In a place of lower
760 mm Hf,, or 76 cm Hg. (Hg is the chemical symbol for mercury.) atmospheric pressure (e.9.
the Himalayan mountains),
To convert mm Hg to pascals, we simply express the height h of the the mercury column in the
barometer is shorter.
mercury column in metres instead of millimetres. We then multiply
This is because there is lower
h by the density pnrof mercury in kg m-3, and the gravitational field atmospheric pressure acting
strength g in N kg-1. For example, on the mercury surface in the
trough.
Height h = 760 mm = 760 x 1O-3 m Similarly, if the atmospheric
Atmospheric pressure Fo = 760 mm Hg pressure increases, the
pressure exerted on the
=nxPHexg
= (760 t 10-3 m) x (13.6 x 103 kg m-.)
mercury surface in the trough
is greater, and the column will
x (9.8 N kg-') be taller than 760 mm.
= 1.013 x 105 N m-2
= 1.013 x 105 Pa

orked €xample 7.6

Find the pressure (in cm Hg) at points A, B, C and D (Figure 7.t8).

Solution
Note that the space above the mercury column at A is a vacuum.
There is no force acting on the top of the mercury column.
:. Fn- 0 cm Hg
From the measurements made by the ruler, we have
hr=96cm-50cm=46cm n3
h^=96cm-20cm=76cm
h.=gOcm-10cm=86cm
Hence,
Pressure pB at B = 46 cm Hg
Pressure pc at C = 76 cm Hg > Figure 7.18
Pressure pDat D = 86 cm Hg

Measuring gas pressure using a Only atmospheric pressure

po acts on the surfaces of
manometer the liquid at both A and B.
The manometer is an instrument used to measure
Thus, the liquid settles at a
differences in the pressure of gases or liquids. lt is common level in both arms.
most commonly used for industrial purposes, such
as measuring the pressure in a gas pipeline.
> Manometers are
The manometer consists of a U-tube containing a used to control
liquid. This liquid is usually mercury, water or oil. the gas pressure
Figure 7.19 shows the manometer when it is not in petrochemical
connected to a gas supply. plants.

> Figure 7.19 A manometer that

is not connected to a gas supply
 Figure 7.20 shows a manometer with one end connected to a gas supply.
Note the difference in height of the liquid levels in the two arms of the
A U-tube is filled with two
U-tube. This height difference helps us measure the pressure difference
liquids, A and B. They are
between the two sides. How is this possible?
immiscible
(do not mix).
At B, the gas exerts
a pressure F, on the
surface of the liouid.
Since this oressure is
gas greater than atmospheric
suppry pressure, it pushes the
----------------
liquid level downwards
to B to eoualise the
liquid A of liquid B of pressure difference.
density pA density p,

Since liquids A and B are

at rest, < Figure 7.2O The manometerwith
Pressure at P = one end connected to a gas supply
pressure at Q
po+ h^pAg= po+ h"p"E
(where Po = atmospheric At equilibrium, the pressure at B and C must be equal, since they are at the
pressure) same level. Thus, the gas pressure pB at B is given by
hopoE = h"p"E
hopo= hrp"
pu = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to liquid column AC
h^ = Po+ hPg
p^= f"a pB where h = heiElht of liquid column AC;
Therefore, by measuring p = density of liquid used in the manometer.
the heights hoand hil
the unknown density 4of The pressure difference between the gas and the atmosphere is given by
liquid A can be found, if the pressure due to the liquid column, i.e.
the density p, of liquid B
is known. Pu- Po= hPE

onked €xample 77
FiSure 7.21 shows a manometer containing mercury of
density 13.6 x 103 kg m-3. The manometer is connected
to a gas supply. Calculate the pressure of the gas
supply in cm Hg and Pa. (Take gravitational field strength cm
E= tO N kg-t; atmospheric pressure p^= 76 cm Hg)
lowest
Solution - liquid
Given: length of mercury column AC = 5 cm level
atmospheric pressure p^= 76 cm Hg
Pressure pBof gas supply = po * pressure due to mercury column AC i^FigureT.2t
=76cmHg+5cmHg
=81cmHE
To convert cm Hg to Pa, p"= hp€
= (81 x 10-2 m) x (13.6 x 1-03 kE m-.) x (10 N kg-1)
= t.! x 105 Pa
Note: To convert pressure readings from mm Hg or cm Hg to Pa, you need to
express the height of the mercury column in metres.

Ghapter 7
1-. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.013 x 105 Pa. This value is From what you have
sometimes referred to as 1 atmosphere. learnt so far, have you
2 Some daily applications of atmospheric pressure include drinking through found the answers to
a straw and drawing liquid into a syringe. Suction caps make use of Let's Explore (c)?
atmospheric pressure to remain stuck on walls.
3 A mercury barometer uses the height of a mercury column to measure
atmospheric pressure. The unit of measurement is mm H$ or cm Hg.
4 A manometer is used to measure pressure differences in gases and liquids.

7.3
1,. (a) lf the liquid in a mercury barometer were replaced
with water of density 1000 kg m 3, what would
the height of the water column be, given that the
atmospheric pressure is 1.013 x 105 N m-2?
(b) State the effect on the height of the mercury column
if air were trapped at the top instead of a vacuum.
2. Figure 7 .22 shows a mercury manometer connected
to a large vessel containing neon gas. Given that the
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg, calculate the
pressure of the neon gas in cm Hg.
3. Figure 7 .23 shows a manometer being used to measure gas at pressure pe

the pressure peof a gas in a container. Given that the

atmospheric pressure po is 76 cm Hg, calculate the
pressure pn of the gas in cm Hg.

mercury
> Figute 7.23

defined as

examples

measured Transmitted equal ly throughout

usrng an enclosed liquid
grven by
in
{applied
Mercury barometer Hydraulic machines
I

t0v lexampres
I Y
Measuring the height Measuring the Pressure P= hPE . Hydraulic press
of the mercury height difference where . Car hydraulic disc
column above the between liquid h = height of liquid column (m) brake system
surface of the columns p = density of liquid (kg m-')
mercury in the trough g= gravitational field strength (N kg-')

Pressure
 State whether each of the following statements is true orfalse. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

1.?)_,j ll:":,:_rf i,.,9:lii:"9-3]1",..1:f,:-:I:-i.l"d

--'..--*
from arr directions at a point. 7.t
- - -'--i--''''-**----
(b) I ,l---,-
i Annnrd .--*
e pressure of a liquid increases with thei
l-',depth,
:

d. 7'2
- ''-'-"' I i --''*'--:-
f -" **-*'-- ***--
j ln a hydraulic press, the pressure of the liquid on both pistons is equal. The force ; .

(c)iactingonthe|argerpistonissma||erinmagnitudethantheforceactingonthe
i :r1l!lg':1": !3::iT.is_ll_"-f-isrro friction). : l

(d) When the height of the liquid column in a barometer rises, it means that the I

atmospheric pressure has risen.

(e) The manometer can be used to measure the difference between atmospheric
pressure and the pressure of a gas. t.3

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 4. A manometer is used to compare the pressure of

two gases, X and Y. What can be deduced about
1,. The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the
the pressure of gases X and Y?
force exerted by the atmosphere on a rectangular
surface that measures 0.5 m bv 0.4 m? dae Y dac V
A 20KN B 111 kN
c 200 kN D 250 kN

2. What is the height of a column of turpentine thar

mercury
would exert the same pressure as 5.0 cm of
mercury? (Density of turpentine = 840 kE m-3i
density of mercury = 13 600 kg m .)
A 0.06 cm B 0.30 cm scale rn mm
C 5.0 cm D 81.0 cm
The pressure of gas X is greater than that
of gas Y by 5 mm Hg.
3. At which point in the mercury column is
The pressure of gas X is greater than that
the pressure equal to 10 cm Hg below the
atmospheric pressure? ofgas Y by 20 mm Hg.
The pressure of gas X is less than that of
7to gas Y by 5 mm Hg.
_A 100 The pressure of gas X is less than that of
_B 90 gas Y by 20 mm Hg.
80
70
60
50
40
-c 30
_D
20
10
0cm

Chapter 7
Section B: Structured Questions Section C: Free-Response Questions
1. Figure 7.24 shows a solid, upright cylinder with t. (a) Figure 7 .25 shows the design of a dam.
a height of 20 cm and a radius of 1 cm. The Explain why the wall of the dam is thicker at
cylinder is submerged in a liquid with the top the bottom of the lake.
end ofthe cylinder 10 cm below the surface of
the liquid. The liquid has a density of 1.3 g cm-3

1O cm
l- cm
t Figure 7.25

(b) Water tanks are often located on the top

of high-rise buildings. In such cases, it is
common for occupants on the higher storeys
to experience low water pressure when they
turn on the taps. Why is this so?

t Figure 7.24 2. State Pascal's Principle. With the aid of a diagram,

describe how this principle is applied in the
lf g= 19 N kg ', calculate the hydraulic press.
(a) pressure acting on the top of the
cylinder; *3. Figure 7.26 shows a U-tube filled with two liquids,
(b) pressure acting on the bottom of A and B. They are immiscible (i.e. they do not mix).
the cylinder;
(c) pressure difference between the two ends liquid B of
of the cylinder. density pB
liquid A of
2. A tank with a base area of 4 m2 is connected density pA
at the bottom to a vertical tube with a cross-
sectional area of O.O1 m2 by a horizontal tube.
A liquid of density 1000 kg m-3 is poured into
the tank until a deoth of 0.5 m is reached.
(a) Draw a simple diagram of the above
set-up. In your diagram, the depth of liquid
in the tank and in the vertical tube should
be clearly shown. t Figwe 7.26
(b) Calculate the
(i) pressure due to the liquid on the (a) lf po = slmoapheric pressure and
base of the tank; g= gravitational field strength, give the
(ii) pressure due to the liquid on the formulae for the
base of the vertical tube. (i) pressure at P;
(c) lf the atmospheric pressure were (ii) pressure at Q.
120 000 Pa, what would the total pressure (b) lf the values of ho, h, and pu are known, give
on the base of the tank be? the formula for calculating the value of pA.

Pressure
In Singapore, innovative solutions have been put in place
to increase the nation's self-sufficiency in water. One of
them is the desalination orocess that turns seawater into
drinking water (desalinated water). Desalinated water is one Seawater
Intake > Flotation -
-> e.raanind Gravity sand_-Guard
ilni+ f ilter f ilter
of Singapore's four sources of water supply. Singapore's first
seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant was opened in Pre-treatment

2005. Seawater reverse osmosis technology consumes less

energy as compared to conventional seawater desalination 1 st Pass
t"..------> 2nd Pass
technologies, such as distillation. RO RO

Reverse osmosis
The desalination process involves three main stages.
Seawater first goes through pre-treatment, where suspended Post-treatment service
particles are filtered off. The pre-treated seawater is then unii
--t;tfft -> reservolr
storage
sent to the reverse osmosis (RO) stage, which is the key Post-treatment
process in producing drinking water. The last stage in the
process is post-treatment, where minerals and fluorides
are added back to balance the oH level of the water. These
three stages ensure that the quality of the drinking water
meets the strict standards set by PUB, Singapore's national
water agency, and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The
diagram on the right shows the sequence of steps in the
desalination process.

The two-pass RO process forms the core technology of the

desalination plant. Firstly, pre-treated seawater is pumped
at high pressure through semi-permeable RO membranes.
These membranes do not allow bacteria, viruses, chemicals,
dissolved salt and other minerals to pass through. Only water
molecules can pass through the membranes. The reverse
osmosis process is repeated in the second pass.
(Source: Hyflux and PUB)

1-. Why is this method of obtaining drinking water ideal for

Singapore?
o Singapore has Four National Taps (or four sources of
water supply). Find out what they are.
Think about the daily activities in which you use water.
Can you estimate how much water each activity uses? ' a a-
4. How can you and your family reduce water usage at
home? Share your ideas with your class.

I
During a volcanic eruption, lava gushes down the sides of a mountain in fiery streams.
These lava streams are so hot that they burn evefihing in their paths! Despite
the dangerous and unpredictable conditions, scientists often visit these scenes of
eruptions. By measuring the temperature of the lava streams, the scientists can
monitor the level of volcanic activity. However, the temperature must be measured
quickly, and from a safe distance. How is this possible?
 8.1 Measurement of Temperature
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
explain how a physical property that changes with temperature is used to construct
a temperature scale.

mperature and heat

In daily conversation, we often use the words temperature and heat. These
two words have very specific meanings in physics.

You will learn more

about thermal energy
in Chapter 11.
The Sl unit of temperature is the kelvin (K), while the Sl unit of heat is
the joule (J).
Although the Sl unit
of temperature is When we say, "Heat the soup on the electric stove," we mean that thermal
the kelvin, the unit energy will be transferred from the hot stove to the cold soup. The stove can
degree Celsius is also be set to heat the soup to the desired degree of hotness. How is the degree
commonly used. of hotness or coldness (i.e. temperature) measured?

How do we measute temperature?

The metal poles feel colder than the plastic overhead
hand straps in the MRT, although they are both at the same
temperature (Figure 8.1). This is because our sense of touch is
a poor estimate of temperature. To measure temperature
accurately, we use instruments called thermometers.

When designing a thermometer, we need to consider several

factors. For example, will the scale be easy to read? Will the
range of the scale be suitable for a particular usage?

In general, a good thermometer has the following features:

. An easy-to-rea e
".:..::,:..,*_
. Safe to use
. Responsive to erature changes
. Sensitive to small temperature changes
o Able to measure the required range of temperatures

< Figure 8.1 Our hands

do not orovide an accurate
measure of temperature.

Ghapter 8
 oa
upper
100 fixed
How do we construct a temperature scale? - point
In order for thermometers to give us a temperature reading, they must be
marked with a temperature scale. A commonly used temperature scale is
the Celsius scale (or the centigrade scale). To derive a temperature scale,
we carry out the steps as shown in Figure 8.2.
-go
1eo
Step 1: Choose an appropriate substance
. Choose a suitable thermometric substance.
. Thermometric substances can be solids, liquids or gases. They have
physical properties that vary continuously and linearly with temperature. -lO
These properties are called thermometric properties.
v Table 8.1 Thermometric properties of some thermometers -59

Mercury-i n-glass thermometer;

Volume of a fixed mass of liquid
alcohol-in-glass thermometer -50
Electrical resistance of a oiece of metal Resistance thermometer

Electrical voltage or electromotive force (e.m.f.) Thermocouole thermometer -40

-30
Step 2: Calibrate the thermometer
(a) Ghoose two fixed points
. Choose two standard degrees of hotness or coldness that are easily
-ZO
obtainable and reproducible. These are called fixed points.
. Record the values of the physical property of the substance at the two fixed
points. These two fixed points are called lhe lower and upper fixed points. -10
tower
(b) Set up the scale fixed
. Divide the interval between the two fixed points into a suitable number of -o point

equal parts (or degrees) to obtain a scale. For example, the Celsius scale
is divided into 1OO equal parts between the lower fixed point (O'C) and the
upper fixed point (100'C).
. When setting up the scale, we assume that the physical property varies
linearly with temperature. This means that when temperature changes, the From what you have
physical property changes uniformly and continuously. learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
r Figure 8.2 Constructing a temperature scale Let's Explore (a)?

a.l
1,. Thermometers use the physical properties
of thermometric substances to measure 1-. "Heat flows from a region of higher
temperature. temperature to a region of lower temperature."
2. Physical properties that vary with temperature State the meaning of this sentence.
include the volume of a liquid, electrical 2. State the physical property that varies
resistance of a metal wire, and electromotive with temperature for a (a) liquid-in-glass
force (e.m.f.) produced by a thermocouple. thermometer; (b) thermocouple thermometer.
3. A fixed point is a standard degree of hotness 3. With reference to the information in Table 8.1.
or coldness, such as the boiling point or explain why the length of a mercury column
melting point of a substance. varies with temperature.

Temperature
 8.2 Galibrating a Thermometer
Visit http://
resou rces. edb.gov. Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
hklcphysics to search
. -
describe how a liquid-in-glass thermometer is calibrated;
for a demonstration ' explain why we need fixed points, such as the ice point and steam point, for
on calibrating a calibrating a thermometer.
thermometer. Use
keywords such as
"thermometbr" Galibrating a thermometer with the Celsius scale
and "calibrate". To construct a liquid-in-glass thermometer and calibrate it with the celsius
scale, we follow the steps in Figure 8.3.

v Figure 8.3 Constructing a liquid-in-glass thermometer

When scientists work togethel Step 1: Choose an appropriate substance

William Thomson, who adopted
The thermometric substance commonly used in a
the title Lord Kelvin, was an
liquid-in-glass thermometer is mercury (or alcohol).
lrish-born physicist and engineer,
while James Prescott Joule
was an English physicist. They
had many collaborations. Joule
conducted the experiments, while Step 2: Calibrate the thermometer
Thomson analysed the results and
(a) Ghoose two fixed points
suggested further experiments.
Using the fixed points as reference, marks can then be
Together, their work led to many made to set up the scale for temperature measurement.
important discoveries, sucn as
the theory of the conservation of For the Celsius scale, we use the following fixed points:
energy, the Kelvin temperature
scale and the heating effect of a
current through a resistor (Joule
heating). The Joule-Thomson
effect, named after both of them,
is the basis for the cooling and
liquefaction of most gases, and
the science of cryogenics.

What attitudes do you think

enabled the successful
collaboration of Joule ano
Thomson? Which of these (b) Set up the scate
attitudes do you apply in daily life? After the ice and steam points are determined, we divide
the interval between the ice point and the steam point into
100 equal parts. Each interval on the scale is 1oC.

This method of using two fixed points to calibrate a

thermometer assumes that the thermometric property
changes linearly with temperature.

r Lord Kelvin a James Prescott Joule

$424-7907) (1818-1889)

You learnt in Chapter 7 that one atmosphere is the pressure

exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.

Chapter 8
 How do determine the ice point?

lmmerse the bulb and the lower oart of the thermometer

stem into a funnel containing pure melting ice.

When the mercury level in the thermometer stem

melting ice remains steady, make a mark, lo, at that level on the
stem. This mark corresponds to the lower fixed point,
called the ice ooint.

ree autimxr
Use crushed ice to ensure good contact between the bulb
and the ice. Use an appropriate volume of crushed ice so
that the mercury level in the stem can be observed just
above the level of ice.

< Experimental set-up for determining ice point

Insert the thermometer into the apparatus. The bulb

of the thermometer should be just above the boiling
water.

The stem of the thermometer should protrude from

the top of the apparatus.

When the mercury level in the thermometer stem

remains steady, make a mark, lroo, at that level on the
stem. This mark corresponds to the upper fixed point,
called the steam ooint.

Free aution
outlet for
sleam to Use the manometer to check whether the oressure inside
the apparatus is the same as the atmospheric pressure
manometer outside. lf the pressure is not equal, adjust the flame
accordingly to increase or decrease the pressure inside.

boiling water
< Experimental set-up for
determining steam point
 How do calculate temperature with a mercury-in-glass
the ometer?
In a mercury-in-glass thermometer, the physical property that changes
continuously with temperature is the volume of a fixed mass of mercury.
We can measure the changes in the volume of mercury by measuring the
change in the length of the mercury thread. This is possible because the
cross-sectional area of the mercury thread is uniform. Figure 8.4 shows us
how to calculate temoerature.

, @ finO the following values:

; o Length /o of the mercury thread at O'C
), o Length /roo of the mercury thread at 1OO"C

I- 100

Find the length /, of the mercury thread

at unknown temperature 0. We can find
the value of 0 using the equation below:
I _I
point
(a) At ice (b) Atsteam (c) At unknown e= # x 1OO'C
(O'C) point (100'C) temperature (0)
t
Loo - 'o

r Figure 8.4 Findingthe unknown temperature 0

Change in
physical cersius -
CorrespondinE n^t^
uarculati temperature on the Celsius sca/e
property temperature The general equation for calculating temperature on the Celsius scale is

0_ x 1O0.C where 0 = unknown temperature of a body (in 'C);

I = physical property of the thermometric
Xroo- substance.
We will learn how this equation can be used to calculate temoerature.

onked Cxampl€ 8.1

In an unmarked mercury thermometer, the lengths of the mercury

l/cm thread io and lroo are 5.0 cm and 25.0 cm respectively. What is the
temperature gwhen /, is (a) t4.O cm; (b) 3.0 cm?

Solution
Given: /o = 5.0 cm, /1oo = 25.0 cm
(a) When /, = 14.0 cm, (b) When /, = 3.0 cm,
tl ,t
e=i* x 100.C B 'e
= '100
"ll.-+.
'o x 1OO'C
"1oo 'o 'o
(14.O - 5.0) cm (3.0 - 5.0) cm
r The length of a mercury thread x 100'C - (25.0 - 5.0) cm x 100'C
(25.0 - 5.0) cm
is assumed to vary linearly with
temperature. = 45oC = -10oC

Chapter 8
How do calculate temperature with a resistance thermometer?
A resistance thermometer consists of a platinum wire coiled around a piece
of mica in a silica tube. lt works on the principle that the resistance R of
a fixed length of wire varies continuously with temperature over a range
of values. Platinum is usually chosen, as it has a high melting point. The
modified general equation is

0 - x 100'C where Re = resistance of the platinum wire at

the unknown temperature I (in Q);
Ro = resistance of the platinum wire at
ice point, i.e. 0"C (in A);
R.oo = resistance of the platinum wire at
steam point, i.e. 100'C (in O).

orked Cxample 8.e

A piece of metal wire has a resistance of 800 O at ice point and 810 O at steam
point. Calculate the unknown temperature when the resistance of the wire is 803 O.

Solution
Given: Ro = 800 f), R oo = 810 Q, R, = 803 O

Let the unknown temperature be 0.

$:-S- x 100.c--- (803-800) O r

9= Kroo-ho (g1or-gco)e - 1OO"C = 3o"C

A thermocouple consists of two types of wires made of different metals,

such as copper and iron. The ends of the wires are joined to form two
junctions. The junctions produce a small electromotive force (e.m.f.) when
there is a temperature difference between them. Therefore, the temperature
can be calculated using the readings of a voltmeter.

One junction is usually kept at a fixed temperature (e.9. 0"C) and the other
junction is used as a probe to measure an unknown temperature 0. The
defining equation of the thermocouple thermometer is
e* A0 where € = e.fil.f. produced (in V);
o, = difference between the junctions Youwill learn about
e.m.f. in Chapter 17.
l:.lt"i?.il:
The temperature can be determined by comparing the e.m.f. reading with
calibrated values for the ice and steam ooints.

Temperature
 orked €xample 8.3
In a certain thermocouple thermometer, a voltage reading of +4.00 mV was obtained when the
cold junction was placed in melting ice, and the hot junction in boiling water at one atmosphere.
When the hot junction was taken out of the boiling water and placed in boiling propane, the voltage
registered was -1.50 mV. Find the temperature of the boiling propane on the Celsius scale of the
thermocouple.

Solution
For a thermocouple thermometer,
e.m,f. € * temoerature difference A9.
Ao
Therefore. i. .on.tunt.
e
J: !'c (199^
= -(-1.50 mV)
= (4.00 mV)
9l^t , where 0 = temperature of boiting propane

^ 100"c x (-1.50 mV) = -37.5"C

.'. 0 =
+.OO nW

Measuring lava temperature

The thermocouole thermometer is an
instrument suitable for measuring the
temperature of lava. lt can measure high
temperatures of up to 1500'C. lt is very
responsive, enabling temperatures to be
taken quickly. lt can also be used from a
safe distance.

) Measuring lava temperature

with a thermocouple thermometer

From what you L. When calibrating a thermometer, we need a lower and an upper fixed
have Iearnt so far, point (e.9. the ice point and steam point). We then divide the interval
have you found the between them into a fixed number of equal parts.
answers to Let's
Explore (b) and (c)? 2. The general equation for the Celsius scale is e = !1x
ntoo - no
1OO.C.

3. A thermocouple thermometer consists of two wires made of different

metals joined together to form two junctions.
4. The defining equation of the thermocouple thermometer is
e.m.f. s * temoerature difference A0.

L. (a) What is meant by the term fixed poinft

(b) Define the upper and lower fixed points of the Celsius scale.
2. Write down the general equation for the Celsius temperature scale.
3. (a) What is a thermocouple thermometer?
(b) How does it work?
Chapter 8
 measured with

make use of

o Liquid-in-glass thermometer
a Resistance thermometer
a Thermocouple thermometer
that have sucn as

Physical properties that vary Celsius scale

continuously and linearly with
temperature
,
wnere
X _X^
e=-JL:. x100.C
trroo An-
Lower and upper fixed points
e.g. ice point (0'C),
steam point (100"C)

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevanr
section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) A physical property that changes continuously with temperature can be used
' construct a temperature scale.

of physical properties described in (a) include the volume of a liquid,

' nl I. the
f l^"tples
resistance oT
rrre [esrsLirtlce of a melal
metal Wlre, and tne
wire, ano the e.m.t.
e.m.f. produced bv a thermocouple.
oroduced by thermocounre
thermocouple. i
.
r
8.1
8.2

(c) ]: scale for a liquid-in-gtass thermometer, we onty need

:::*:l ?'t"Tpul"tufe.
to determine the fixed points.
I 8.1
g.2
: The general equation for calculating temperature on the celsius scale is
(d) i l
x^- x^
'-' e--li9---lo
" x.1_00"C. i i 8.2
4oo-Xo"
Answers are available at the back of the book.

Tempelatule
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions
L. A mercury-in-glass thermometer and a 2. A device called a thermistor is used in the
thermocouole thermometer are both calibrated construction of a resistance thermometer.
using the same fixed points of O'C and 100"C. The thermistor has resistance values of
When both thermometers are used to measure 2.2 kA and 1.0 kO when it is placed in melting
the temperature of a body, the temperatures ice and boiling water, respectively, at
measured on both thermometers will be exactlv one atmosohere.
the same (a) On the Celsius scale, what points do
A for all temperatures between 0"C and the temperatures of melting ice and boiling
100"C only water reoresent? State their values.
B only at the fixed points (b) A reading of -tI6.7'C is obtained using the
C for all temperatures at all times resistance thermometer. Calculate the
D only at 100"C corresponding value of the resistance of
the thermistor.
2. The e.m.f. of a certain thermocouple with (c) State the assumption you would have
one junction P in pure melting ice and the to make, in order for the equation you
other junction Q in steam is 4.1 mV. With used to derive the answer in (b) to be
junction P still in melting ice, junction Q is valid. Explain your answer with regard
placed in boiling liquid. The e.m.f. is now to how the physical property of resistance
-9.1 mV. The temperature of the boiling changes with temperature.
liquid in'C is
A -222 B -55
C +55 D +222
Section C: Free-Response Questions
3. The lengths of a mercury thread in a L. (a) Using the example of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer calibrated with the Celsius scale thermometer, outline how a physical
are 5.0 cm and 15.0 cm at ice and steam ooints property that varies continuously with
respectively. What is the temperature reading temperature may be used to construct a
when the length of the mercury thread is temoerature scale.
3.0 cm? (b) Describe a laboratory experiment to
A 2O'C B 3O'C determine the two fixed ooints of a
c -20"c D -30"C mercu ry-i n-glass thermometer.

*2. (a) Describe the principal features and the

Section B: Structured Questions working principle of a thermocouple
1. Complete the following table. thermometer.
(b) Explain what features of the thermocouple
v Table 8.2
thermometer enable it to be used to measure
(i) rapidly changing temperatures, such as
the temperature in a hot furnace;
(ii) the temperature at a point
(a) (a small area).

(b) Platinum wire

Two wires made
(c) Thermocouple of different
metals
Worksheet 8

Chaptet 8
 9.1 The States of Matter
A substance in the
solid state is usually
more dense than in the
liquid state. Water is an
exception: ice is less
dense than liquid water.
Water is a common compound found on Earth. Figure 9.1- shows the three
different states of water. The state of water deoends on its temperature
and the pressure it is under. In general, substances (e,9. water)can exist in
v Figure 9.1 Water
three states of matter solid. liouid and gas.
exists in three states
solid, liquid and gas.
-
-
Gas
Steam, the gaseous state of water, is
invisible to the naked eve. The mist
we see when water boils is actually
tiny water droplets formed by steam
that has condensed in the cool air.

Properties
r No fixed shaoe or volume
o Low density
o Compressible

Liquid Sslid
Water in the liouid state is found in water lce, the solid state of water, exists
bodies such as oceans and rivers. Only 1o/o of in many forms, such as snow,
the Earth's water is suitable for drinking. glaciers, icebergs and ice cubes.

Properties Froperties
o Fixed volume but no fixed shape . Fixed shaoe and volume
o High density . High density
. Incompressible o Incompressible

You can see that the properties of a substance vary depending on the state
it is in. Why? What happens in each state? To explain why different states
have different properties, we need to understand the nature of matter at
the microscopic leve,.
Chapter 9
9.2 The Kinetic Model of Matter
Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- You
. describe the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases;
. deduce from the Brownian motion experiment that particles are in
continuous motion;
. describe how the motion of particles is affected by temperature.

All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules (Figure 9.2).

r Figure 9.2 Atoms are

joined to form molecules.

The properties of each state of matter can be explained using the kinetic
model of matter (Figure 9.3).

Closely packed together, Particles vibrate about fixed positions.

solid usually in a regular pattern, The particles are held in position by very
occupying minimal space strong attractive forces between the
Large number of particles per oarticles.
unit volume This explains why solids have fixed
This results in solids having volumes and shapes.
the highest densities.

Randomly arranged, with the Particles are free to move about within
liquid particles slightly farther apart the liouid. There are attractive forces
than in solids between the particles.
Slightly smaller number of This explains why liquids have fixed
particles per unit volume volumes, but take the shape of
compared to solids the container.
This results in liquids having
relatively high densities.

Randomly arranged and very Particles have very little attraction

gas
far aoarl from one another between them, and move about randomly
Small number of particles per at very high speeds. The particles
unit volume occupy any available space.
This results in gases having This explains why gases have no
very low densities. fixed volume or shaoe. and are
highly compressible.

Figure 9.3 Propefties of the three states of matter explained using the kinetic model of matter
^

Kinetic Model of Matter

 Figure 9.4 shows how the forces and distances between particles varv in
the three states of matter.

solid
lila^,
"qK

liquid

oou"
,ogell
"
"/er

r, Figure 9.4 The forces and

distances between particles change
according to the state of matter
they are in.

Evidence of molecular motion

The tiny particles that make up matter cannot be seen with the naked eye.
ls there evidence to show that these tiny particles are in continuous
random motion?

Brownian motion is named after Robert Brown, the botanist who first
observed the continuous, random motion of pollen grains suspended in
water, and deduced that water molecules were in constant, random motion.
similar behavior is displayed by smoke particles in air (lnvestigation 9.1).

Chapter 9
InvestiEation 9.1 A- orro
-t-
/o'
0bjective
To study the random motion (Brownian motion) of smoke particles

Apparatus glass cell

Microscope, torchlight, glass cell containing smoke

Procedule
7. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 9.5.
2. Seal a glass cell containing some smoke and place glass lid
it under the microscope.
3. Focus the microscope such that the smoke particles
in the glass cell appear as bright dots. The smoke
particles appear as bright dots because they scatter torchlight
the light that shines on them.
4. Observe the motion of the smoke particles (Figure 9.6). SMOKC
particles

0bsevvations r Figure 9.5

1. The smoke particles moved in a random manner. Experimental set-up to
2. fhe larger the particles, the less agitated the motion. observe Brownian motion

Discussioll
The smoke particles moved randomly because air molecules were
bombarding them randomly. (Air molecules are too small to be seen.)
This random motion of smoke particles in air is called Brownian
motion.

Brownian motion refers to the observed random movement of

oarticles in a fluid.
r Figure 9.6 Smoke
Note: Brownian motion occurs only in fluids. A fluid is any substance pafticles move in a
ranoom manner.
that has the ability to flow or has particles that can move freely
(e.9. gases and liquids).

Effects of temperature on molecular motion

lf you observe the Brownian motion of smoke particles at a higher
temperature, you will notice that the motion of the smoke particles is more Visit http://minutelabs.io
vigorous and agitated (i.e. they will move faster and change direction to watch an animation
more often). Why? on Brownian motion. Use
keywords such as
"Brownian motion" and
When the temperature of the air increases, the average kinetic energy of "random motion".
the air molecules increases. This means that air molecules have greater
average speed at higher temperatures. The faster-moving air molecules
bombard the smoke particles more vigorously and frequently. This will cause
the smoke particles to move faster and change direction more frequently. Let's Explore!
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a) and (b)?

Kinetic Model of Matter

 orked €xample 9.1

Figure 9.7 shows the set-up for a typical Brownian

motion experiment.

(a) Using the kinetic theory of matter, explain A._eye

why smoke particles in the glass cell show
continuous random motion.
(b) Sketch a typical path of a smoke particle
Brownian motion. il^^^
uErl
Erq-) ^^ll
with smoke
Solution partic les
(a) The kinetic theory of matter states that air
particles are in constant, random motion. The glass lid
air particles bombard the smoke particles
continuously, causing the smoke particles to
move continuouslv in random directions.
q
6
,*

9.1 E' 9"e

L. The three states of matter solid, liquid ano 1-. Using the kinetic model of matter, explain
gas can be distinguished- by their properties. why the density of a gas is lower than that
2. The -kinetic model of matter describes matter of a solid.
as being made up of tiny particles that are in 2. (a) What is Brownian motion?
continuous random motion. (b) As temperature is increased, how will
3. Brownian motion is the random motion of the movement of smoke particles in
particles that are suspended in a fluid. When Brownian motion change?
temperature increases, the particles in the fluid (c) What would you expect to see if the
are observed to move faster and more vigorously. smoke particles were much larger?
4. Brownian motion orovides evidence for the kinetic whv?
model of matter.

Scents going the distance scents when they are ready to mate. By
-
We are able to smell because our noses pick up having a strong sense of smell, the male
chemicals in the air that stimulate our sensory cells. Emperor moths can detect these females
The scents we pick up are actually molecules that from distances of up to 10 km.
drift about in the air. These molecules move about in
a random manner as they spread through the air. The male Emperor moth is able to
pick up scents faster and over longer
The male Emperor moth's antennae act like a human distances on a hot day. This can be
nose. In fact, the male Emperor moth's antennae explained using the kinetic model
have such powerful sensory cells that they are able of matter. Air molecules move with
to detect scents from a distance of 10 km awav! greater average speed and bump into
one another more often at higher
Why do male Emperor moths need such a strong temperatures. This rapid motion helps
sense of smell? Female Emperor moths release spread the scent. r A female Emperor moth

Chapter 9
9.3 Pressure in Gases
Learning Outcomes be able to:
- Youofshould
. explain how the pressure a gas is related to its molecular motion;
. describe the effects of changes in pressure, volume and temperature of a gas and
solve related problems.

Motion of molecules and pressure

In Chapter 7, we learnt about the effects of atmospheric pressure. A container
filled with air (at atmospheric pressure) is not crushed by the atmospheric
pressure, because the air inside the container exerts a pressure that is
equal to the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. The net force acting on the
container's wall is zero, and hence the container is not crushed.

So, how do the air molecules inside the container produce a pressure on
the container's walls? We can explain this using the kinetic model of a gas
(Figure 9.8),

When an air molecule collides with the inner wall of the container, a
lorce F" is exerted on the wall. By Newton's Third Law of Motion, an equal
but opposite force F, is exerted by the wall on the molecule. Recall what you have
learnt about Newton's
Third Law in Chapter 3.
By considering numerous such collisions between the air molecules and the
wall, an average force is exerted by the molecules on the wall. The force per
unit area gives rise to the pressure exerted by the molecules on the walls of
the container.

From this, we can conclude that the pressure of a

gas is due to the collisions of the gas molecules
with the walls of the container,

f = Force exerted on the wall by the air molecule

r Figure 9.8 The air molecules
bombard the inside of the wall
Fr= Force exerted on the molecule by the wall and exeft a force on it.

Pour some hot water into

a plastic bottle and quickly
screw on its cap tightly.
\ ,rl' coto
Run cold water over the water
bottle to cool it rapidly.
The bottle will suddenly
crumple. Using the kinetic
theory of matter, can you -+<- -->-'-.- -->+ ><
explain why it crumples2 force
.--><- >':::- forne -'><->< Smaller
oue to arr air++
due to force of
ts, ---"' - --}-<: +-a- force of pressure partial
This demonstration should
-+ :-
steam -->+ ><- vacuum
only be performed by a pr s>)ur s
i_l
teacher.

Kinetic Model of Matter

 Pressure-temperature (p-T) relationship of a gas
Try touching the tyres of a car before and after it has travelled a long journey.
You will notice that the tyres become hotter after the journey. Since the
tyres become hotter, the temperature of the air in the tyres will have increased
as well.

When the temperature of the air in the tyres increases, the pressure of the
air in the tyres also increases. Can the kinetic model of gases (i.e. kinetic
model of matter applied to gases) be used to explain this relationship?
Let us consider what happens to a fixed mass of air inside a tyre of
fixed volume.

!- When the car is moving, the tyres get heated. This

, causes the temperature of the air in the tyres to rise.

Using the kinetic model of gases, a rise in the

temoerature of the air causes an increase in the
average speed of the air molecules.

r Heat generated in an overinflated

car tyre after a long journey could The air molecules bombard the inner surface of the tvres
burst the tyre because of the more vigorously and more frequently.
increased pressure.

The average force per collision between the air molecules and
the wall of the lyre increases, and since the volume of the tyres
is fixed. the oressure inside the tvres increases.

force applied to keep the volume of the container constant

Pressure,/Pa

.\\
slower-moving
gas molecules at
temperature f
+> {k'. faster-moving
gas molecules at
\ti
temperature 2f

r For a fixed volume and mass of gas, increasing its temperature

Figure 9.9 Pressure results in an increase in the speeds of the gas molecules. This
^ temperature graph of a
vs. increases the rate and force of the collisions with the wall. Thus.
gas at constant volume the gas pressure increases propoftionately.

Chapter 9
Pressure-volume (p-V) relationship of a gas
Have you noticed how bubbles in a fish tank increase in size as they rise
from the bottom of the tank to the top? Do you know why this happens?
The answer can be found in the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas when temperature remains constant. The apparatus shown
in Figure 9.10 can be used to study this relationship.

The gas to be investigated is trapped in the syringe. Pressure is measured

by the pressure gauge, and volume is read from the syringe's scale
when the gas is at the same temperature as its surroundings. When the
piston is pushed inwards, the pressure registered by the pressure gauge
increases. Whv?

Using the kinetic model of gases, a decrease in

the volume of the, gas means that the number of
molecules per unit volume Increases.

Therefore, the gas molecules collide more frequently

with the inner surface of the syringe and this results
r Figure 9.10 Experimental set-up
to study the relationship between
in a greater force. the volume and pressure of a gas at
constant temoerature
F
As p = gas pressure increases, and this increas
l,
shown on the pressure gaqge.

Molecules exert a
force on the inner
surface ofthe volume halved
r. Figure 9.11 Pressure
container as they
bounce off the walls
r)> vs. volume graph of a gas
at constant temoerature
of the container. pressure
doubled

r For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, decreasing

its volume results in a proportionate increase in its pressure.

From the equation ,= +, we derive the relationship pV= k. When there

is a change in the pressure or volume of a gas at constant temperature,
pr.V"= p"V,where p1 and p2are the initial and final pressures respectively,
and V"and V, are the initial and final volumes respectively. When a graph of
p against Vis plotted, the result is a smooth curve (Figure 9.11). However, if p
r Figure 9.12 Pressure vs.
1/volume graph of a gas at
1
constant temoerature
is plotted against f,V' a straight line is obtained (Figure 91-2).
Kinetic Model of Matter
 coloureo
water droplet Volume-temperature ( I) telationship of a gas
thermometer How does the volume of a gas vary with temperature if the gas pressure is
kept constant? A simple experiment can be set up (Figure 9.13) to study
capillary tube
this relationship.
insulator
ln this experiment, the gas in the flask is heated. You will observe that as
the temperature in the flask increases, the coloured water droplet moves
up the capillary tube. This means that the volume of gas in the flask is
increasing. Why does this happen? The kinetic model of gases can explain
this phenomenon.

heat from !4using the kinetic model of gases, a rise in the

the hands is temperature of the gas causes an increase in the
transferred average speed of the gas molecules.
t^ tha d2q

The heated gas molecules collide more viglorously and

more frequentlywith the inner surface of the flask.

r Figure 9.13 Experimental Gas pressure increases, and when it exceeds atmospheric
set-up to study the relationship pressure a net upward force acts on the coloured water
between the temperature and droplet, pushing it upwards.
volume of a gas

As the coloured water droplet moves upwards, the volume ot

the gas increases, causing the gas pressure to decrease. The
coloured water droplet will stop at the point where the gas
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.

In general, a gas expands when it is heated.

atmospheric
nraqcilro
Volume/m3

tu
\.'
=.alt
gas under '' \r * gas expands
,il
atmospheric
nroqqt trF 4

r Figure 9.14 Volume

vs. temperature graph of a
gas at constant pressure
I For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, increasing its
temperature results in a proportionate increase in its volume.
Chapter 9
 orked €xample 9.?
A sample of gas is contained in a cylinder that is closed by a piston (Figure 9.15). The pressure
of the gas can be increased, without a change in the temperature of the gas, by slowly movingthe
piston to the right to compress the gas into a smaller volume (Figure 9.1-6).
(a) In molecular terms, explain why the pressure of the gas is greater after compression.
(b) The gas in the cylinder in Figure 9.15 can also have its pressure raised by keepingthe piston
fixed and heating the cylinder. In molecular terms, explain why the pressure of the gas rises
as it is heated.

piston

cylinder

Solution
(a) As the gas is compressed, the number of gas molecules per unit volume increases, and hence
the frequency of collisions of the gas molecules with the walls increases. This causes the
increase in pressure of the gas.
(b) Heating increases the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules in the cylinder. The gas
molecules collide with the walls at a higher frequency and with larger average force. This leads
to an increase in pressure.

L. Gas pressure is due to the collision of gas molecules with the walls of From what you have
the container. learnt so far, have you
2. Using the kinetic model of gases, we can explain why the found the answers to
(a) pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its Let's Explore (c)?
temperature I if its volume Vis constant;
(b) pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume V, if its temperature f is constant;
(c) volume Vof a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature f, if its pressure p is constant.

1-. Using the kinetic model of matter, explain

(a) how the air in a container exerts pressure on the walls of the
contai ner;
(b) why the pressure in a car tyre increases as more air is pumped into
the tyre at constant temperature.
2. lf a gas is heated in a cylinder such that the pressure of the gas remains
constant, describe any change in the volume of the gas using the kinetic
model of matter.
3. Sketch the graph of pVvs. pwhen the temperature of the gas is constant.

Kinetic Model of Mattel

 Increase in temperature results
in particles having higher kinetic
energy (i.e. partlcles move faster).

explains the
properties of

. Particles are Particles are very

closely packed. far apart.
. Attractive forces Attractive forces
between particles between particles are
are very strong. negligible.
. Particles vibrate Particles move randomly
about fixed positions.

Gas pressure
is due to the collision of gas particles with
the walls of the container.

is directly is inversely
proportional to proportional to

Temperature : Volume
: is directly
proportional to

Chapter 9
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

,-. : Smoke particles suspended in air demonstrate Brownian motion as the particles
(D) 1

collide with one another.

.- _: :

i tll lf the volume of a fixed mass of gas is kept constant, heating it will result i i
i in an increased gas pressure. This is because the gas molecules will collide i 9.3
more vigorously with the walls at a greater
_rl-e_"I3:rrli]1111"_yil:_3t
trequencv'
sreater frequency. *:_;* __ j_,-:__
(e) i (ii) Decreasing the temperature of a fixed mass of gas without changing its
v.5
I
i
pressure
r-_ will result in a decrease in the volume of the gas.
' - . I
'-:*-
I

i (lii) fne pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is directly i i o?

i proportional to its volume. ,

tA 1 n dented ping-pong ball can be fixed by immersing the ball in hot water. Iir 9.3

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Ghoice Questions 2. Which of the following statements about

Brownian motion is correct?
L. How does the motion of liouid molecules differ from
A lt applies to gases only.
that of gas molecules?
B In a Brownian motion experiment, the
Liquid molecules Gas molecules smoke oarticles in air can be observed to
A Vibrate about their Vibrate randomly dance in a regular, predictable fashion.
mean positions C ln a Brownian motion exoeriment. the
B Vibrate about their Vibrate energetically smoke oarticles in air will slow down if the
mean positions air temoerature is decreased.
C Rotate and move Vibrate randomly D The motion of smoke oarticles in air is
randomly and energetically
due to the smoke particles colliding with
D Rotate and move Move randomly at
one another.
randomly high speeds

Kinetic Model of Matter

3. According to the kinetic model of matter, the Section B: Structured Questions
pressure exerted by a gas is caused by the
1-. (a) What is seen moving in a Brownian motion
A collision of gas molecules with one another at exoeriment?
high speeds
(b) Why is a microscope necessary to observe
B bombardment of the gas molecules on the Brownian motion?
walls of the container (c) Explain how Brownian motion provides
C random motion of the gas molecules evidence for the kinetic model of matter.
D gas molecules being far apart from one another
2. Figure 9.77 is a diagram of a bicycle pump.
4. A fixed mass of gas is heated while being kept at
constant volume. How do the following properties of
handle oiled leather washer
the gas molecules change?
Average Frequency of Average
speed collisions distance apart
A Increases Increases Decreases shaft barrel
B Increases Increases Unchanged r Figure 9.17
c Increases Unchanged Unchanged When the nozzle of the pump is blocked and the
D Unchanged Increases Increases handle is slowly pushed to the right, the
temperature of the air in the barrel remains
5. A gas is heated in a sealed container of constant constant, while the pressure of the air rises.
volume. Which of the following will not increase? (a) In terms of molecular motion, explain
A The average speed of the molecules how the trapped air creates pressure on
B The pressure of the gas the washer. (lgnore any leakage past the
C The number of molecules oer unit volume washer.)
D The temperature of the gas (b) Why does the pressure of the air in the
barrel increase when the handle is slowlv
6. At room temperature, a flask is filled with air and pushed in?
plugged tightly with a stopper. The flask is then
placed in melting ice. Assume there is negligible
change in the flask size. Section G: Free-Response Questions
t. (a) Describe the motion of molecules in the
solid, liquid and gaseous states.
(b) State the relative strengths of the
intermolecular forces in the three states
of matter.
(c) How do the above two characteristics, i.e.
motion of molecules and intermolecular
forces, affect the shapes and volumes of
In the flask, what happens to the pressure of the air
solids, liquids and gases?
and the soeed of the air molecules?
Pressure Speed of molecules 2. An inflated car tyre is considered to have a
A Decreases constant volume regardless of any changes in
Increases
the temperature or pressure of the air in the tyre.
B Increases Increases
Use the kinetic theory of gases to answer the
C Decreases Decreases
following questions.
D Increases Decreases
(a) What causes the air pressure within
7. When a gas of fixed mass is heated under constant the tyre?
pressure, the _. (b) Why is the pressure equal at all points on
1 volume of the gas increases the inner wall of the tyre?
2 average speed of the gas molecules increases (c) Explain what happens to the pressure
3 average distance between the gas molecules exerted by the air in the tyre if
Increases (i) the temperature of the air in the tyre
Increases;
A lonly B 2only (ii) more air is pumped into the tyre while
C 2and3 D 1,.2and3 the temperature is kept constant.

Chapter 9
Emperor penguins live in the Antarctic, where temperatures can drop below -50"C.
They have adapted to the cold climate in a number of ways. They have thick layers of fat
under their skin, their bodies are covered with a thick layer of feathers, and they have
an interesting behavioral adaptation: hundreds of penguins huddle together and take
turns to be in the inner portion of the huddle. How exactly do these adaptations help
the emperor penguins keep warm?
 10.1 Transfer of Thermal Energy
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
show an understanding that thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature;
. apply the concept above to solve problems.

Prepare three small pails of water labelled P,

Q and R at 10'C, 37'C and 5O"C respectively.

Place both your hands in pail Q. Do your hands

feel warm or cold?

@ t"tow, place your right hand in pail P and your

left hand in pail R. Do your hands feel warm
A Figure 10.1 In which pail would the or cold?
hand feel warm, and in which pail, cold?

Try the activity shown in Figure 10.1. Your hands feel neither hot nor cold in
pail Q. This is because the water in pail Q is at the same temperature as your
body temperature
- your hands and the water are at thermal equilibrium.
There is no net gain or loss of thermal energy between your hands and
the water.

However, since the temperature of the water in pail R is higher than your
body temperature, thermal energy flows from the water to your left hand.
Recall from Chapter 8 Your left hand gains thermal energy from the water, and hence feels warm.
that heat is thermal Can you now explain why your right hand feels cold?
energy that flows from
a hotter region to a
colder region.

How is thermal energy transferred?

Thermal energy may be transferred through three processes: conduction,
convection and radiation. Which of these orocesses is involved in the
thermal energy transfer between your hand and the water?

1-. The transfer of thermal energy takes place when there

is a temperature difference. Thermal energy is always
transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region
of lower temoerature. In temperate countries, it is
When bodies are at thermal equilibrium (i.e. both bodies common for people to say they
are at the same temperature), there is no net flow of must "keep the cold out of the
thermal energy between them. house" during winter. ls it possible
3. There are three different processes of thermal energy to keep 'cold' out of places?
transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Comment on this.

Chapter 10
LO.2 Conduction
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
describe how energy transfer occurs in solids at the molecular level.

hat is conduction?
lf one end of a metal rod is heated with a flame, the other end will eventually
become hot. This is because thermal energy is transferred from the hotter
end of the metal rod to the cooler end. The transfer of thermal energy through
a medium, without the medium flowing, is called conduction.

Investigation 10.1 shows how different types of solids transfer thermal

energy at different rates.

Investigation 1o.l
boiling water
Objective
To investigate the transfer of thermal energy through
solids solid wax

Apparatus
Water bath, four rods of the same dimensions but made water
of different materials (copper, iron, glass and wood), bath
melted wax
stopwatch, wax
copper
procedure r Figure 1O.2

1-. Coat two-thirds the length of each rod evenly with melted wax.
2. When the wax has hardened, insert the rods into the water bath as
shown in Figure 10.2. Ensure that the rods are inserted to the same depth.
3. Pour boiling water into the bath.
4. Record the length of wax that remains on each rod (i.e. the length of wax
that did not melt offl after a suitable interval of time.

Observation
The length of wax that remained was the longest for wood, followed by glass, iron and copper.

Discussion and Conclusion

1. The wax on the four rods melted because thermal energy was transferred from the ends of the
rods submerged in boiling water (the hotter region) to the ends of the rods at room temperature
(the cooler region). The transfer of thermal energy through the rods occurred without any flow of
the rods' material. This means that thermal energy was transferred by conduction.
2. The length of wax that melted off each of the four rods is different. This observation shows
that different materials conduct heat at different rates. Since the length of wax that remained
on the rods is shortest for copper and longest for wood, we can conclude that, among the four
materials, copper is the best conductor of heat and wood, the poorest.

In general, metals such as copper and iron are good conductors of heat,
whereas non-metals such as glass, plastic, wood, wool, air and water are poor
conductors of heat. Another term for a poor conductor of heat is an insulator.
Transfer of Thermal Energy
 How does conduction woft?
Why is the rate of conduction much faster in copper than in wood? This is
because conductors and insulators use different mechanisms to transfer
thermal energy.

Recall from Chapter 9 Both metals and non-metals are made up of tiny particles (atoms or
that the motion of the molecules). The difference between metals and non-metals is that metals
particles in a substance contain many free electrons, while non-metals do not. These free electrons
is more vigorous at
move randomly among the atoms of the metal.
higher temperatures.

Figure 10.3 describes the process of conduction. Note that in metals, heat
is transferred through vibration of particles and free electron diffusion. In
non-metals, only vibration of particles takes place. This explains why metals
are better conductors of heat.

particles vibrate most vigorously particles vibrate least vigorously

non-metallic rod

The particles They collide with neighbouring particles, making Eventually, the
(atoms or them vibrate more vigorously. (The kinetic energy oarticles at the
molecules) at of the vibrating particles at the hot end is cooler end of the rod
the hot end transferred to the neighbouring particles.) are also set into
vibrate vigorously a The neighbouring region of the rod becomes hot. vigorous vibration.
about their fixed a Thermal energy has been transferred without the The cooler end of the
positions. transfer of oarticles. rod becomes hot.

(a) Thermal transfer in non-metals occurs via vibration of pafticles.

free electron

\O\
e-'->
e--,
(o(o
metallic rod

In addition to the process that The free electrons that gain kinetic energy move at greater
takes place in non-metals, speeds, and move to the cooler regions of the rod.
another (much faster) mechanism As these electrons move, they collide with the atoms in the
of thermal transfer takes olace in cooler parts of the rod, making them vibrate more vigorously.
metals: free electron diffusion. (Some of the kinetic energy of the moving electrons is
The free electrons at the heated transferred to the atoms.)
end absorb thermal energy, and Thermal energy is transferred via the motion of the free
hence gain kinetic energy. electrons. The cooler end of the rod becomes hot.

(b) Thermal transfer in metals occurs via vibration of pafticles and free electron diffusion.
r Figure 10.3 Transfer of thermal energy in metals and non-metals

Ghapter 10
Gonduction in liquids and gases
Thermal energy can also be conducted from a hotter region to a cooler
region in liquids and gases. However, this process is not efficient, because Which is a poorer
the particles in liquids and gases are spaced farther apart than those in conductor of heat,
water or air? Why?
solids. The collisions between the particles are therefore less freouent in
liquids and gases. In other words, the transfer of kinetic energy from the
fast-moving particles (in the hot region) to neighbouring particles (in the
cooler region) is slower. This explains why air and water are poor conductors
of heat.

lnvestigation lO.A
0bjective
Totest the conduction of thermal energy in water

Apparatus
Boiling tube, metal gauze, Bunsen burner water boils at the too
boiling tube
Froeedure
1. Wrap an ice cube with metal gauze and place it at ice wrapped in metal
gauze melts very slowly
the bottom of the boiling tube.
2. Fill the boiling tube with tap water until it
three-ouarters full.
3. Heat the boiling tube at the upper end, as shown
in Figure 10.4.
4. Observe the water being heated and the ice cube r Figure 10.4
at the bottom of the boiling tube.

0bservatlon
The ice cube took a longtime to melt even afterthe water atthe upper end of the boilingtube
started to boil.

Conclusion
The rate of thermal energytransfer by conduction, from the water atthe top of the boilingtube to
the bottom, is slow. ln other words, water is a poor conductor of heat.

7-. Conduction is the transfer of therma With reference to the particles in the medium,
energy through a medium without any describe what happens during the conduction of
flow of the medium. thermal energy in metals and non-metals.
2. Conduction occurs via the vibration of 2. Why are good conductors of thermal energy also
particles (for both metals and good conductors of electricity?
non-metals) and free electron 3. "Heat is transferred via conduction from a barbecue
diffusion (for metals only). fire to a person standing near the barbecue pit." ls
3. Liquids and gases are poor conductors this statement true? Explain vour answer.
of heat comoared to solids.

Transfer of Thermal Energly

 10.3 Convection
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
describe convection in fluids (liquids and gases) in terms of density changes.

hat is convection?
Convection is another process by which thermal energy can be transferred.

How does convection woft?

We will learn about convection and how it works through Investigations 10.3
and 1O.4.

Exr €st! ati n !

eetlve
To show convection in water

paralus
Round-bottomed flask, Bunsen burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze, retort stand

rece erfa
1,. Fill the round-bottomed flask with water and
carefully place some potassium permanganate potassium
permanganate
crystals at the bottom of the flask. Set up the
apparatus as shown in Figure 1_0.5.
2. Observe the potassium permanganate crystals
as the contents of the flask are being heated.

servation
Purple streams of water (shown as purple arrows
in Figure 10.5) were seen rising vertically at the a Figule 10.5 Convection in water
centre of the flask, fanning outwards at the top
and sinking at the sides of the flask.

nnclusion
The purple streams of water represent convection currents. When the water at the bottom of the
flask is heated, it expands. The expanded water is less dense than the surrounding water, and
therefore it rises. Since the upper region of the water is cooler, it is denser and therefore it sinks.
The difference in the densities of water at the different regions sets up a convection current.

In Figure 10.5, will convection occur if we heat the water at the top of the
flask? Whv?

Chapter 10
!nvestigation 10.4
Objective
To show convection ar
Apparatus
Large box with two chimneys and a glass
window, candle, incense stick

Procedure
t. Place the candle below one of the
chimneys. Light the candle.
2. Introduce smoke into the other chimnev
by placing a lit incense stick over it
(Figure 10.6).
3. Observe the movement of the smoke.

Observation
The smoke flowed doWn one chimney anc
rose through the other chimney (Figure 10.6). r Figure 1O.6 Convection in air

Eiscussion
The flow of the smoke represents a convection current. When the air above the candle is heated,
it expands. As the air above the candle is less dense than the surrounding air, it rises out of the
chimney. The cooler surrounding air (which includes the smoke from the incense stick), being
denser, sinks into the other chimney to replace the air that has left. The difference in the densities
of air at the different chimneys sets up a convection current.

Convection currents occur only in fluids (liquids and gases). They do not
occur in solids. This is because convection involves the bulk movement
Search the lnternet for a
of the fluidthat carries the thermal energy. For solids, thermal energy is
demonstration to learn
transferred from one particle to another through vibrations, without any more about convection.
bulk movement of the particles (i.e. via conduction). Use keywords such
as "demonstrations in
Physics" and "heat by
convection ".

the transfer of thermal energy by means of convection

currents in a fluid (liquid or gas), due to a difference in density.
2. A convection current is the movement of fluid caused by a difference in
the densities of various parts of the fluid.

L. Why does it feel hot when you put your hands above a burning candle?
2. Briefly describe the mechanism for the transfer of thermal energy in fluids.

Transfer of Thermal Energy

 LO.4 Radiation
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o -
explain energy transfer of a body by radiation;
o state the factors that affect the rate of energy transfer by radiation.

hat is radiation?
The Sun emits electromagnetic (EM) waves. One of the types of EM waves
emitted by the Sun is infrared radiation. The thermal energy from infrared
radiation makes us feel warm. All objects emit infrared radiation the
hotter the object, the greater the rate of infrared radiation emitted. -

Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium for
energy transfer. lt can take place in a vacuum.

Link Emission of infrared radiation

You will learn more All objects and surfaces emit infrared radiation. This emission causes the
about electromagnetic temperature of the object to fall. In Investigation 10.5, we observe how the
waves in Chapter 14. nature of the surface affects the rate of emission of infrared radiation.

lnvestigation lO.5
0bjective
To investigate the rate of emission of infrared radiation

Apparatus
Two temperature sensors, data logger, two identical tins (one black and one shiny)

Procedure to data logger to data logger

1,. Connect the two temperature sensors to the data logger.
2. Set the sampling rate to 10 s. (This means that the computer
will take a temperature reading every 10 s.)
3. Pour boiling water into both tins at the same time until both tins
are filled to the brim,
4. Place the lid and the temoerature sensors onto the tins
(Figure tO.7). Temperature sensor A is used to record the
temperature of the black tin, while temperature sensor B is
used to record the temperature of the shiny tin.
5. Start the temperature recording. Observe the temperature
change for both sensors on the screen of the data logger. black tin shiny tin
6. Stop recording after 10 minutes. r Figure 10.7
Temperature/'C
Ohservation
A typical experimental temperature-time graph recorded by a data logger
is shown in Figure 10.8. The temperature of the black tin fell at a faster
rate than that of the shinv tin until both reached room temoerature.

Conclusion
Dull and black surfaces emit infrared radiation at a faster rate than Time/min
shinv and silver surfaces. r Figure 10.8

Chapter 10
Absorption of infrared radiation
All objects and surfaces absorb infrared radiation. The absorption of infrared
radiation results in a temperature rise. Investigation 10.6 shows how the
nature of an object's surface affects its ability to absorb infrared radiation.

Investigation 10.6
0hjective
To investigate the rate of absorption of infrared radiation

Apparatus
Two temperature sensors, data logger, two sheets of
aluminium foil with the same dimensions. 100 W bulb,
black marker pen

Proeedure
L Connect the two temperature sensors to the data
logger (Figure 10.9).
2. Set the sampling rate of the data logger to 1 s.
3. Wrap the ends of the temperature sensors with the
oieces of aluminium foil.
4. Blacken the aluminium foil of temperature sensor B
with the black marker oen. Place the sensors at
blackened
equal distances from the bulb. aluminium
5. Start the temperature recording. Observe the foil
temperature-time graph and note the initial
temoerature 0 of both the sensors.
6. Switch on the bulb. Observe the temperature rise for
both temoerature sensors A and B. e, Figure 10.9
7. Switch off the bulb after five minutes.
Observation
Figure 10.10 shows a typical recording of the Temperature/'C
temperatures of the sensors wrapped with blackened
foil and shiny foil.
B - Blackened foil
A - Shiny foil

The blackened aluminium foil absorbed radiation at a

faster rate compared to the shiny aluminium foil.

Conclusion
Dull and black surfaces absorb infrared radiation at a
Time/min
faster rate compared to shiny and silver surfaces. r Figure 10.10

From Investigations 10.5 and 10.6, it is observed that dull and black
surfaces emit and absorb infrared radiation at a faster rate than shinv and
silver surfaces.

Transfer of Thermal Energy

 Seience Bites ctors affecting the rate of emission and absorption of
Net transfer of infrared infrared radiation
radiation The rate of emission and absorotion of infrared radiation deoends on three
In general, while an object
can simultaneously emit
factors:
thermal energy by infrared
radiation and absorb 1,. Colour and texture of the surface
energy radiated from the Dull and black surfaces are better emitters and absorbers of infrared
surroundings, it can only be radiation than shiny and silver surfaces (lnvestigations 10.5 and 1-0.6).
a net emitter or absorber
at any one time. lt is a net
absorber if it is cooler than
2. Surface temperature
The higher the temperature of an object's surface relative to the
the surroundings, and a
net emitter if it is warmer surrounding temperature, the higher the rate of emission of infrared
than the surroundings. radiation. Figure !O.!I shows a temperature-time graph for an object
emitting infrared radiation.
Temperature,/'C

Initially, when the temperature of the surface is high,

the rate of temperature decrease is high (i.e the rate
of emission of infrared radiation is high).

As time passes, the temperature of

the surface decreases, and the rate
of temoerature decrease becomes
lower (i.e. the rate of emission of
infrared radiation is lower).

This ohenomenon was also observed

in Investigation 1-0.5 (Figure 10.8).

Time/min

r Figure 10.11 The surface temperature of an object affects its rate of emission of infrared radiation.

3. Surface area
From what you have lf we compare two objects of the same mass and material, but with
learnt so far, have different surface areas, the object with the larger surface area will emit
you found the answers to or absorb infrared radiation at a higher rate.
Let's Explore (a) and (b)?

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form of

2.
infrared radiation.
Infrared radiation is emitted from the surface of all bodies
to.4
and does not require a medium to be transmitted. t. Give two everyday examples
3. Dull and black surfaces are better absorbers and emitters of thermal energy transfer
of infrared radiation than shiny and silver surfaces. by radiation.
The factors that affect the rate of energy transfer by 2. Briefly describe therma
radiation are energy transfer by radiation.
(a) colour and texture of the surface; 3. State three factors that
(b) surface temperature; affect the rate of transfer of
(c) surface area. thermal energy by radiation.

Ghapter 10
 10.5 Applications of Thermal Enetgy Transfer
Leaming Outcome You should be able to:
. -
describe how the concept of thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and
radiation applies to everyday life.

Common applications of conduction

Good con ctors of heat
lf thermal energy has to be transferred quickly through a substance,
conductors of heat are used. Metals are good conductors of heat and
are commonly used to make the following items:

L. Cooking utensils
Kettles, saucepans and boilers are usually
' made of aluminium or stainless steel.

r Soldering iron 2. Soldering iron rods

rods are used to
The tips of soldering iron rods are made
build and repair
electronic circuits. of copper, as copper is a much better
conductor of heat than iron.
..ra
a:l
: l*Li r. ':

3. Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers (Figure IO.!2) are used in large
laundry facilities to help save electricity. They reduce
the amount of electricity required to warm the clean
water to a temperature that is optimal for washing.
hot dirty water

As the clean water

flows through the heat
exchanger, thermal
energy is transferred cooled
from the hot dirty water dirty
to the cold clean water. water

Copper tubing good conductor of heat,

- copper is a
and hence aids rapid transfer of thermal energy from
the hot dirty water to the cold clean water.
warmer
r Fiture LO.L2 A heat exchanger clean water

Transfer of Thermal Energly

 or conductors of heat (insulators)
lf we want to minimise the loss of thermal energy, or prevent thermal
energy from being transferred quickly, insulators are used. Common
uses of insulators are listed below:

1-. Prevent injury and damage

(a) Handles of appliances and utensils
In order to prevent injury (burns), the handles of utensils like
saucepans, kettles, ladles, irons and soldering iron rods are
made of wood or plastics, which are poor conductors of heat,
(b) Table mats
To protect tabletops, hot kitchenware is usually placed on top
r Insulators are used to prevent
damage to table tops and injury
of table mats that are made of insulators such as cork. to hands.

2. Reduce heat loss

(a) Glothing for cold weather
Woollen clothes help keep people warm by trapping a layer of
insulating air.
Br o)) (b) Double-glazed windows (Figure 10,13)
Air is trapped between two panes of glass to reduce thermal
energy transfer through the windows.
ol
(c) Others
. Sawdust is a ooor conductor of heat. lt is used to cover ice
blocks to slow down the melting process.
. Fibreglass, felt and expanded polystyrene foam, which trap
r Figure 10.13 air, are employed as insulators in the walls of houses, ice
Double-slazed windows boxes and refrigerators.

Gommon applications of convection

1,. Electric kettles
Have you noticed that the heating coils of electric kettles are always
placed at the bottom of the kettle? This enables the transfer of thermal
energy in water by convection (Figure tO.I4).

j When the power is switched on, the water

I near the heating coil heats up, expands
ress oense.

The heated water therefore rises, while the

cooler water at the upper part of the kettle

*_*:::-:5 !:
n::1""1
1::::__
i A convection current is set uo.

convection current

water

heating coil < Figure 10.14 The convection current

enables the water ln the electric kettle to
be heated up more quickly and evenly.

Chapter 10
2. Household hot water systems
The household hot water system (Figure 10.15) is designed based on
the process of convection in liquids.

The overflow pipe is attached to the top of

the hot water cylinder. lt is used to channel
excess hot water into the cistern when the
oveflow pipe
temperature of the water becomes too high
and causes the volume of the hot water to
expand by a large amount.
cold water

The hot water tap

To replace the
hot water is positioned lower
hot water, cold than the cistern. This
water from the creares a pressure
hot water cylinder
cistern flows into difference that
the lower half causes the water to
cold water flow out of the tap.
of the cylinder
and then into
the boiler due
to the pressure WAIET DO er
difference. hot water tap

burners

Water is heated in the boiler by gas burners.

The hot water expands and becomes less
dense. Hence, it rises and flows into the
upper half of the hot water cylinder.

3. Air conditioners
Air conditioners are always installed near the ceiling
of a room to facilitate the setting up of convection
currents (Figure 10.16). An air conditioner releases
cool, dry air into the room. As cool air is denser, it
sinks. The warm air below, being less dense, rises and
is drawn into the air conditioner, where it is cooled. In
this way, the cool air is circulated and the temperature
of the air in the room will eventuallv droo.

> Figure 10.16 Convection currents

in an air-conditioned room

Based on your understanding of convection

currents, explain why the cold air vents of
refrigerators are usually placed at the top. warm atr

Transfer of Thermal Energy

 Common application of radiation
Greenhouses
In cold climates, greenhouses are used to trap heat. By trapping heat, the
temperature in the greenhouse is higher than the external temperature
(Figure to.t7). This helps plants grow better.

@ During the day, infrared radiation from the Sun

passes through the glass roof of the greenhouse.
This warms up the soil and plants in the greenhouse.

r Figure 10.17 Infrared radiation gets

trapped in the greenhouse.

Design of a vacuum flask

From what you have Vacuum flasks
learnt so far, have you Vacuum flasks (or thermos flasks) are desisned to keep liquids hot or cold by
found the answers to minimising heat transfer by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation
Let's Explore (c)? (Figure 10.18). Heat transfer by radiation is harder to stop because infrared
radiation can pass through a vacuum.

Flastie stopper Double-walled glass container

The plastic stopper reduces heat with silvered surfaces
transfer by conduction, convection The walls of the glass are silvered
and evaooration. so that infrared radiation is
reflected back into the hot liquid,
or to the surroundings if the liquid
is cold. Heat transfer through
Trapped air radiation is minimised.
Air is a ooor conductor of heat
and therefore conduction through
the trapped air above the liquid is
minimised.

Vacuurn Gork
The vacuum between the double Cork is a poor conductor of heat
glass walls of the flask prevents and is used to prevent heat
conduction and convection transfer bv conduction.
through the sides of the flask.
r, Fiture 10.18 A vacuum flask
Chapter 10
 orked €xample lO.l
Figure 10.19 shows a typical vacuum flask designed
to keep liquids hot or cold. Part of the vacuum flask is
enlarged. Name the parts labelled A, B and C, and explain
their functions.

Solution r Figure 10.19

A: Silvered walls
Shiny surfaces are poor emitters and absorbers of infrared radiation, and therefore minimise
thermal energy loss or gain by radiation.
B: Vacuum
The vacuum prevents thermal energy loss or gain by conduction and convection, since both of
these processes require a medium for thermal energy transfer.
Hollow plastic/cork stopper
The stopper minimises thermal energy loss or gain by conduction, since it is made of a poor
conductor of heat. When storing hot liquids, the stopper also prevents thermal energy loss by
convection and evaporation, since it prevents vapour from escaping from the flask,

The concept of thermal energy transfer can 1-. A saucepan with a thick copper base contains water.
be applied to everyday life: It is placed on a flat electric hot plate.
(a) Conduction the design of cooking (a) State the process by which thermal energy is
utensils and-table mats (i) transferred from the hot plate to the water;
(b) Convection the design of hotwater (ii)spread throughout the water.
systems and- electric kettles (b) The sides of the saucepan are well polished.
(c) Radiation the design of How does this reduce thermal energy loss?
-
greennouses 2. Would the tea in a black mug or a white mug cool
(d) Conduction, convection and radiation faster? Why?
the design of vacuum flasks
-

How do penguins keep warm?

The dense layer of feathers covering a penguin traps a layer of air.
This layer of trapped air, together with the thick layers of fat under
its skin, provides good thermal insulation that helps the penguin to
withstand temperatures below -50'C.

To cope with the cold weather, penguins also huddle close together
sometimes in packs of thousands! Huddling reduces the surface
-area of the body exposed to the cold, and this reduces heat loss
through conduction, convection and radiation. The penguins take
turns to be in the inner portion of the huddle. This allows the
penguins that have been at the outer edges of the huddle to warm
themselves up in the centre of the group. penguins are indeed
considerate creatures!

Do you notice how a cinema is colder when there are fewer people
in it? Can you explain why?

Transfer of Thermal Energy

 by the processes of

The design of appliances such as

. cookinB utensils
o heat exchangers
. household hot water systems
. air conditioners
o vacuum flasks

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

Thermal energy is transferred from a region of lower temperature to a region of higher

(a)
temoerature.

Thermal energy transfer in solids occurs via conduction, which involves the
(b)
collision of vibrating particles.
Convection, the primary means of thermal energy transfer in fluids, involves
(c) 10.3
changes in the densities of different regions of a fluid.

,^. i Solar
lelr
panels are usually painted dull black to increase the rate of absorption of
' -
InTrareo raotatton.
10.5
i

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Ghapter 10
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 5. A heated body is allowed to cool on a cork mat
and in an open space at room temperature.
t. According to the kinetic theory of matter, thermal Which of the following statements about the
energy is transferred from the hot end of a glass process by which the heated body loses heat
rod to the cold end when the molecules from the is incorrect?
hot end A The processes of convection, conduction
A move to the cold end and radiation are in ooeration.
B vibrate more vigorously and pass on the B Loss of heat by conduction is inefficient
energy to the neighbouring molecules because air is a bad conductor.
C emit infrared radiation to the cold end C The rate at which the body loses heat
D move from place to place so that they via radiation deoends on the colour and
collide with the colder molecules and texture of the body's surface.
transfer the energy to them D Loss of heat through radiation is most
effective when the temperature difference'
2. In a hot water tank, the heating element should is small.
be placed at the bottom because
A conduction cannot take olace when the
heater is at the top of the tank
Section B: Structured Question
B the heated water will rise and this will form
a convection current L. (a) A piece of kitchen aluminium foil is used to
C infrared radiation travels faster in the wrap food to be cooked in a barbecue fire.
upward direction One side of the foil is shiny, while the other
D the heater must be covered bV water at side is dull. Which side should be on the
all times outside and why?
(b) Most houses in countries that experience
3. In a vacuum flask, the vacuum prevents winter have air heaters installed. These
thermal energy transfer by _. heaters are usuallv installed near the floor.
A radiation Explain why.
B conduction
C convection
D conduction and convection Section G: Free-Response Question
4. In the experimental set-up shown in the figure
L. (a) "Copper is a good conductor of heat,
whereas wood is a poor conductor of heat."
below, equal volumes of hot water were poured
Exolain this statement with reference to this
into containers P and Q. At the start of the
mechanism of heat transfer in solids.
experiment, the temperatures of both containers
and contents were the same. After an hour, the
(b) Briefly describe the main mechanism by
which an electric kettle heats water.
tem0erature of container P was found to be
lower than that of container O.
(c) (i) What is infrared radiation?
(ii) Why are spacesuits and firefighting
suits covered with a shiny
metallic surface?
(iii) Why are car radiators and motorcycle
engines fitted with cooling fins that are
painted dull black and have the largest
oossible surface areas?
PQ
This shows that P is a better _ of heat than Q.
A conductor
B absorber
C radiator
D conductor and/or radiator

Transfer of Thermal Energy

 Frierv rriintor' 2 hr da amnrn+ nf mnnarr ,,,",,"J ia anant nn qnn\A/
romnri:l Hntliotior in.^^^^+..^-.^ r^^^^ h^^ h^^^ ^^,,ih^r5
-,. ,, , luuul lL ycolJ. Jdpdlt roJ uggr | >ovil
thoir qnngr
rr ruil Jr f61 q11p617 rlrvo Inc+arr1
Jur il rj uqy). lll-LYou nf nlr rra6i66
vl uulllVr, rb tho
L' tr,,nror
snow in ihe srrhr,rhs thc rsvsr
lenanese
rvJv stnrc it and USe it tO
cool hl]ildinps drrrino summer. This reduces the amount of
electrical energy used to cool buildings during summer. How
ie thie nncqihlc?

The snow removed every winter is storeci in well-insulated

tanks and warehouses. As the climate in Japan is generally
tha qnnrri th:t lq a+nran in +^r'^^ ^ "^'"
nnld 5lutuu ilt +hnnn
ItuSu frnili+i^^
tdLiltUY> Ldng> d vut y
l^nd timA tn molt l)r rrind tho qrrmmer i,vhcn temner2trrrtrq
are hipher the stnred SnoW iS USed for Coolino throrrgh heat
exchansers This cools the air in office buildinps. shollninp
malls and even homesl

In this day and age when global warming is a serious tireat

to our environment. this method of cooling greatly reduces
lanan'qv fr rcl cnnsrmntion
Jevv,' ,vv,:,vuvl and hencp Inrarcrg the amOUnt Of
d.^^^A^t,^^ d^^^^ +h^+ ^,.^ ,.^r- ^^^! i-+^ ^,,r Lsr
FarthLr r cr fraOila
il qbilu
SlUglll|UUJU EdJUJ LI ldL dlU IUIUdJUU lllLU UUr
envrronment.

L. Read the next chapter for information on specific heat

capacity and specific latent heat of fusion. Find out how
much heat energy can be extracted from the surrounding
by 1-OOO kg of ice at O'C to heat it to a room temperature
of 25'C.
2 lf the averaoe nower of an air conditioner unit iS 2 kW,
how long will an air conditioner unit need to be turned
i;::
on in order to extract the same amount of energy as
melting 1000 kg of ice? lHint: Refer to Chapter 't9 for
information needed to answer this question.)
3 Although we do not have snow in Singapore, architectural
designs can still be used to reduce the amount of heat
tranned in buildinos Search the Internet to learn more
about these designs and how they wo'k. In groups of
three. corne up with a unique design ano prepare a
five-minute presentation to 'sell' your building design to
your class.

Chapter 10
Hurricanes are violent swirling winds. Viewed
from satellites in ourer space, they look
like giant whirlpools of clouds in the atmosonere.

on 3oth August 2oos, Hurricane Katrina, with wind

speeds of about 230 km h_1,
hit the city of New orleans, usA. It was rne
of the deadriest and most destructive
hurricanes. More than lgoo peopre died
and the totar property damage was estimated
to be more than US$81 billionl How do such hurricanes
come about? where do they
draw such frightening energy from? This chapter
wirr revear some answers.
 Thermal energy from
the flame flows across L7..7. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
the base of the beaker,
Learning Outcomes You should be able
into the water. -
. give an account of the rise in the temperature of a substance in terms of an
increase in its internal energy;
. define the terms heat capacity and specific heat capacity,
The internal energy . recall and use the formula thermal energy = mass x specific heat capacityx
of the water temperature change to solve problems.
tncreases.

In Figure 11.1, thermal energy flows from the Bunsen burner's flame to
the water in the beaker. This leads to a gain in the internal energy of the
water. Like other forms of energy, the Sl unit for thermal energy and internal
energy is the joule (J,.

What is internal energy?

The oarticles in a substance are in continuous motion and attractive forces
(i.e. interatomic or intermolecular bonds) exist between these particles.
These characteristics collectively form the internal energy of the substance.
The internal energy of a substance is the total energy of all the particles in
the substance. lt consists of two components (Figure tt.2).
Bunsen burner
a Figure 11.1 Heating
a beaker of water

lf the temperature of a lnternal potential energy

substance rises, it is due to
an increase in the average
kinetic energy of its particles. v

Due to the motion of Due to the stretching and

the particles compression of the interatomic or
From what you have learnt
Directly related to intermolecular bonds as oarticles
temoerature
so far, have you found the
answers to Let's Explore (a)?
- the
higher the temperature,
move
Amount of potential energy stored
the more vigorous the in the bonds depends on
> Figure 11.2 Components motion of the particles - the forces between the oarticles
of internal energy - how far apart they are

> Potential energy is stored

in the springs of pogo sticks
when they are stretched or
comoressed. much like the
interatomic or intermolecular
bonds between parlicles.
 hat is heat capacity? Link
We use Figure 11.3 to illustrate what heat capacity is.
You have learnt in Chapter 6 that energy E
can be calculated using E= Pt, where
Two beakers, one containing 1OO g of water and the P = power and t = time taken.
other containing 1OOO g of water, are heated from
3O"C to 60"C, using the same heater.

$
It takes about ten times as long to heat the 1000 g of
water to 60oC.
I

*
This means that the 1OOO g of water needs ten times
as much thermal energy as the 100 g of water to be
heated to 60"C.
amount of thermal energy needed to
raise temperature to 60oC
v
We say that 1OOO g of water has ten times the heat a Figule 11.3 The amount of thermal energy
capacity of 100 g of water. needed to raise the temoerature of a substance
depends on the mass of the substance.

In symbols, we can express heat capacity C as

n
where Q = thermal energy required (in J);
Ae = change in temperature (in K or "C).
The Sl unit for heat capacity is the joule per kelvin (J X-t; or the joule per
degree Celsius (J 'C-").
Besides its mass, the heat capacity of a substance also depends on
its material. For instance, for the same mass of aluminium and copper,
more thermal energy needs to be supplied to the aluminium to raise its
temperature by 1 K or 1'C.

orked Cxample ll.l

t2 600 J of thermal energy was required to raise the temperature of 100 g of water from 30'C to
60'C. Find the
(a) heat capacity of 100 g of water;
(b) heat capacity of 1000 g of water;
(c) thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1000 g of water from 30"C to 40"C.
Solution
(a) Given: (b) Since 1000 g of water has ten times the
thermal energy supplied Q = t2 600 J mass of 100 g of water,
temperature rise A0 = 60'C - 30'C heat capacitv Crooo of 1000 g of water
= 30oC = 10 x heat capacity of 100 g of water
.'. Heat capacity Croo of 100 g of water = 42OO J oC-1
n (c) Thermal energy needed Q = C(L?)
; _r!_ = 42O J "C-1 oC-1 x (40'C
AO = 42OO J - 30'C)
=42OOOJ=4.2xtOaJ

Thermal Properties of Matter

 hat is specific heat capacity?
It is imoortant to know the We have learnt that heat capacity depends on the mass and material of a
difference between heat substance. So, in order to compare the heat capacity of different materials
capacity C and specific heat fairly, we use the heat capacity per unit mass or the specific heat capacity
capacity c. The value of C is of the substance.
dependent on mass, whereas
the value of c is not. C and c
have different units.

where C = heat capacity (in J K-' or J 'C-1);

v Table 11.1 Soecific heat
capacity of some common Q = thermal energy required (in J);
materials A0 = temperature change (in K or "C);
m = mass of substance (in kg).

The Sl unit for specific heat capacity is the joule per kilogram per kelvin
(J kg" K-1) or the joule per kilogram per degree Celsius (J kgrcg-r;.

In terms of thermal energy Q, the equation above can be rearranged as

Q = mc(L9)
= c(Le)

Table 11.1 shows the specific heat capacity of some common materials.
When we say that the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg1 K-1, we
mean that 42OO J of thermal energy is needed to raise the temperature of
1- kg of water by 1 K. On the other hand, if we supply 42OO J of thermal
energy to 1- kg of copper (with a specific heat capacity 400 J kg-1 K-1), it will
raise the temperature of the 1 kg of copper by

Q= 4200 J
Lo=mc 1 kg x 400 J kgt t4-t
= 10.5 K

Hence, we can see that for the same amount of thermal energy supplied,
materials with lower specific heat capacity will show a greater rise in
temperature than materials with higher specific heat capacity.

v Which would require less heat to have its temperature

raised by 1 K, one litre of seawater or one litre of water?
Investigation ll.l
0bjeetive
To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid

Froe edure
L Measure and record the mass m of the solid
(a cylindrical block with two bores).
2. Wrap the block with felt cloth. This is done to
prevent heat loss to the surroundings.
3. Connect the power supply (d.c. source) to the
heater and out the heater into one of the bores
of the block. Place the temperature sensor into
the other bore (Figure 71.4). Insu

4. Connect the temoerature sensor to the

data logger. Set the data logger to record X
K
temperature. X
5. Start recording the temperature. Note the initial
"9"

temperature 0,. Y
6. Switch on the power supply for t seconds.
7 . After t seconds, switch off the heater. Continue X

recording the temperature for a while. Note the XX

highest temperature 9, reached. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
r Figure 11.4
Galeulation
Power P of the heater = current 1x voltage V (see Chapter 19)
Since it is used for t seconds, the thermal energy Q provided by the heater = 1yt

Assuming all the thermal energy provided by the heater is absorbed by the solid block,
Q = mc(L9)
IVt= mc(L9\
where L0 = 0. - 0,

Therefore, the specific heat capacity c of the solid block is given by

IVt
U-
m(L0)
Note: Since we assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings in the calculation above,
good insulation is important in this experiment.

Experiment 6 The Principle of Conservation of Energy, which you

How do we determine the specific heat capacity of learnt in Chapter 6, is important for solving problems
a metal? in this chapter.

Thermal Properties of Matter

lmvest! t, R X!"

0 eetive
To determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid

roe edure
t. Measure and record the masses of the liquid m, and the
copper calorimeter m". (The specific heat capacity qof
copper is 400 J kg 1 K-1.)
2. Pour the liquid, whose specific heat capacity c, we want
to determine, into the copper calorimeter. Ensure that the
copper calorimeter is properly insulated (Figure 11.5). temperature
3. Place the heater and the temperature sensor in the liquid.
4. Connect the temperature sensor to the data logger. Set the
data logger to record temperature.
5. Start the recording of temperature. Note the initial
temperature 0,.
6. Switch on the power supply for t seconds.
7 . Stir the liquid continuously to ensure even heating.
8. After f seconds, switch off the heater. Continue recording
the temperature for a while. Note the highest temperature 0, reached.

ealeu!atlon
Thermal energy supplied by heater Q = IVt
Thermal energy absorbed by liquid = m,c,(L9)
Thermal energy absorbed by copper calorimeter = m"c"(L9)
where L0 = 0. - 0.
Assuming all the thermal energy supplied is absorbed by the liquid and calorimeter
(i.e. no heat loss to the surroundings),
thermal energy _ thermal energy , thermal energy
supplied - absorbed by liquid - absorbed by calorimeter
IVt= m,c,(L9) + m"c"(L9)
0)
Therefore,thespecificheatcapacityc,of theliquidisgiven byc,=IVt-J!u%(
m,(L0)

orked Examplc ll.e

An electric heating coil supplies 50 W of power to a metal block of mass 0.60 kg. In 90 s, the
temperature of the block is raised from 20oC to 45oC. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal. State the assumption you made to arrive at your answer.

5olution
Given: Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings,
power P of heater
thermal energy thermal energy
time taken t supplied by the heater absorbed by the block
mass m of block = 0.60 kg
change in temperature A0 = 45oC - 2O"C Pt = mc(L9)

Therefore, the specific heat capacity c of the metal

Thermal energy supplied by heater Pt 4500 J
=Pxt=50wx90s=4500J - m(Le) - 0.60 kg x 25'C =
300 J kg-r '6-t

Chapter 11
 orked €xample ll.3
The total heat capacity of a calorimeter, a heater, a stirrer and a thermometer is 107 J K-1. The mass
of the liquid in the calorimeter is O.24L kg. The whole set-up is at room temperature when the heater
coil is turned on with a potential difference of 12.2 V supplying a current of 3.40 A. The initial rate of
rise of temperature is found to be 3.7 x !O-2 K s 1. Calculate the
(a) power supplied by the heater;
(b) specific heat capacity of th liquid;
(c) energy released when the liquid cools from 303 K to 298 K, without a change in state.
Solution
Given: total heat capacity C of calorimeter,
heater, stirrer and thermometer = IO7 J K-I
mass rn of liquid = O.241kE
ootential difference V =12.2V
currentl .^ =3.40A
initial rate of rise of temperatrt" 49 = 3.7 x 1O-2 K s-1
AI
(a) Power supplied P by heater = IV = (3.40 AX12.2V) = 41.5 J s-I
(b) Let c be the specific heat capacity of the liquid. Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings,
at/ ,r(&\
p = cl Ao \+
\ \ at/
o-"lLo\
"\ lr/ 4!.sJ s-1-107 Jl\-rx(3.7x10-2Ks-1)
- Q.24I kgx3.7 x 10-2 K s-1)
-/Ae\
ull-l
\at/
= 4.21-x 103 J kgt l(
(c) Thermal energy released for liquid to cool from 303 K to 298 K
= mc(40)
= O.24I kg x 4.2I x 1-03 J kg-t 14-r x5K
= 5.07 x 103J

il.1

1,. The internal energy of a substance consists of the kinetic t. Using the kinetic model of
energies and potential energies of its particles. matter, describe the two
2. When the kinetic energy component of the internal components that make up the
energy of a substance increases, the temperature of the internal energy of a solid.
substance increases. 2. State two factors that affect
Heat capacity C is the amount of thermal energy heat capacity.
required to raise the temperature of a substance by 3. At night, the temperature of
1 K (or 1'C). lt depends on the mass and the material seawater falls less rapidly than
ofthe substance. the temperature of the nearby
4. Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of land. Exolain this observation.
thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit 4. The heat capacity of a
mass (e.g 1 kg) of a substance by 1 K or 1oC. lt depends thermocouple is very small.
on the material of the substance. Why is this an advantage when
5. For the same amount of thermal energy supplied to equal the thermocouple thermometer
masses, the temperature of materials with lower specific is used to measure a raoidlv
heat capacity will rise more than that of materials with varying temperature?
higher specific heat capacity.

Thermal Properties of Matter

 L1,.2 Melting and Solidification
v Table 11.2 Melting points of Learning Outcomes You should be able
some substances
o -
give an account of melting and solidification as processes of thermal energy
transfer without a change in temperature;
. draw and explain a cooling curve;
. explain, in molecular terms, what latent heat of fusion is.

Melting
When a substance in solid state changes to liquid state upon heating,
this change of state is called melting. The temperature of the substance
does not change during melting. This temperature, called the melting
point of the substance, is a definite temperature for pure substances.
Table 1-7.2 shows the melting points of some substances under standard
atmospheric pressure.

Investigation lN.3
retort stand
laboratory
0bjective thermometer
To determine the melting point of ice

Frocedure
t. Put some crushed ice into a beaker.
2. Gently push a laboratory thermometer into the ice until the crushed
rce
bulb is surrounded by the ice but not touching the base of the
beaker (Figure 11.6). slow
3. Record the temperature reading and start heating the ice over flame
a small flame from a Bunsen burner. Bunsen
4. Record the temperature readings every minute until all the ice burner
has melted and the temoerature of the water reaches 10oC. tripod stand
5. Plot a graph of temperature against time and from the graph,
deduce the melting point of ice.

Results and Diseulssion

@ from P to Q, the graph is a curve.
Temperature/"C The temperature of the solid ice rises
from -15'C to 0'C. There is a change
ice melting
in temoerature.

melting
@ from Q to R, the graph is a horizontal
@ straight line. The temperature
(ice and water)
remains steady at O'C as the ice
al melts. This happens in spite of
melting Time/min
thermal energy being absorbed. There
point
of ice -19 @ ice (solid) is no change in temperature.

a Figure 11.7 Heating curve of water

eone lusion
€) from R to S, the graph is a curve. When
all the ice has melted, the temperature
The melting point of ice is OoC, as indicated by the of the liquid water rises from 0oC to
plateau (the horizontal straight line portion) of the 1O'C. There is a change in temperature.
graph in Figure t1.7.

Ghapter 11
 hat happens when a solid melts?
During heating, the temperature of a pure substance only changes when
there is no change of state.In Figure 11.7, this is observed atthe portions Experiment 7
How do impurities
of the graph labelled PQ and RS. Can you explain what happened to the
affect the melting point
thermal energy supplied at the portion labelled QR? lt can be explained of a substance?
using the kinetic model of matter (Figure 11.8).

Thermal energy is absorbed

to break the strong bonds
between the oarticles. The
oarticles can move out of
their fixed positions, and
hence are further aoart
from one another.

The oarticles in a solid are

held together by strong bonds.
These particles are closely The change of state from a
packed together. The internal solid to a liquid occurs.
potential energy of a solid is
lower than that of a liquid. a Figule 11.8 Melting in action

At the portion labelled QR, the thermal energy absorbed is used to break
the strong bonds between the particles of the solid. Only the total internal
potential energy of the particles is increased. Since none of the thermal
energy supplied is converted to internal kinetic energy, there is no change in
temperature during melting.

The thermal energy that is absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of
fusion of a substance. This will be discussed in detail in Section 11.4.

Solidification
The reverse process of melting is called solidification. In this process, a
substance changes from liquid state to solid state. A pure substance will
solidify (or freeze) at a definite temperature. This temperature is known as v The freezing point of
the freezing point of the substance. water is equal to the

The freezing point of a substance is equal

to its melting point. For example,
pure water freezes at 0'C to form ice and oure ice melts at 0'C to form
water. Investigation It.4 shows how we can obtain the freezing point of a
substance using a cooling curve.

Thermal Properties of Matter

 Investigation ll.4
Obiective
To determine the freezing point of naphthalene

Procedure
L Fill about one-third of a boiling tube with some naphthalene.
2. Put the boiling tube into a beaker of boiling water. Use a retort stand to clamp the
boiling tube into position (Figure !1.9).
laboratory
boiling tube thermometer

naphthalene
retort
tripod stand
stand

r Figure 11.9 r, Figure 11.10

3. Insert a thermometer into the boiling tube when all the naphthalene has melted.
When the temperature of the naphthalene reaches about 90oC, lift the boiling tube
and the thermometer out of the beaker of boiling water (Figure I!.7O).
4. Wipe the exterior of the boiling tube dry and record the temperature reading of the
naphthalene every minute until the temperature is about 65'C.
5. Plot a graph of temperature againsttime. From the graph, deduce the freezing point
(melting point) of naphthalene.

Results and Discussion @ from A to B, the graph is a curve. As the

naphthalene cools, the temperature of the
liquid naphthalene falls from 90'C to 79'C,

Temperature/oC liquid freezing

o From B to C, the graph is a horizontal
straight line. The temperature
remains steady at 79"C as the
naphthalene solidifies. This happens
even though thermal energy is being
lost to the surroundings. There is no
change in temperature.
79'C is the
freezing
point of @ solid
naphthalene 7O @ from C to D, the graph
is a curve. When all the
naphthalene has solidified,
the temperature of the solid
Time/min naphthalene falls again.
a Figure 11.11 Cooling curve of naphthalene

Gonclusion
The freezing point of naphthalene is 79oC, as indicated by the
plateau (the horizontal straight-line portion) of the graph in Figure 1-Lt!.

Ghapter 11
What happens when a liquid freezes?
During cooling, the temperature of a pure substance only changes when
there is no change in state. In Figure tLt!,this is observed atthe portions Experiment 8
Do impurities affect
of the graph labelled AB and CD. Can you explain why there was no change the rate of cooling of a
in temperature at the portion labelled BC? Again, the kinetic model of matter substance?
can explain this (Figure t1'.I2).

Thermal energy is
released to form strong
intermolecular bonds. The
solid
oarticles are held in fixed
oositions. and hence are
closer to one another.

The intermolecular bonds between liquid The change of

particles are weaker than those in a solid. state from a liquid
The particles are further apart. The internal
t Figwe L1-.L2 to a solid occurs.
Solidification in action
energy of a liquid is higher than a solid.

In the section on the melting of ice, we learnt that in order for ice to melt,
thermal energy is needed to break the strong intermolecular bonds of the
water molecules (and hence increase the internal potential energy)' Using a piece of string
and some salt, would you
be able to lift an ice cube
Conversely, when the particles of a liquid come together in freezing, strong
without touching it?
bonds are formed. As the strong bonds form, internal potential energy
decreases, and thermal energy is released and lost to the surroundings. Place a string across the
Since the internal kinetic energy does not change, the temperature does lce cube and sprinkle
not continue to fall when a liquid is freezing (i.e. during solidification). some salt on top of it.
After a minute or two, lift
The thermal energy that is released during solidification, as with thermal the string. The ice will be
attached to the string!
energy absorbed during melting, is called the latent heat of fusion of a
Can you explain why?
substance. This will be discussed in detail in Section 11.4. Hint: Adding salt to ice
alters its melting point.
Can you think of other
uses of thls property
process in which the energy absorbed by a substance
results in a change of state from solid to liquid, without a change
in temperature. The temperature at which this occurs is called the
melting point.
2. At the melting point, the substance absorbs thermal energy to break
the strong bonds between the solid particles.
3. Solidification is the process in which the energy taken away from a
substance changes its state from liquid to solid, without a change
in temperature. The temperature at which this occurs is called the
freezing point.
4. At freezing point, the substance releases thermal energy as the
strong bonds between the particles are being formed. Lifting ice using
^
string and salt
5. The melting point of a substance is equal to its freezing point.

Thermal Properties of Mattel

 1-. At the melting point, there is no change in the temperature even
though thermal energy is being absorbed. Can you explain why?
2. Sketch the cooling curve of naphthalene and explain the shape of
the graph.

11.3 Boiling and Condensation

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
-
. give an account of boiling and condensation as processes of thermal energy
transfer without a change in temperature;
. explain, in molecular terms, what latent heat of vaporisation is.

Boiling and condensation

v Table 11.3 Boiling points of Boiling is the process in which a substance absorbs thermal energy to
some substances change from liquid state to gaseous state, at a fixed temperature. This
particular temperature is known as the boiling point of the substance.
Table 11.3 shows the boiling points of some substances under standard
atmospheric pressure.

The reverse of boiling is condensation. lt refers to the change of state of a

Oxygen substance from a gas to a liquid, at a fixed temperature. This temperature
is the same as the boiling point of the substance. Thermal energy is given
out during condensation.

To determine the boiling point (or condensation point) of a substance, we

can continue heating the water in Investigation 11.3 until it boils, A typical
graph of temperature against time, called the heating curve of water, is
shown in FiSure tLI3.

Temperature/'C
From X to Y, the temperature of the
water rises to 1OO'C on heating. There
is a change in temperature as thermal
boiling (liquid + gas) energy is absorbed by the water, which
results in an increase in the average
kinetic energy of the water molecules.

40
From Y to Z, the temperature remains
20 melting steady at 100'C as the water boils and
(solid + liquid)
o changes into steam, This temperature
-10 is the boiling point of water. There is
no change in temperature even though
thermal energy is being absorbed.
a Figure 11.13 Heating curve of water

Chapter 11
Although thermal energy was supplied to the liquid at the portion YZ of the
graph (Figure It.t3), there was no rise in the temperature. Why? Once Using what you have learnt
about melting, explain what
again, we can again use the kinetic model of matter to explain this. The
happens to the internal
thermal energy supplied was used to separate the water molecules as well kinetic and potential energy
as to provide energy for the molecules to push back on the surrounding of a liouid when it boils.
atmosphere (to escape into the air). This energy is called lhe latent heat of
vaporisation of the substance. lt will be discussed in detail in Section 11.4.

The water molecules are now much further apart (i.e. there is an increase Search the Internet to
in volume) with negligible intermolecular bonds between them. Water has learn about the change in
changed from liquid state to gaseous state. state during heating. Use
keywords such as lchange
of state" and "heat".'

L. Boiling is the process in which the energy absorbed by a

substance changes it from liquid state to gaseous state, without
a change in temperature. The temperature at which this occurs is
called the boiling point.
2. At the boiling point, the substance absorbs thermal energy to Explain why, during
break the bonds between the liquid particles. (a) boiling, there is no change
3. Condensation is the process in which the energy taken away from in temperature even though
a substance changes it from gaseous state to liquid state, without thermal energy is being
a change in temperature. The temperature at which this occurs is supplied;
called the condensation ooint. (b) condensation, there is no
4. At condensation point, the substance releases thermal energy as change in temperature even
the bonds between the particles are being formed. though thermal energy is
The boiling point of a substance is equal to its condensation point. being released.

L7-.4 Latent Heat and Specific Latent Heat

Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- You
. define the terms latent heat and specific latent heati
. recall and use the formula thermal energy = mass x specific latent heatto
solve problems.

ln Sections tt.2 and 11.3, we used the kinetic model of matter to explain
what happens to the molecules of a substance when it undergoes a change
of state. In this section, we will learn about these changes in terms of the
amount of thermal energy transferred. We start with understanding what
latent heat is.

hat is latent heat?

There are two types of latent heat latent heat of fusion (for melting and
-
solidification) and latent heat of vaporisation (for boiling and condensation).

Thermal Properties of Matter

 Latent heat of fusion
lf a small cube of ice and a large block of ice were placed on a table at room
temperature, the large block of ice would take a longer time to melt than the
small cube of ice. This is because the large block of ice has a higher latent
heat of fusion as compared to the small cube of ice.

It is also the amount of thermal energy released as a substance changes from

liquid to solid state without a change in temperature.
The Sl unit for latent heat of fusion is the joule (J).
A solid with more mass will require more thermal energy to melt. Besides
a A large block of ice the mass of the substance, latent heat also depends on the material of
has a larger latent heat the substance.
of fusion and thus takes
a longer time to melt.
Specific latent heat of fusion
We have learnt that latent heat deoends on the mass and material of a
substance. So, in order to compare the latent heat of fusion of different
materials fairly, we use the latent heat of fusion per unit mass or the specific
latent heat of fusion of the substance.

It is also the amount of thermal energy released as unit mass of a substance

changes from liquidto solid state without a change in temperature.
The relationship between latent heat I and specific latent heat capacity /. is
given by

l-= I, x m " where L, = latent heat of fusion (in J);

/,= specific latent heat of fusion (in J kg-1);
m = mass of the substance (in kg).
The Sl unit for specific latent heat of fusion is joule per kilogram (J kg.t).

ork€d €xample ll.4

lf the specific latent heat of fusion of ice cream is 340 000 J kg-1, find the thermal
energy released when 150 g of liquid ice cream solidifies at its freezing point.

Solution ) To calculate the amount of

Given: mass m = 150 g = 0.150 kg thermal energy needed to melt
specific latent heat /, = 340 O0O J kg-1 an ice cream, what information
would you need?
Usingf-l,xm
= 340 000 J kg-t x 0.150 kg
=51000J
=51 kJ
Hence, the liquid ice cream needs to release 51 kJ of thermal energy in order for it
to solidify at its freezing point.

Chapter 11
 orked €xample ll.5
A heater which supplies thermal energy at a constant rate of 1000 W is used to melt a 3.00 kg
block of ice, which is at O'C. The block of ice takes 1020 s to melt completely. Calculate the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice and state the assumption you made in your calculations.

Solution
Given: oower Pof heater = 1000 W Assuming that all the thermal energy provided by the
time taken f = 1020 s heater is used to melt the ice (i.e. no heat lost to the
mass rn of block = 3.00 kg surroundings), the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is

Thermal energy Q supplied by heater r-1-

,m
7.O2 x
tO6 J
= 3.4 x 105 J kg{
3.00 kg
=Pxt=1000Wx1020s
= t.O2 x 106 J

Latent heat of fusion L,of ice

=O=t.O2x106J

lmvestigatieln !1.

hjeetive
To measure the specific latent heat of ice

Appanatus
Insu lated copper calori meter, thermometer, electron ic balance

Froeedure
t. Fill a clean, dry and insulated calorimeter with water which has a temperature that is about 8oC
above room temoerature.
2. Find the mass mlof the water and the mass m"of the copper calorimeter.
3. Record the temperature 0, of the water when it is about 5'C above room temperature.
4. Add a single ice cube into the water and stirthe water until the entire ice cube has melted.
5. Repeat step 4 until the temperature 0, is about 5'C below room temperature.
6. Find the mass m^ of water in the calorimeter.
Precaultion
To improve the accuracy of the results, the ice cubes should be dried using blotting paper before
adding them to the water.

Calculation
Assuming no thermal energy is exchanged between the water and the calorimeter
and the surroundings,
thermal energy lost by the _ thermal energy gained by ice at
water and calorimeter 0'C to become liquid water at fl

m"c*(0"- 0") + m"c"(}r- 0r) = (mr- m")1.,+ (mz- m")c*(0"- O)

lt=

where c* is the specific heat capacity of water and q is the specific heat capacity of copper.

Thermal Properties of Matter

 Latent heat of vapoilsation
lf you place athermometer into boiling water, you will notice that the temperature
remains at 100'C until all the water is converted to vaoour. Since the thermal
energy supplied did not result in a rise in the temperature, what happened to
thermal energy? The thermal energy was used to change the state of water
from liquid to gas. This energy is known as the latent heat of vaporisation.

It is also the amount of thermal energy released as a substance changes from

gaseousto liquid state without a change in temperature.

It is also the amount of thermal energy released as unit mass of a substance

changes from gaseousto liquid state without a change in temperature.

From the definitions, we have

where l- = latent heat of vaporisation (in J);

The latent heat of /u = specific latent heat of vaporisation (in J kg1);
vaporisation of a fit = mass of liquid (in kg).
substance is usually
higher than its The Sl unit for latent heat of vaporisation is joule (J) and the unit for specific
latent heat of fusion
latent heat of vaporisation is joule per kilogram (J kg"). Take note that latent
because extra energy
is needed for the heat of vaporisation is the thermal energy needed to vaporise a substance from
molecules to escape liquid to gaseous state. However, if the substance condenses from gaseous to
into the surrounding liquid state, the amount of thermal energy released is equivalent to the latent
atmosphere as vapour. heat of vaporisation.

orked Cxample ll.6

A jet of steam at 100'C was directed at a large block of ice at OoC for a short period of time. Some
of the steam condensed to form water and a portion of the ice melted. The condensed steam formed
O.40 kg of water at 100"C which then cooled to the temperature of the ice. Calculate the thermal
energy given out by the
(a) mass of steam at 100'C that changed to water at 10O"C;
(b) water as it cooled to the temperature of the ice.
(Specific latent heat of vaporisation /" of water = 22OO kJ kg1 and
specific heat capacity c of water = 4.2 kJ kgr 6-r;

5olution
(a) Thermal enerS/ given out by the steam that (b) Water cooled from,100"C to OoC,
changed to water at 100"C is equal A0=100-0=1-00K
to the latent heat of 0.40 kg of ice, .'. Thermal energy Q given out
\= mlu = 0.40 kgx 22OO kJ kg1 = 880 kJ
= 0.40 kgx 4.2 n kg" K-1 x 100 K
= 168 kJ

Chapter 11
&nn esti mt& m

eetivc
To measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam

rsee ure
t. Fill a beaker with a mass m1 of water.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure t!.I4. Switch on
the heater. Allow steam to escape when the water boils.
3. Start the stopwatch when the water begins to boil. outlet for steam
4. Record the ammeter reading 1 and the voltmeter reading V.
5. After about 70%to 2Oo/o of the water has boiled off, switch
off the heater. water
6. Stop the stopwatch and record the time t of heating,
7 . Find the mass /n2 of water left in the beaker. neater

ulation
ale
) insulation

Assuming heat loss to the surroundings is negligible,

thermal energy _ thermal energy absorbed by r, Figure 11.14
supplied by the heater the water to form steam

IVt= (mt_ mr)l,

IVt
Therefore, specific latent heat of vaporisation /u of steam =
ffit- ffi,

L. The latent heat of fusion L, of a substance is the thermal energy From what you have
required to change it from solid to liquid state, without any change learnt so far, have you
in temoerature. found the answers to
2. The specific latent heat of fusion /, of a substance is the thermal Let's Explore (b) and (c)?
energy required to change a unit mass of the substance from solid to
liquid state, without any change in temperature.
3. The latent heat of vaporisation l- of a substance is the thermal
energy required to change it from liquid to gaseous state, without any
change in temperature.
4. The specific latent heat of vaporisation /u of a substance is the
thermal energy required to change a unit mass of the substance from
liquid to gaseous state, without any change in temperature.

L. A mass of ice at -10'C is heated until it becomes steam at 110'C.

State the effect that the thermal energy has on the mass of ice at each
stage of heating.
2. A beaker containing 0.250 kg of water at 10'C has a 2.0 kW heater
immersed in it. Find the time needed for the water to change completely
from liquid to gaseous state. (Specific latent heat of vaporisation of
water = 22OO kJ kg1 and specific heat capacity of
water = 4.2 kJ kgL KL)

Thermal Properties of Matter

 11.5 Evaporation
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
distinguish between boiling and evaporation.

hat is evaporation?
lf you observe a floor that has just been mopped, you will notice that the
wet surface of the floor soon dries up. The thin layer of water on the surface
of the floor has evaporated. Evaporation, like boiling, involves a change of
state from liquid to gas. However, one difference between evaporation and
boiling is that evaporation can occur at anytemperature. Table 11.4 gives a
summary of the differences between boiling and evaporation.

v Table 11.4 Differences between boiling and evaporation

o Occurs at a particular o Occurs at any temperature

temperature

o Relatively fast r Relatively slow

r Takes place throughout the liquid

Takes place only at
liouid surface

. Bubbles are formed in the liquid

No bubbles are formed
the liouid

. Temperature remains constant o Temperature may change

o External thermal energy . External thermal energy

source required source not required

How does evaporation OCGU1?

Cooling by evaporatio,n can be easily explained using the kinetic model
of matter (Figure tLLs).

The molecules in a liquid are always @ nt the surface, the

moving randomly at different speeds liquid molecules that
(i.e. they have different kinetic energies). have enough energy
to overcome the
downward attractive
forces of the other
The less energetic molecules are left liquid molecules
behind. The average kinetic energy of and the atmospheric
the molecules in the liquid decreases, pressure escape into
and therefore the average temperature the atmosphere.
of the liouid decreases.
< Figure 11.15
Evaporation of a liquid
Chapter 11
 &nes* inXE.
i1
jeetive of laqq +t tha
To demonstrate that evaporation causes cooling -

Proceeiure
t. Place a beaker containing a volatile liquid such as ether on a thin
film of water on a piece of wooden block (Figure 11-.16). Note
that a volatile liquid is a liquid that evaporates easily. film of water
2. Using a glass tube, blow air into the ether. This is done so that
the ether evaporates at a faster rate,
3. Observe any changes to the thin film of water.

scrvation a!'? iseussion

After some time, the beaker sticks to the wooden block. This is because the film of water between
the beaker and the wooden block freezes to form a thin layer of ice. As the ether evaporares,
coolingtakes place and causes its temperature to fall below 0"C. Since the ether is now cooler
than the film of water, thermal energy flows from the thin film of water to the ether. Eventuallv. the
temperature of the thin film of water falls to 0.C and freezing occurs.

Evaporation causes cooling

when you step out of a swimming pool on a windy day, you feel cold. This is
because the water is evaporating from your skin surface. when evaporation
occurs, water molecules with greater kinetic energy escape from your
skin surface, leaving behind molecules with lower kinetic energy, which
results in a decrease in temperature. Investigation !r] demonstrates that
evaporation causes cooling.

:
> The girl feels cold because water
is evaporating from her skin. ;

onked €xample ll.7

A person running in a race generates an average of 8OO J of thermal energy every second. Half of
this thermal energy is lost from the person's body by evaporation of perspiration. Given that the
specificlatentheatof vaporisationof perspirationis2.2S x106 Jkg-r,calculatethemassof water
that evaporates from the person's body if the person finishes the race aftertwo hours.

5olution
From the Principle of Conservation of Energy, pt = ml,

= :4 f.492gk6
_ r\5

Thermal Properties of Mattel

 Factors that affect the rate of evaporation are shown in FiSure ILLT.

* i it n$ t e surr*xn in air
pernt*r* When there is a lot of water ur{n** arc* *$ t e ii ui
Although evaporation can occur vapour present in the air, we The rate of evaooration
at any temperature, raising the say that the air is humid. The increases when a larger
temperature of the liquid will rate of evaporation decreases area of liquid is exposed.
increase the rate of evaporation. with increasing humidity. Wet This is because evaooration
A warmer liquid means that a clothes do not dry easily if the only takes place at the
greater number of molecules at surrounding air is damp. exposed surface of a liquid.
the surface layer are energetic A larger exposed surface
enough to escape. area means more molecules
can escape from the liquid.

rgss!.!r* oilin *int f t eii ui

Reducing the atmospheric Liquids with lower boiling
pressure increases the rate of points will evaporate faster
Y
evaporation. Wet objects dry because the bonds between
faster on mountain tops than sv* *nt *f air the liquid particles are
at sea level. Moving air removes the liquid weaker. Less thermal energy
molecules as soon as they is needed to change the
escape from the liquid surface liquid into a gaseous state.
(i.e. the air surrounding
the liquid is drier with air
movement). Therefore, the rate
of evaporation increases when
the surrounding air is moving.

r Figure 11.17 What affects

the rate of evaporation?

Let's Explore! Applications of evaporation

From what you have t. Your skin feels cold when the perfume you apply evaporates, or when your
learnt so far, have you perspiration evaporates.
found the answers to 2. A person with high fever is usually sponged with water. Evaporation of the
Let's Explore (d)? water cools the person, and lowers his or her temperature.
3. Refrigerators use the principles of condensation and evaporation in the
cooling process to keep their contents cold.

[.5
1-. Evaporation causes cooling. L. State the differences between
2. Evaporation occurs when the molecules at the surface of boiling and evaporation.
a liquid escape into the atmosphere. 2. Explain why spraying perfume
3. Evaporation differs from boiling in that it on the skin oroduces a
(a) can occur at any temperature; cooling effect.
(b) is a relatively slow process; 3. Explain why the rate of
(c) takes place only at the liquid surface; evaporation of a liquid
(d) does not have to occur at a constant temperature; increases with temoerature.
(e) does not require an external source of thermal energy.
Chapter 11
 How do hurricanes

Warm seawater causes a large mass of air

above it to heat up and rise. The rising warm
air brings with it a large amount of water
vapour. which has evaporated from the sea.

High up in the atmosphere, where

temperatures are lower, the water vapour
condenses. When vapour condenses, thermal
energy (the latent heat of vaporisation of
seawater) is released.

The released thermal energy raises the

temperature of .the surrounding air.

The warmed air moves even further

up, causing the cold air higher up the
atmosphere to be pushed downwards. This
sets up a system of air currents that flow in
a spiralling pattern.

@ Over time and given the right conditions, the

air currents will grow larger and stronger,
resulting in hurricanes.

Visit http://www.nationalgeographic.
From this, we can see that the release of the thermal energy from com. Search the website for a video
vapour condensation forms the 'engine' of a hurricane. A hurricane on hurricanes. Use keywords such
will die out when it moves over land, where there is less warm as "hurricanes", "natural disasters"
water vapour to feed the strong air currents in the hurricane. and "Katrina".

Boiling water
Visit http://ippex.pppl.gov. Click on "Search" under the "Support" sidebar.Type "boil water
with Shockwave" into the search bar and select the option "Exact phrase". This will bring you
to a virtual laboratory where you can carry out the activity.

1,. Describe the effect of increasing the power supplied, mass of water and starting temperature
of water on the time taken for water to boi..
2. Based on the virtual lab, write an equation that can be used to calculate the heat capacity
and specific heat capacity of water. How is the heat capacity of water different from the
specific heat capacity of water?
Thermal Properties of Matter
 is affected by

which can result in

condensation
Q = mc(L9)
where
m = mass of the substance boiling/
c evaporation
= specific heat capacity of
the substance
A0= change in temperature

Specific heat capacity c of a L= ml is slower

substance is the amount of where occurs at any temperature
thermal energy needed to raise L = latent heat takes place only at the
the temperature of a unit mass m = mass of the substance liquid surface
of substance by 1'C or 1 K. I = specific latent heat of a temperature may change
the substance o no external energy
source required

*
C Latent heat L of a substance is the amount of
m thermal energy released or absorbed during a
wnere
change in state, without a change in temperature.
C = heat capacity of
the substance

Heat capacity C is the amount Specific latent heat / of a substance is the

of thermal energy needed to amount of thermal energy released or absorbed,
raise the temperature of a to change the state of a unit mass of substance,
body by 1'C or 1 K. without a change in temperature.

Chapter 11
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

lf the temperature of a substance increases, it means thatthe kinetic energy

tal
'--' i' component of its internal energy has increased. r!.7
Heat capacity is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1'C or ! K. lt is dependent on the mass ano 1,1,.I
material of the obiect.
(c) i Specific heat capacity is the heat capacity at a specific temperature. t1_.1

(d)

The temperature of a substance remains constant during melting and

(e)
solidification, but changes during boiling and condensation.
The temperature of a substance does not change during boiling because the
(0 energy supplied is being used to break the bonds between the molecules. This
I results in an increase in the intermolecular distance.
.**j

,o, Specific latent heat is the thermal energy required to raise the temperature ofa I

'D' substance bv 1'C or 1 K.

I

latent heat of substance

mass of substance x temperature change 77.4

at any temperature, whereas boiling occurs at a

L1,.5

(l) j Evaporation requires an external source of thermal energy. 7L.5

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Thermal Properties of Mattel

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions Section B: Structured Questions
1,. When a O.24 kg brass cylinder is heated using 1. (a) Define heat capacity and specific heat
a 2.0 kW heater, its temperature increases from capacity. How are they related?
30'C to 100'C in 3.2 s. What is the specific heat (b) Account for the following observations:
capacity of brass? (i) A saucepan is made with a material
A L25 J k{L l\-1 that has low specific heat capacity.
B 1,69 J k{LK-| (ii) On a clear sunny day, the temperature
c 387 J t<gr 11-t of the surface of the sea rises less
D 4OO J k{L l\-1 rapidly than the temperature of the
nearby land.
2. When a solid is melting, the temperature
remains constant even though thermal energy is 2. An electric kettle is rated at 25 W. Calculate the
being supplied because the _. (a) quantity of thermal energy generated in 2 s;
A energy is used to break the bonds between (b) rise in temperature of 150 g of water if
the oarticles the electric kettle is switched on for five
B solid is not absorbing any thermal energy minutes and the specific heat capacity of
C molecules are moving faster water is 4 J {L oc-t.
D molecules are further aoart
3. The experimental set-up shown in Figure 11-.1-8
3. When 0.5 kg of aluminium was heated using was used to determine the specific heat capacity
a 1.5 kW heater, the aluminium changed of an unknown metal block.
completely from the solid state to the liquid state
in 2.1 minutes. During this time, its temperature voltage
remained constant at 660"C. What is the soecific suppry
latent heat of fusion of aluminium?
A 3.00 kJ kg{
B 6.30 kJ kg-1
c 94.5 kJ kga
D 378 kJ kga

4. Given that the specific latent heat of vaporisation metal block

of oxygen is 2!4 kJ kga, how much thermal
energy will be absorbed when 3.0 kg of oxygen is r Figure 11,18
boiled off at its boiling point?
A !4KJ The circuit is switched on for a time interval of
B 64KJ 500 seconds and the following readings were
c r40k! obtained:
D 642k)
Change in temperatufe = 5OoC
5. Cooling always accompanies evaporation Mass of metal block = l kg
oecause Ammeterreading=54
A the air molecules cool the liouid surface Voltmeterreading=3Y
B the more energetic molecules leave
the liouid Using the above data, calculate the specific heat
C there are fewer liquid molecules left in capacity of the unknown metal.
the liouid
D the escaped molecules return to the liquid

Chapter 11
4. Figure 1-1.19 shows the temperature variation of Section G: Free-Response Question
a material with respect to time.
L. (a) Define speclfic latent heat of vaporisation
Temperature and state its Sl unit.
(b) In an experiment. an immersion heater took
e^
time t to raise the temperature of a liquid
of mass M from a temperature of 0, to its
boiling point 0r. During time t, a mass m
of the liquid was vaporised. Figure 1-1-.21,
shows the temperature-time graph of
the experiment.

Temoerature
r Figure 11.19

(a) With reference to Figure 11.19, what

state(s) of matter could the material be in
at P, Q and R?
(b) What is,the temoerature at which the
material undergoes a change of state?

5. (a) During melting, there is no change in '<- tr -----+-{- t, }

temperature even though thermal energy Figute LL.2L
is absorbed. Using the kinetic theory of ^
matter, explain this phenomenon. (i) Given that the specific heat capacity of the
*(b) A metallic solid of mass M is made from a liquid is c, and heat lost to the atmosphere
material of specific heat capacity c and of and the containing vessel can be ignored,
specific latent heat of fusion /.. When the calculate the oower P of the immersion
object enters the atmosphere from outer heater in terms of M, 0r,0r, t, and c by
space, its temperature is below its melting considering part A of the graph.
point by A0. As it accelerates through the ( ii) Hence, calculate the specific latent heat of
atmosphere, it absorbs the thermal energy vaporisation l" of the substance in terms of
produced by atmospheric friction at a m, M, 0", er, \, t2 and c by considering
constant rate of R. Figure 11.20 shows the part B of the graph together with the result
temperature-time graph from the time the from (i).
solid enters the atmosohere to the time it
becomes just completely molten. Find the
time t in terms of M, c, 1,, A0 and R.
(Hint: Use the Principle of Conservation
of Energy.)

Temoerature

A'J

r, Figure 11.20

Thermal Properties of Matter

The Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) uses water
instead of water iets to extinguish fires. Water mists
able to extinguish fires more quickly and with less da
to property. Can you explain why water mists are ab!q:
extinguish fire more effectively than conventional jets,,:
water? What is the physics behind it? ,

Water mist consists of manv tiny water droplets.

surface area of water that is exposed in a water mist
far grealer than the surface area of water exposed in:;
water jet. Therefore, when sprayed at a fire, water misti
will vaporise much faster, and hence remove thermal energ
more effectively than water jets. As a result, the fire can be.:ii
put out more quickly using water mists. ,

Other than its ability to absorb and dissipate thermal energy '

at a faster rate, water mist also helps to put out fires b

depriving the fire of oxygen. As the water mist vaporises
become steam, its volume expands (at least 1600 times)
and displaces the air from the surroundings. This deprives
the fire of the oxygen it needs to continue burning.

In tests conducted by the SCDF, a water mist gun was able

to put out a fire the size of a three-room HDB flat with just
36 litres of water and in less than three minutes. When
conventional water jets were used, 3600 litres of water
was needed and rt took at least 10-15 minutes to put out
the fire! Using water mists not only saves water, it also
minimises property damage as fires can be extinguished in
shorter times.

Water mists are also preferred to conventional water jets

because they are able to absorb the toxic gases released
when household materials burn, thus protecting the victims.

L. Discuss how the specific heat capacity and surface area

of water and water mist affect their abilitv to out out
fires.
2. Water mists will not work on grease fires or electrical
fires. Why is this so? What is a better way to put out
such fires?
3. Pressurised carbon dioxide is also commonly used to
put out fires. Comment on the specific latent heat of
both water and carbon dioxide and suggest which is
more efficient in putting out fires.
This art exhibit in London is actually a public toilet that allows a person using it to see
what is going on outside, but prevents people outside from looking in! This phenomenon
is achieved by enclosing the toilet with walls made of one-way mirrors. What's the
secret behind one-wav mirrors?

r They don't see what you

don't want them to see but ...
would you feel uneasy using
this toilet?
 L2.L Reflection of Light
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
- used
. understand the terms for describing reflection: normal, angle of incidence,
angle of reflection;
o state that, for reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection;
. apply the principle of reflection to construct ray diagrams and solve problems
related to reflection.

We can see objects around us only if light from them enters our eyes.
Luminous objects, such as a lamp or a fire, can be seen because they
give out their own light. Non-luminous objects, such as a wall picture, are
visible to us because they reflect light from a light source into our eyes
(Figure !2.I).

light from
the lamp

picture on the wall

(non-luminous object)

r Figure 12.1 We are able to see objects because they give out light or reflect light.

In Physics, we use straight lines with arrows to represent paths of light, The
arrows indicate the direction in which the light travels. Such lines are called
light rays. A beam of light is actually a bundle of light rays.

A light beam can be a bundle of parallel rays, convergent rays or divergent

rays (Figure 12.2). We use parallel lines to represent light rays from a
distant object (e.9. the Sun), and divergent lines to represent light rays from
a nearby object,

(a) Parallel light rays (b) Convergent light rays (c) Divergent light rays

r Figure L2.2 Diflerent types of light rays

Chapter 12
 Laws of reflection
we can carry out Investigation r2.t to learn the laws that govern the
reflection of light.

Investigation lP.l
Objective
To investigate the laws of reflection

Procedure
L Figure 12.3 shows the reftection of light by a
plane mirror. Note that the mirror needs to be
placed vertically upright (i.e. at right angle to
the sheet of paper).
2. Mark out a dotted line perpendicular to the
mirror on the paper. This line is the normal.
3. Label the intersection of the mirror and the
normal. 'O'.
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a ray of light at
point O.
5. Measure and record the angle of incidence i and t Fi{ute L2.3 raY box

the corresponding angle of reflection r.

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for different angles of incidence i.

Results and discussion

t. Every angle of incidence i is equal to its corresponding angle of reflection r.
2' The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane (i.e. a ftat surface).

our findings from Investigation !2.r are consistent with the two taws of
reflection.

How is the position of the

image of an object located
in a plane mirror?

Reflection Reflected ray

The rebounding of light at a surface Light ray that bounces off the
Incident ray reflecting surface
Light ray that hits the reflecting surface Angle of incidence i
Point of incidence The angle between the incident rav
The point at which the incident rav hits and the normal
the reflecting surface Angle of reflection r
Normal The angle between the reflected rav
The perpendicular to the reflecting and the normal
surface at the point of incidence
 pes of reflection
ls light only reflected by smooth and shiny
surfaces like mirrors? What about rough and
dull surfaces like roads? Do thev reflect lisht?

All surfaces reflect /rght. However the type of

surface affects how light is reflected off it.
r Like most surfaces, the pages
Why do shoes shine after When light strikes a smooth surface like a of this textbook are not as
^ have been polished?
they smooth as they look. When they
What does polishing do to mirror, the reflection is regular. When it strikes are magnified, their surfaces are
the surface of shoes? a rough surface, the reflection is diffused. actually not even!

v Table 12.1 Types of reflection and their characteristics

Regular reflection a Occurs al smooth surfaces, e.g. mirrors, polished metals

incident rays reflected rays a The law of reflection holds true for each individual ray:
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Parallel incident rays are reflected in the same direction because
the surface is even. All rays have the same angles of incidence and
reflection.
smooth surface
. The normal at all ooints of incidence are oarallel to one another.

Diffuse (ifiegulal) reflection o Occurs at rough surfaces, e.g. sandpaper, cloth

a The law of reflection holds true for each individual rav:
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Parallel incident rays are reflected in different directions because the
surface is uneven. The angles of incidence and reflection of one ray
are different from those of another ray.
The normal at all ooints of incidence are not oarallel to one another.
rough surface

onked €xample le.l

Figure 12.4 shows a ray of light incident on a mrrror.
(a) State the two laws of reflection.
(b) Complete the diagram to show the reflected ray.
(c) What is the angle of incidence?
(d) What is the angle of reflection?
Solution
(a) First law: The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
at the ooint of incidence all lie in the same olane.
Second law: The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.
(b) Refer to Figure 1,2.5.
(c) Angle of incidence i = 90o - 50" = 40"
(d) Based on the second law of reflection,
angle of reflection r= i= 40".

Chapter 12
 onked €xample l?.?
Figure 12.6 shows a ray of light striking a mirror AB.
Mirror AB is positioned at an angle of t2O" to mirror BC.
(a) Complete the figure to show the path of the ray after it hits
the surface of mirror AB.
(b) Find the angle of incidence at AB.
(c) Find the angle of reflection at BC.
Solution
(a)

(b) Angle of incidence at AB, t = 90" - 2Oo = 70"

(c) To findthe angle of reflection rratBC, we need to find the angle g.
0 = 180'- angle ABC - 20" (i.e. sum of interior angles in a triangle)
= 180" - t2O" -20"
= 40o
Angle of incidence r, at BC = 90o - 0

Hence, rr= ir= 50" (i.e. second law of reflection)

orked Cxampl€ lU.3

Figure 12.7 shows the position of a lizard L on the ceiling of a
room. Determine the shortest possible distance AL such that
the eye can see the image of the lizard in the mirror.

Solution

,r"ll \
lizard vA
t Fitute L2.7 eye
For triangle ABL,

t"no=i? --(1)
-ceiting For triangle BQR,
A\/A
tang=S=a#=W= ---(2)
The distance AL is shortest when light from the
lizard is reflected at the top edge of the mirror Substituting (1) into (2),
at B. AL = 100 cm
 lma in a plane mirror
We can carry out Investigation 12.2 to learn the characteristics of an image
formed in a plane mirror.

lnvestigation la.e
Objective
To investigate the characteristics of an image
formed in a olane mirror

Apparatus
plane mirror, three pins, graph paper,
wooden holder, softboard \* k-\ d.
"1 r
a\

Procedure
t. Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 12.8.
2. Observe the images formed.
3. Find the distances d, and d, by counting wooden holder
the number of squares between one of softboard
the pins and the mirror surface, and
grapn paper
between its image and the mirror surface. r Figure 12.8
Compare these two distances.
4. Repeat step 3 for the two other pins and their images.

0bservations and conclusion

The following observations were made regarding the mirror images.

1-. The image of each pin is

. the same size as the pin;
o upri8ht;
. virtual.

2. The distance of the image from the plane mirror d, is equal to the distance of the object from
the plane mirror d,

3. Taking the figure formed by the pins as an object, its image is laterally inverted.

. The image is of the same size as the object.

. lt is laterally inverted.
o lt is upright.
o lt is virtual.
. lts distance from the mirror is eoual to the
distance of the object from the mirror.

Laterally inverted image is an image whose left-hand side is the right-hand side of
the object and vice versa.
Virtual image is an image
. that cannot be captured on a screen;
o where light rays do not meet at the image position.
Real image is an image
. that can be captured on a screen (e.9. the pictures you see in a movie theatre);
o where light rays meet at the image position.
Chapter 12
 onked Cxample l?.4
There are nine letters in the word SINGAPORE.
(i) Hold the word up in front of a plane mirror as shown in the
diagram. Write down how these letters appear in the mirror.
(ii) How many of these letters appear to be different when the
word is reflected?
(iii)Write down the letters that appear to be the same. mtrror
(b) The driver of car A saw car B behind him from his rear-view mirror. lf the registration number of
car B is SDE 789H, write down the registration number of car B, as seen by the driver of car A in
his rear-view mirror.

Solution
(a)(i) 3f, OqAOnl?
(ii) 6 ( iii)

(b) HesT tce

Ray diagrams for plane mirrors

we cannot capture a mirror image on a screen because it is a virtual image. N4
However, we can locate its position by drawing ray diagrams. 4
4
,4
Figure 12.9 shows a point object o in front of a plane mirror M. The point 4
4
o point object O

object o is represented by a dot, while the mirror is represented by a straight 4

4
line, with shading to show its silvered back. 4
4
4
A
)l
A
Figure t2.IO shows how a ray diagram for a point object is drawn. e Figure 12 .9

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Locate the position of the Draw the reflected rays. Draw the incident rays.
image I behind the mirror.
I -M
I
I
o--- foo
-ll- - -{
o
o
-ll- - -{ o_- -ll-
----
I
I
-

@ points of
incidence
rt
,\
Y-
distance of distance of
mirror image = object in front Join the image I to the eye with @ Join the object O to the
behind mirror of mirror straight lines. points of incidence on the
mirror surface. Note that,
O Measure the perpendicular Q Oraw dotted lines for the rays for each ray, the angle of
distance from object O to the behind the mirror. incidence is equal to the
mirror surface. (E Oraw solid lines with arrowheads angle of reflection.
(E Mark off the same distance for rays reflected off the mirror.
behind the mirror to locate The arrowheads indicate the
the image I. direction that light is travelling in.
r Figure 12.1O Drawing a ray diagram for a point object
 Step 1
Locate the position of the An extended object can be seen as many points. To draw the
image I behind the mirror using ray diagram for the extended object (Figure 12.1-t), we need
the two extreme points. to select several of these points and apply the same steps in
mtrror Figure 12.!O to them.

t-+- -+--'
image I 1,,
object O

t+-
- - ---JJ
-

Step 2
Draw the reflected rays from
the selected points.
Step 3
Draw the incident rays to the
ooints of incidence.
> Figure L2.lL Drawinga ray
diagram for an extended object
mrrror

orked Cxample le.s

Two point objects P and Q are placed at different positions
in front of a plane mirror, as shown in Figure 12.t2.

(a) Draw a single ray to locate the position of the image of P

as seen by the eye at E.
(b) The eye at E is also able to see the image of Q. Draw a
single ray to show how this is possible. Qo
t Figwe L2.L2

-+--

P' is the image of P.

Q' is the image of Q.

Chapter 12
 Multiple images in plane mirrors
Two mirrors inclined at 9Oo to each other have a point object O
placed between them. Three images Ir, Ir, and I. are formed as
shown in the diagram on the right. lmages I, and I, can be located
using the three steps in Figure 72.IO.lmage 13 is formed as a
result of two reflections.

Multiple images can be produced by placing an object between

two mirrors that are at an angle to each other.
ll
One interesting point to note is that when the angle between the ll
mirrors decreases, the number of images formed increases. The
number of images becomes infinite when the mirrors are parallel
to each other.
^r Multiple images are formed when an
object is placed between two mirrors.

orked Cxample 12.6

Figure L2.I3 shows four objects P, Q, R and S
placed in front of a short mirror MN. How many
mirror images will be visible to the eye at E?

Solution

From the ray diagram, there are 3 mirror images (P', Q' and R')visible to the eye at E. The ray from
S reflected at the left end of the mirror forms the left limit of the region in which the eye can see
its image. The eye, at E, is outside this limit. Hence the image S' will not be visible.

From what you have learnt

so far, have you found the
answers to Let's Exolore
(a) and (b)?
 orked Cxample l?.7
fa ng sp der
Figure 12.14 shows a man standing in front of a bathroom mirror
MM'. He did not realise that a spider was falling just in front of him
until he saw its image in the mirror. The path of the falling spider
is represented by a dotted line in Figure 72.14. Locate, on the
dotted line, the two points between which the image of the spider M
was visible to the man in the mirror.

Solution
Let the two ooints be P and O.
falling
Locate the image of the path of the spider
X I
falling spider behind the mirror. M'
(i) Measure the perpendicular distance
from the path of the falling spider to
the mirror surface.
(ii) Mark off the same distance behind
the mirror and draw a dotted line XX'. P'
M

Locate the images P' and Q' by

extending the reflected rays from the
man's eye, through the top and bottom
edges of the mirror, to line XX'.

Draw a horizontal dotted line each from M'

a
P' and Q' respectively. The points of
intersection with the spider's path will be
P and O. P' = image of P

Q' = image of Q

X'

Applications of mirrors
t. Vision testing
Before you can get a pair of spectacles at an optical shop,
you have to go through a vision test. You need.to read
letters and numbers off an eye chart from a standard
distance during the test. To allow a vision test to be
carried out in a small room, mirrors are used to make the
letters and numbers on the eye chart appear further away
(Figure 12.15).

r, Figure L2.L5 By using a

2. Blind corner mirror mirror to reflect an eye chaft,
we can carry out vision
Fitting curved mirrors at the corners of shops allows
testing in a small room.
shopkeepers to keep a lookout for shoplifters. Such
mirrors (Figure !21.6) are also used to help drivers
see around blind corners before making a turn.

< Figule L2.LG A blind corner mirror

Chapter 12
 reflection of
the oointer
Instrument scale
A mirror placed below the pointer of a scale (Figure
121-7) can help us avoid parallax error when taking
readings. To avoid parallax error, we need to make
sure that the pointer is aligned with its mirror image.

4. Periscope r, Figure L2.L7 A voltmeter

A periscope comes with two plane mirrors with a mirror below the oointer
inclined at 45" (Figure 12.78).lt helps a person
look over obstacles such as a high wall or other
< Figure t2.Lg A spectators in a game or an event!
periscope comes with two
mirrors inclined at 45o.
video camera

5. Teleprompter
Have you ever wondered how a newsreader is able
to read the news and yet maintain eye contact with
the video camera? The newsreader is able to do
so with the help of a teleprompter mounted on the
camera (Figure I2.I9).

6. Other uses
Plane mirrors are also used in many
optical instruments such as telescopes,
overhead projectors and CD players.
t Figure L2.L9

ta.l
t. Laws of reflection 1-. With the help of a diagram, state the laws
of reflection.
normal 2. What are the characteristics of an image formed in a
olane mirror?
3. Figure 72.20 shows an arrow placed above a mirror.
(a) On the diagram,
(i) draw its image formed by the mirror;
(ii) show how light rays from the object are
reflected at the mirror to form the image
for the eye.
(b) Describe the image.
reflecting surface
arrow
(a) The incident ray, reflected ray and e.- < Figwe L2.2O
the normal at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
(b) The angle of incidence is equal to m rrror
the angle of reflection (i.e. i = r).
2. Ray diagrams are used to locate the 4. A person is looking at the image of an eye chart in
position of a mirror image. a mirror olaced 3.0 m in front of him. Given that
the actual eye chart is positioned 0.5 m behind his
eyes, find the distance between the image of the
chart and his eyes.
Light
 L2.2 Refraction of Light
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
- used
. understand the terms for refraction: normal, angle of incidence, angle
of refractioni
. recall the relationship !.lIJ = constant, and use it to solve problems;
stn r
. define refractive indexof a medium in terms of ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to that in the medium.

Figure L2.2LWe can see the Light can travel through transparent materials like glass and water.
^
pencil in a glass of water because This is why we can see a pencil in a glass of water. But why does the
it reflects light through the water pencil appear bent at the water surface (Figure 72.2I)?
and glass into our eyes. But why
does the pencil appear bent?
Light travels at different speeds in different transparent materials
(i.e. optical media). For example, its speed is 3.0 x 108 m s-1 in air,
and 2.O x 108 m s-1 in glass. When light travels from air to glass,
v Table L2.2
it undergoes a change in speed at the boundary of the two optical
media. The change in speed causes light to bend (i.e. change its
direction). The bending of light when it travels from one medium to
lncident The light ray that another is called refraction.
ray, AO strikes a surface.
The light ray that
enters a medium
Refracted
and undergoes
ray, OB
a change of
d irection. Light travels the fastest in vacuum. lt slows down in an optically
denser medium (e.9. glass, water). Figure !2.22 shows a ray of light
The point at
Point of striking and refracting at a surface, PQ.
which an incident
incidence,
ray strikes a
o
surface. refracted ray
An imaginary line
Normal, ON perpendicular to
a surface.
glass
The angle
between an
Angle of incident ray
incidence, i and the normal
at the point of
incidence. r Figure L2.22 Refraction of light at a surface.

The angle
between a Iable 12.2 gives the meaning of some common terms for refraction.
Angle of refracted ray
refraction, r and the normal Laws of refiaction
at the point of We can carry out Investigation 12.3 to learn the laws that govern the
incidence. refraction of light.

Xm €st8 ati m
ray box 1
jeetive
To investigate the laws of refraction
normat -
rsce ure r hOffllOl
t. Place the glass block on a piece of paper. incident ray
2. Using ray box 1, shine a light ray through the glass block along
a prece oT paper
the normal (Figure 12.23), and observe the path of the light ray.
ray box 2
Ghapter 12 t Figwe L2.23
3. (a) Using ray box2, shine a light raythrough the glass block at an angle (Figure !2.23),
and observe the path of the light ray.
(b) Vary the angle of incidence i and measure the corresponding angles of refraction r.
(c) Tabulate the results and plot the graph of sin i against sin r.

0bservations and results

t. For ray box 1, the light ray passes through the glass block in a straight line. There is no
change in its direction.
2. For ray box 2,
(a) the light ray bends towards the normal as it enters the block.
(b) the light ray bends away from the normal as it exits the glass block. The emergent ray
is parallel to the incident ray.
(c) the graph of sin I against sin r is a straight line with a constant gradient e1
ulJ
sln r
(Figure lr2.24).
stn I
v Table 12.3 Recorded data and calculated values

gradient of slope
= constant ratio
of srn ,
stn r

stn r
o 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700

Figure L2.24 Graph of sin I against sin r

Discnssion and conclusion

t. A light ray that travels from one medium to another along the normal is not refracted.
2. (a) A light ray bends towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium at an
angle (e.9. air to glass).
(b) Conversely, a light ray bends away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium at an angle (e.9. glass to air).
3. From Figure 12.24, we can deduce that the ratio of sin i to sin rfor a particular medium (or
gradient of its straight-line graph) gives us a constant.

The conclusion in Investigation 12.3 is consistent with the laws of refraction

put together by the Dutch scientist, Willebrord Snell:
Although a light ray
travelling from one
medium to another
along the normal is
not refracted, it still
undergoes a change
in speed.
 Refractive index and speed of light
The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of
light in vacuum to the speed of lig;ht in the medium.

where c = speed of light in vacuum;

v
v= speed of light in the medium.
The higher the value of the refractive index of a medium, the slower light
travels in the medium.

For light travelling from vacuum to an optical medium, the constant ratio
In the figure below, srn,.
known as the refractive index n of that medium.
which is the optically .;n ,, is also
denser medium, P or Q?
h-
where i = angle of incidence in vacuum;
r= angle of refraction in the medium.

The higher the value of the refractive index of a medium, the smaller the
angle of refraction r(i.e. the more the light bends towards the normal).

emergent
ray

r Figure L2.25 The angle of refraction is smaller

in diamond than in water.

v Table 12.4 Refractive indices of and speed of light in some materials

How is the refractive index

of glass determined?
Diamond t.25
Glass 2.OO

Perspex 1_.50

Water 1.33 2.25

tce 1.30 2.30

A transparent material
1.000 293 2.999
of a higher refractive
index is an optically * For glass, the refractive index varies between 1.48 and 1.96, depending on
denser material. the composition of the glass.

However, optical From Table 12.4, we can see that the speed of light in air is very close
density is different
from mass density.
to that in vacuum. Hence, for most practical purposes, we can find the
For example, although
approximate value of the refractive index even though we use the speed of
liquid paraffin is light in air instead of vacuum.
optically denser than
water, its mass density , = sPeed of lielht in vacuum - speed of light in air
is lower. speed of light in medium speed of light in medium

Chapter 12
 onked €xample l2.A
Given that the speed of light in vacuum is 3.0 x 108 m , calculate the Principle of reversibility
speed of light in crown glass of refractive index 1.52. A light ray will travel along
the same path if its direction
of travel is reversed. This
Solution principle applies to the
Given: speed of light in vacuum c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1 reflection and refraction
refractive index of crown glass n = 1.52 of light.
a
Using n =: where y= Speed of light in crown glass,
U
l,t=_
n
3.0 x 108m s-1
!.52
= 1.97 x 108 m s-1

orked €xample l?.9

Figure 12.26 shows a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass (a) When light shines from top
to bottom
block of refractive index 1.5.

lf the ray strikes the surface PQ at an angle of incidence i of 60o,

calculate the
(a) angle of refraction r at the air-to-glass boundary (PQ);
(b) angle of incidence x in the glass block;
(c) angle of refraction y at the glass-to-air boundary (RS).
Solution
Given: refractive index of the glass n = L5 i= 600

(a) At the air-to-glass boundary (PQ):

, = stn
:,11 I (Snel's
r
taw) (b) When the direction of light
is reversed, the angles it
sin i sin 60" makes with the normal are
-n1.5
sin r= - the same as in (a).
r = 35.3o t Figute L2.26
(b) Since x and r are alternate angles, x= r= 35.3'
(c) At the glass-to-air boundary (RS):
sln x
In this case, we cannot write n - as the angle of incidence x is
srn y
not in air. However, since a light ray travels along the same path if its
direction is reversed (i.e. Principle of reversibility), we can solve for
angle of refraction y by reversing the direction of the light ray.

n :],! I (Snel's taw)

= SINX'
sin y= nsin x= 1.5 sin 35.3'
Y= 60o
 orked €xample l?.lo
Figure 12.27 shows a ray of light being partially reflected and
refracted at the surface of a glass block of refractive index 1.6.
Determine the value of (a) x, and (b) y.

Solution
Given: angle of incidence = 30o
refractive index of $lass block = 1.6
angle of reflection = x
angle of refraction = Y
(a) t FigweL2.27
By the law of reflection, angle of incidence i = angle of reflection
.'. x = 30"

(b) Using Snell's law,

sin i
n=-srn r
sin 30o
l-.O=-
sln y
Y= !8'2"

Figure 72.28 shows the path of a light ray XY through a fish

tank that is filled with water and has a thick glass base.
Calculate the angles 0 and a, given that the refractive indices
of the glass and water are ne= 1.5 and fl*= 1.33 respectively.

5olution
Given: angle of incidence at P = 6Oo
angle of refraction at R = 6Oo
refractive index of glass n, = 1.5
refractive index of water n" = 1.33 water
(n* = 1.33)
To find angle 0 at P,

t'l t Figute 712.28

n. =c -69" (sneil's taw)
sine
sin 60"
J-.C = -------:-------:-
srn I
0 = 35.3"

To find angled at R, apply the Principle of reversibility,

a.,* = 4j9
stnd
(Snel's taw)
sin 6O'
J_,Js =
stn d
a= 40.6"

Ghapter 12
Daily phenomena and applications of refraction
'Bent'objects Real depth and
Objects in water or other optically denser media appear bent because of apparent depth
refraction. In Figure 12.29, we can see the rod because it reflects light The refractive index n
to our eyes. lt appears to be bent because the reflected light from the of a medium is also
given by the ratio of the
immersed oart of the rod refracts when it travels from water to air. real depth of an object
in a medium to its
light rays as apparent depth in the
seen by the eye same medium.

.l,e.n=- real depth

apparenr oeprn

actual path of
1 light rays

light rays as seen

r Figure L2.29 A partially immersed rod
by the eye
appears bent because light bends away from
the normal when it travels from water to air.
apparenr
.A
I

.r^^*r" I

MisperceB n of depth
Swimming pools appear shallower than they actually are
because of refraction (Figure 12.30).
actual path of
light rays

r Figure 12.30 A swimming pool is deeper

than it seems.

One-way mirrors
Remember the unique toilet mentioned at the beginning of
this chapter?

The toilet is enclosed by one-way mirrors. A one-way mirror

consists of a sheet of glass sparsely coated with a layer
of metal only a few tens of atoms thick on the side facing
outwards. This layer reflects about half the light and allows
the rest to pass through.

As it is brighter outside than in the toilet, passers-by outside

can only see their reflection
- the walls look like any normal
mirrors to them. On the other hand, since it is brighter
outside, a user in the toilet can see through the walls just like
a normal window. When night fal{s, it will be dark inside the
toilet. Would you recommend installing a light bulb inside?
Explain your answer.

Search the Internet for more applications of one-way mirrors.

> As it is brighter outside, you can

look out while using the toilet.
 The archer fish's secret
Found in the waters of Singapore, the archer fish uses a
unique way to catch its prey. lt shoots a jet of water with
pinpoint accuracy, knocking its prey off a branch or a leaf.
How is it able to hit its target with such high accuracy
despite the visual distortion caused by refraction?
Biologists are still trying to establish an answer to this
ouestion.

lf you were an archer fish, how would you overcome

distorted vision due to refraction so that vou could
always hit your target?

orked €xample le.le

Figure !2.31-shows a thin rod partially immersed in a beaker of water.
Given that the refractive index of water is l-.33, determine the value
of (a) 0, and (b) x.

10.0 cm

r Figure 12.31

Solution
(a) Applying the Principle of reversibility, we can
solve for 0 by reversing the direction of the
light ray. A

"n = sin
_i]n.9-
30"
(Snel,s taw)
sin 0
1-.33 = 1O.O cm
sin 30'
0- 4r.7"
(b) Since angle AOB and the angle of incidence
Experiment 12 are alternate angles, angle AOB is 30'.
Can you plan an
.'. tan 30'
experiment to investigate 1U Cm
the apparent depth of
an object in different x = 5.77 cm
liquids?

Ghapter 12
 onked Cxample le.l3
John accidentally dropped a bunch of keys into a 2.5 m deep swimming pool one night. He managed
to locate the bunch of keys at the bottom of the pool when he shone a torchlight at a spot on the
water surface, 2 mfrom the pool's edge. Given that the refractive index of water is 1.33 and the
torch was held 1m above the ground, calculate the distance of the keys from the wall of the pool.

Solution
To visualise the problem, a diagram is drawn (right).
Point K indicates the position of the bunch of kevs.

In triangle ABC: In triangle AKL:

KL
:*no=t tan
AL
KL
lan 42.2" =
Hence, i = 90o - 26.6" = 63.4o 2.5 m

sin I (snett's taw) KL=2.3m

stnr'
The distance of the
4| sin 63.4'
^^
11=
stn r
keys from the wall
= (2.3 + 2.0) m
r = 42.2" =4.3m

he bending of light as light passes Experiment 20

from one ootical medium to another. How is the refractive
2. Refraction is due to the change in speed of light at index of a glass prism
the boundary of two different optical media. determined?
3. Laws of refraction
(a) The incident ray, the normal and the refracted
ray all lie in the same plane.
(b) For two given media,
stn / te.P
stn r
where I is the angle of incidence of light; L. Draw a clearly labelled diagram to
r is the angle of refraction of light. show how the direction of light changes
4. Refractive index of an ootical medium when it travels from air to water.
2. How is the speed of light in glass
v related to the angle of incidence and
where c is the speed of light in vacuum; angle of refraction of light?
v is the speed of light in another medium. 3. At what angle of incidence will light
5. Refractive index of an ootical medium pass from air to another transparent
sln / material without being refracted?
stn r 4. Draw a diagram to show how a coin at
where I is the angle of incidence of light in vacuum; the bottom of a bucket of water appears
r is the angle of refraction of light in the medium. to a viewer.
 Internal Reflection
You should be able to:
. explain the terms critical angle and total internal reflection;
o identify the main rdeas in total internal reflection and apply them to the use of
optical fibres;
r state the advantages of the use of optical fibres.

Figure L2.32 shows a girl's reflection underwater. This reflection is at the

water-air boundary and occurs due to the total internal reflection of light.

Figule L2.32 The Total internal reflection can only occur when light passes from an optically
reflection of the girl can be denser to a less dense medium. To understand this unique behaviour of
clearly seen underwater at
the water-air boundary. light, we need to first understand what critical angle is.

Critical angle
We can carry out Investigation L2.4 to demonstrate critical angle.
ln Investigation 12.4,
a semicircular glass
block is used, and the
ray of light is always
Nnvestigation lP.4
directed towards the
midpoint O of the Objective
diameter of the block. To investigate the critical angle in
Recall that a tangent to total internal reflection midpoint .- i
\!
a circle is perpendicular
to the radius at the Procedure
point of contact.
7. Set up the apparatus shown in
Figure 12.33.

r Figure 12.33

2. Direct a ray of light through the semicircular glass block at the

a A tangent to a circle is midpoint O such that it is perpendicular to the flat surface of the
perpendicular to the radius glass block. Observe the path of the light.
at the point of contact. 3. Direct the ray of light at an angle i at 0. Vary angle i and observe
Therefore, a ray of the corresponding change in the path of the ray of light.
light directed towards
the midpoint O will Observations, discussion and conclusion
always enter the curved
surface of the glass
t. When the light ray was directed
through the midpoint O such
block at an angle of
incidence of 0' (i.e.
that it was perpendicular to
it passes through the the flat surface of the block,
surface undeviated). the light ray passed straight
This makes the study through, without any deviation.
of critical angle at (Figure !2.34).
the flat surface of
the glass block more
convenient.
> Figute t2.34

Ghapter 12
2. (a) When the light ray was directed at a point O at an
angle i, it refracted away from the normal upon
emerging from the glass (Figure 12.35). This is
because it was travelling from an optically denser
medium (e.9. glass) to an optically less dense medium
(e.9. air). A small amount of light is reflected off the
flat surface of the glass block.

(b) As the incident angle is increased, the refracted ray

bends further away from the normal until the angle
of refraction rbecomes 90'(Figure L2.36). When the
angle of refraction is 90o, the corresponding angle of
incidence is known as the critical angle c.

'WCAK'..\
c: c

When the angle of incidence in the glass block is larger than the critical
Why do diamonds
angle c, the light ray reflects off the flat surface of the glass block. There
sparkle?
is no refraction at the flat surface (i:e. glass-air boundary) (FiEure L2.37). It has to do with the
This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. This explains why way diamonds are
we can see the girl's reflection underwater in Figure 12.32. cut. The surfaces
of a diamond are
angled to cause light
to internally reflect a
number of times before
exiting the diamond,
mainly through the top
No light passes through if the incident surface. This explains
un$l" i is more than the critical angle c. how a well-cut diamond
Ot,/ gets its brilliant sparkle
and why it costs so
much more.
reflected ray
ls it possible to cut a
piece of glass such
that it sparkles the way
t Flgure L2.37
a diamond does? Why?
lf you dip a diamond in
ln summary, two conditions that must be satisfied in order for a light ray to water, it loses its
sparkle. Why?
undergo total internal reflection are:
t. the light ray in an optically denser medium strikes its boundary with
an optically less dense medium.
2. the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of the optically
denser medium.
 Quick Gheck
Given the refractive index n of a transparent material, we can find its critical
State the conditions for angle c. Consider a light ray travelling from air into a semicircular glass
total internal reflection.
block before exiting into air at 0 (Figure 12.38).

I
refracted

weak \ angle of incidence i = critical angle c

reflected angle of refraction r= 90"

a Figule 12.38 Where angle of refraction r is 90o

With reference to page 224, when the light is travelling from vacuum
to the medium, the refractive index of the medium is given by the ratio
. However, in Figure !2.38, the light is travelling
from glass to air. Even so, by the Principle of reversibility introduced on
page 225, we can vis'ualise the same path of light in the figure but with the
directions reversed, giving:
sin 90o
n=- srn c
1,

stn c
Therefore,

sin c=1n

onked Cxample l?.14

Figure 12.39 shows a ray of light entering a right-angled glass prism
of refractive index 1.5.
(a) Calculate the critical angle of the prism.
(b) Complete the path of the light ray until it emerges into the air.
Solution
(a) Given: refractive index n = 1.5
11
sin c= - - ,'=
n L.5
.'. c = 41-.8"

(b) Since the ray enters the prism at a right angle, it does not bend
and hits surface AB at 45'(i.e. angle of incidence l).

Since the angle of incidence (45") is greater than the critical

angle of 41-.8", total internal reflection occurs.

Similarly, total internal reflection also occurs at surface AC. The

light ray exits at a right angle to surface BC.

Chapter 12
 orked €xample la.ls
Figure L2.4O shows a fish looking at a light bulb L
that is fixed at the tip of a long bamboo pole. The
fish sees the image of the light bulb at L'. atr
(a) Draw a ray diagram to show and explain why the water
fish sees the light bulb at L'.
(b) The water surface can behave like a mirror to
the fish. Explain this phenomenon with the help
of a diagram.

t Figute L2.4O
Solution
(a)
As light rays from L travel from an optically
less dense medium (air) into an optically
denser medium (water), they bend towards
the normal. These rays appear to come from
a point L', which is above object L.

(b)
The water surface acts like a mirror when the
angle of incidence I of the light from objects
underwater is larger than the critical angle.
image of crab
The fish can see the reflection of an object seen by fish
underwater (e.9. a crab) when 1 > c and
i", c - total internal reflection occurs.
Note that i"= r'
and i"= r' hence the water .' .'l
surface behaves like a mirror to the fish. I

air
water
 Applications of total intemal reflection

Glass prisms (Figure 12.4I) are used to reflect light in some optical
instruments such as binoculars, periscopes and single lens reflex (SLR)
cameras. They reflect light by total internal reflection.

A Figure L2.4L A glass prism Glass prisms are better light reflectors than mirrors because
o they do not have a silvered surface that can wear off;
o they do not produce multiple reflections.

1,. Binoculars
Using prisms to reflect light can reduce the size
of binoculars (Figure 12.42). Prisms also rectify
the inverted image, produced by the lenses in
binoculars, to an upright image.

< Figure L2.42 The use of glass prisms to reflect light

reduces the size of binoculars. How is this possible?

right-angled prism
light path
object

2. Periscopes
Prisms can be used in place of plane mirrors
to give clearer images. Figure 12.43 shows
how prisms reflect light to allow us to see
an upright image.

> Figure 12.43 Two prisms

are positioned to reflect light ..i----
through 90" twice. | '^-- -:---
virtual upright image

vieMinder pentaprism

translucent screen 3. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras

Prisms in SLR cameras allow photographers
to see the exact image to be captured.
Figure 72.44 shows how a five-sided prism
(i.e. pentaprism) helps to make this feature
light path possible in an SLR camera.

lens compartment

< Figure L2.44 How a plane mirror and

a pentaprism allow photographers to see
the actual image produced by the lens
Chapter 12
The transmission of data using optical fibres is an important application of
total internal reflection. Optical fibres are long, thin and flexible. They are
made of glass or plastic and can transmit light over long distances through
total internal reflection (Figure 12.45).

total internal reflection coating (low refractive index)

< Figure 12.45 An optical

fibre has a core of a high
refractive index, which is
coated with another material
of a lower refractive index.

core (high refractive index)

Even when the fibre is bent, light rays entering it will still be internally reflected
at the boundary between the two refractive materials. These flexible fibres have
innovative uses in manv industries such as telecommunications and medicine.

Telecommunications industry Medical industry

Advantages of optical fibres over copper wires The high flexibility of optical fibres makes them
in telecommunications are as follows: idealfor medical applications such as endoscopes
(Figure 12.47). Doctors use endoscopes to see
. Higher carrying capacity. An optical fibre inside hollow organs, such as the intestines.
can carry much more information over long
distances than a copper wire. v Figure L2.47 An endoscope is a longtube consisting
of optical fibres. (lnset) A view inside the intestines
. Less signal degradation: A signal transmitted
captured using an endoscope.

via optical fibres experiences much less

signal loss as compared to copper wires.

. Lightweight Optical fibres are lighter than

copper wrres.

. Lower cost: Optical fibres are becoming

cheaper to manufacture as compared to
copper wires of equivalent lengths.

These days, telephone conversations and

Internet data are transmitted across continents
using optical fibres, and not copper wires.

v Figure 12.46 Optical fiber cable

 orked €xample I?.16
Optical fibres are widely used in the telecommunications industry.
(a) State three advantages of optical fibres over copper wires.
(b) Figure L2.48 shows an optical fibre of refractive index 1.4 and diameter 10-4 m.
Calculate the angle l.
(c) Figure L2.49 shows total internal reflection in the same optical fibre when i" is
smaller than q. Calculate the length of PQ.
i_

diameter d=tOam

t Figute L2.48
I

a
r Figure 12.49

Solution
(a) Optical fibres can carry much more information than copper wires.
Optical fibres are cheaper than copper wires.
The loss of signal in optical fibres is less than in copper wires.
(b) At point B, since the angle of refraction is 9Oo, the angle of incidence r, is the
critical angle c, i2= c.
.LC=-.
UslnqSln Usingn= tln',
7n' - stnr
Stn C= Sln /1= n Sln f1
14
c = 45.6o = 1.4 sin 44.4"
.-. f"=90' - c= 90o - 45.6" = 44.4"
i"= 78'4o

(c)

For triangle PYZ,

d
)
sin 20o =; ,

d (104 m)
22 From what you have
= = = 1-'46 x 1o-a m
" .iniO. sin;." learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
.'. PQ = 2x = 2.92 x 104 m Let's Explore (c)?

Chapter 12
 reflection is defined as the complete 6. Advantages of optical fibres over copper
reflection of a light ray inside an optically denser wires in telecommunications:
medium at its boundary with an optically less dense (a) Higher carrying capacity
medium. (b) Less signal degradation
2. Total internal reflection occurs when the following two (c) Lishtweight
conditions are met: (d) Lower cost
(a) The light ray is travelling from an optically denser
medium to an optically less dense medium.
(b) The angle of incidence of the light ray in the
optically denser medium is greater than the
critical angle.
3. The critical angle c is defined as the angle of incidence
in an optically denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90'.
The critical angle c is related to the refractive index n
of the optically denser medium by:
sin c =:
n
5. Applications of total internal reflection include 1,. The refractive index of a glass
. glass prisms in optical instruments such as orism is 1.9. Determine its
binoculars, periscopes and SLR cameras; critical angle.
. optical fibres in telecommunications and medical 2. State two applications of total
industry. internal reflection.

L2.4 Refraction by Thin Lenses

Worksheet 12A
Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- Youwhen
. describe how light behaves it passes through a thin converging or diverging lens;
. define the term focal length for a thin converging lens.

A lens is a oiece of clear plastic or glass with curved surfaces. Lenses

are widely used in cameras, spectacles, projectors and many other
optical instruments.

r A camera with interchangeable lenses r How are spectacles for long-sightedness

different from those for short-sightedness?
 Path of light through a lens
A typical lens can be thought of as a set of small prisms (Figures L2.5t).
As the surface of a lens is curved, parallel light rays hitting different parts
of its surface have different incident angles. This causes the individual rays
to refract by different angles. The angle of refraction is the largest at the
outermost part of the lens, while no refraction occurs in the middle.

As a result, depending on the curvature of the lens, light rays either convelge
or diverge after passing through the lens (Figure 12.51).

light rays
diverge

(a) Path of light through a (b) Path of light through

Figure 12.50 Different converging lens a diverging lens
types of converging and
diverging lenses
r Figure L2.5L A typical lens can be thought of as a set of small prisms.

A converging lens causes light rays to converge to a point. lI is thicker in

the centre. A diverging lens causes light rays to diverge from a point. lt is
thinner in the centre.

Thin converging lens

We will learn what focal length is and other terms that are used to describe
a thin converging lens (Figure 12.52).

Focal
parallel length f
rays
Frincipal axis
The horizontal line passing through
the ootical centre of the lens
principal
The principal axis is perpendicular
to the vertical olane of the lens,
focal point
(or principal focus)

t Figwe L2.52
Optical centre C Focal plane
The midpoint between the surfaces The plane that passes
of the lens on its principal axis Focal point F (or principal focus) through the focal point F
The point at which all rays parallel and perpendicular to the
Rays passing through the optical to the principal axis converge after principal axis
centre are not refracted. refraction by the lens

A lens has two focal points, one on

each side of the lens.

Chapter 12
when the parallel beam of rays incident on a thin converging rens is not
parallel to the principal axis, the rays are refracted to J point (not
the
focal point F) on the focat ptane (Figure 1,2.53). Finding the focal length of
a magnifying glass
1. Hold a magnifying glass
above a piece of paper
under the Sun.
2. Adjust the distance
between the lens and
the paper until you can
observe a small bright
spot. This distance is its
focal length.
principal
< Figure 12.53 At its focal length, a
Parallel beam of rays magnifying glass focuses the
not parallel to the Sun's rays onto one smal
principal axis spot on its focal plane.

Can you think of other ways

to find the focal length of a
How do we see? magnifying glass?
Our eyes give us sight. A very important structure In our eyes is
the lens. The lens is a
converging lens and helps to focus light rays onto the retinas in our eves.

How a human eye functions:

1,. Light rays are refracted and converge as retana

they pass through a person's cornea.
2. The lens behind the person's cornea
helps to further converge and focus the
light rays to form a sharp inverted image
on his retina.
3. The image formed is sent as a signal to
his brain.
4. His brain processes the signal so that
the image he sees is upright.

Precaution
Be careful! The bright spot
may cause the paper to burn.

1. A converging lens converges a beam of light.

A diverging lens diverges it.
2. The focal length of a lens is the distance between its optical centre
c
and its focal ooint F.

t?.4
With the help of a diagram, describe how
a converging lens is different from a
diverging lens in terms of their structure
and their effect on light.
2. Figure 1,2.54 shows a diagram of light rays
passing through a thin converging lens. ls
the diagram correct? State your reasons.
3. with the help of a diagram, define the
focal length of a thin converging lens.
 L2.5 Ray Diagrams for Thin Converging Lenses
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
draw ray diagrams to illustrate how real and virtual images are formed by a thin
converging lens.

From Section 12.4, we know that

o ofly light ray passing through the optical centre C of a lens is not refracted;
. any light ray parallel to the principal axis of a lens will converge at the
focal point F (Figure 12.55).
Focal
parallel length f
ra\/q

focal point
(or principal focus)

r, Fitute 12.55

With this, we can identify three particular rays of light that behave in a
predictable way whenever they pass through any thin converging lens
(Figure L2.56).

An incident ray through the optical An incident ray parallel to the An incident ray passing through
centre C passes without bending. principal axis is refracted to pass the focal point F is refracted
through F. parallel to the principal axis.

Figule 12.56 Light rays that behave in a predictable way whenever they pass through any thin converging lens

Position of an ima by a thin converging lens

Using any two of the three rays mentioned in Figure 12.56, we can draw
a ray diagram to locate the position of an image produced by a thin
converging lens.

Chapter 12
 Step 1: Set up the ray diagram
Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis.
O Draw a double-headed arrow perpendicular to the
horizontal line to represent the converging lens.
The intersection point of the principal axis in (i) and
the lens in (ii) is the optical centre of the converging
lens. Label the point C.
Label the focal point F of the lens on the principal axis.
The distance CF is the focal length f of the lens.

Step 2: Place the object on the left of the lens

Draw a vertical arrow on the left of the lens to
represent an object. Label the object O.
Label the distance OC u. Note that f< u < 2f.

Step 3: Trace the rays and locate the image

Select and draw any two of the three rays, e.g. ray 1
and ray 2,from the tip of the object.
The intersection point of the two rays represents the
real image of the tip of the object. Complete the real
image by drawing an arrow and labelling it I.

Figure 12.57 Formation of

a real image (f < u < 2f)

When we place the same object at a distance less than the focal length and
draw the ray diagram (Figure !2.58), we can see that the light rays diverge
t
and the intersection point of ray and ray 2 can be found only if the rays
are extended backwards.

When the diverging rays enter our eyes, they appear to come from a point on
the same side as the object. The point represents the virtual image of the tip
of the object and the broken arrow represents the virtual image of the object.
rmage

\.--
-\-

< Figure 12.58 Formation

of a virtual image (u < f)
 The distance of an object from a thin converging lens determines the type of
image that is formed. Table 12.5 shows the types of images formed when
an object is placed at different distances from the lens.

v Table 12.5 Types of images formed by a thin converging lens with different range of values of u

parallel . inverted v= f . object

rays from . real . oPPosite lens of a
a distant . diminished side of telescope
object the lens

u>2f o inverted f<v<2f . camera

O real . opposite . eye
a diminished side of
the lens

u=2f o inverted v = 2f photocopier

a real . opposite making
a same size side of same-sized
the lens copy

f<u<2f o inverted v > 2f . projector

a real . opposite o photograph
a magnified side of enlarger
the lens

image at . upright image at eyeprece

infinity o viftual infin ity lens of a
. magnified same telescope
side of
the lens

u <f _a_.._-__ . upright image is magnifying

. virtual behind il^^^
E,rd55
\\ . magnified the object
same
side of
the lens

Chapter 12
From Table !2.5, we can see that
. when u > 4 the image formed is real, inverted and on the opposite side
of the lens as the object.
o when u < f, the image formed is virtual, upright and on the same side of How is the focal length
of a converging lens
the lens as the obiect.
determined?

onked Cxample l?.17

An object 2 cm high is placed 7.5 cm from a thin converging lens. The focal length of the lens
is 5 cm.
(a) Find, by scale drawing, the position of the image formed.
(b) State the characteristics of the image.
Solution
(a) Horizontal scale: 1 division represents 1cm
Vertical scale: l division represents 1 cm

tens

0 ra 2

raV 1
--1--
F 0 F

--i- i ,

-\

From the ray diagram, the image is 15 cm from the lens on the opposite side of the object.

(b) The image formed is real, inverted and magnified.

Applications of conve ing lenses

A magnifying glass is a thin converging lens. lt is

used to make objects look bigger (Figure 12.59). In
order to get a magnified image, the lens should be
positioned at a distance less than a focal length f
from the object (i.e. u < f).

> Figure 12.59 In comparison to the

rest of the textbook cover, the letters
under the magnifying glass are magnified.
 We use an LCD projector to project a magnified image on a screen (Figure 12.60).

projection
condenser LCD panel tens
Ienses (f< u < 2f)
halogen
lamp
concave
mrrror

2ff
4.. .......4.............,..

Light from the Light is gathered Light is refracted by Light reaches

halogen lamp is through refraction by the projection lens. the screen
reflected by a the condenser lenses We can adjust the and the image
concave mirror and directed through lens forwards and formed is real,
onto a pair of the LCD panel to the backwards to obtain inverted and
condenser lenses. projection lens. The a sharp image on magnified.
panel is inverted, the screen.
between f and 2f.

r Figure12.6O The LCD panel (object) is placed between f and2f so thatthe image is real, inverted and magnified.

As the image formed is inverted and magnified, the LCD panel needs to
be placed upside down, between one and two focal lengths from the lens
(f . u .2f ), so that the audience will be able to view a real, magnified and
upright image.

, lens-to-film I camera
distance
'<--------------- i
A film camera uses a converging lens to produce
a real, inverted and diminished image on film
spool (Figure !2.6I). To get a sharp image, we vary
the lens-to-film distance.

shuttei A distant object requires the lens-to-film

button distance to be equal to the focal length of the
lens. A nearer obiect would reouire the lens-to-
film film distance to be greater than the focal length
of the lens.
converging-
tens

< Figure 12.61 The focusing ring allows

the user to vary the lens-to-film distance.

focusing
nng

Ghapter 12
 People who are long-sighted are unable to see objects close to their eyes
clearly. The lenses in their eyes are unable to focus a clear image of a close
object on the retina (Figure !2.62).

light from
close object
=l

light rays not

focused on retina

a Figure 12.62 Long-sightedness the eye lens

- the retina
is unable to focus the light rays onto

Spectacles with convefging lenses can be used to partially converge the

light rays before they enter the eyes (Figure 72.63). This way, the light rays
coming from the object can be focused on the retina to produce a sharp
image.

light from
close object From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (d)?
converging lens helps eye lens to
converge beam onto the retina

r Figure 12.63 Correcting long-sightedness

using a converging lens

Short-sightedness
A person is short-sighted when his or her eyeball is longer Short-sightedness can be corrected by wearing
than normal along the horizontal axis from the lens to the spectacles with concave lenses to diverge the rays from
retina. The eye can still focus on near objects, but parallel distant objects before they reach the eye. The diverged
light rays from distant objects are focused in front of the rays can then be focused onto the retina and this will
retina, forming a blurred image. enable the person to see distant objects clearly.

image formed in focus lies in front of

front of retina retina (uncorrected)

Shoft-sightedness
- image forms in front of the r Correcting shoft-sightedness with a concave lens
^
 oPk€d Cxample l?.la
Figure L2.64 shows a small object of height 1.0 cm
placed 1.4 cm away from a thin converging lens L of
focal length 1.9 cm. By drawing a suitable ray diagram,
(a) find the position and height of the image;
(b) describe the characteristics of the image formed.
I'
Solution {'....
: '.....
Given: size of obiect OO' = 1.0 cm
object distance u = L4 cm
focal length f = 1-.9 cm

(a) By scale drawing, the image

distance v is 5.8 cm and the
height of image I' is 3.9 cm.
(b) The image formed is upright, r
magnified, virtual and on the
same side of the lens as the
object.

orked €xample le.lg

In a slide projector, light from a lamp is converged onto a
slide AB. lt then gets refracted by a lens to form an image on
a screen. Figure 12.65 shows the arrangement of slide AB
and the screen.
(a) Copy Figure 12.65 and then draw two rays from A and
two rays from B such that a focused image of the slide is
formed on the screen.
(b) Describe the image formed on the screen.
(c) When the projector is first turned on, the image formed is
often not in focus. Describe how a person can get a sharp
image on the screen.
(d) The slide should be placed inverted in the projector. Explain
why.

(b) The image formed is real, magnified and inverted.

(c) Adjust the position of the lens to get a sharp image on the screen.
(d) From (a), we can see that the image formed is inverted. To form an upright image
on the screen, the slide must be placed upside down in the projector.

Chapter 12
 L. Ray diagrams can be constructed to locate the 3. An object placed further than a focal length
position of an image and identify the type of from a thin converging lens (u > f) has a real
image formed by a thin converging lens. and inverted image. The image is formed on the
2. When drawing ray diagrams, we draw light opposite side of the lens as the object.
rays that have predictable paths when passing 4. An object placed nearer than or equal to a focal
through a thin converging lens. length from a thin converging lens (u < f) has a
(a) An incident ray passing through the optical virtual and upright image. The image is formed on
centre C does not refract. the same side of the lens as the obiect.
(b) An incident ray parallel to the principal
axis is refracted to pass through the focal
ooint F of the lens.
(c) An incident ray passing through the focal t?.5
point F of the lens is refracted parallel to L. How far should an object be placed from a
the principal axis after passing through thin converging lens to produce a
the lens. magnified image?
2. State two applications of converging lenses.

*il;:lr.r : Learning through videos

1'. Revise what you have learnt about refraction by watching a series of online lessons. Search the
lnternet for videos on refraction of lig;ht. Use the keywords "refraction of light" in your search.

2. Jot down the main points of each lesson and compare your notes with two other friends. Discuss any
discrepancies, if any.

r:tlf ilr : Verifying Snell's law and beyond

Visit http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/ to try the applet on the refraction of tight. Use keywords, "Light
Refract", in your search,

1" Keeping other conditions constant, change the medium from vacuum to diamond. State the changes
that you observe.
2. Verifl Snell's law using the applet.
3. (a) State two sets of conditions under which light passes through the medium without being refracted.
(b) Explain, in terms of Snell's law, why light is not refracted undereach set of conditions.
4. Keeping other conditions constant, change the wavelength of the light. State the changes
that you observe. What can you conclude from the observations?
5. (a) How does the wavelength of light change when it moves from the first medium to the
second medium?
(b) Does the frequency of the light change and how does it affect the speed of light?
*lii.:ilr i:;: Using refraction in photography
Search the Internet for a photograph on images in water droplets. Use keywords such as "refractive"
and "macrophotography".

1,. Explain briefly how images were 'trapped' in the tiny water droplets.
2. Based on your understanding of how these images were formed, try taking similar photographs.
 is governed by is governed by
of which image
position can be
located by

apply to
refraction n

occurs
when

Light travels from an optically denser medium . focal len€Fh

to an optically less dense medium. . principal axis
Angle of incidence in the optically denser o optical centre
medium is greater than the critical angle c . focal point
L . focal plane

I
I

Applications
. magnirying glass
o projector
. camera
o spectacle lenses

Ghapter 12
 State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

12.1,
vrr ro rr clv c
12.7
:

anora nf ingiflgnsg ig
r^r , lf {[e feo rhan the angle between the reflected light ray and
!2.7
(d) i Refraction always occurs whenever light travels from one medium to another. 12.2
(e) j The speed of light increases when it travels from glass to air. 72.2

from glass to air.

The refractive index n of a medium is defined as:

sini c
n= sinrort
(e) where I = angle of incidence in vacuum 12.2
r = angle of refraction in medium
c = speed of light in vacuum
v= speed of light in medium

!2.5

(i) ; lf the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle of a medium, total internal
!2.3
i rellecilon occurs.
.***-:-*-
|
1

1_2.4
- j*-
,

-*
'
,"n-
rz,c
ii
Answers are available at the back of the book.
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 5. A ray of light in air is incident at an angle on one
side of a rectangular glass block, as shown below
1,. Which characteristics best describe an image
formed in a olane mirror?
A Diminished and virtual
B Same size and virtual
C Same size and real
D Magnified and virtual
Which ray diagram correctly describes the
2. Which statement about the size of an image complete path of the ray of light?
formed in a plane mirror image is false?
A The image can be taller than the mirror. A
B The image height depends on the object
distance.
C The image height depends on the object
height.
D The width of the image is the same as that
of the object.
c
3. A girl stands at point P as shown in the diagram
below. A wall seoarates her from four other
persons standing at points w x, Y and Z. lt
blocks her direct line of sight to them. lf a mirror
is placed as shown in the diagram, how many
oersons can she see reflected in the mirror? 6. Which diagram correctly describes the critical
angle c for an air-water surface?
mtrror

A 4 B
c 2 D 1 D

4. The diagram below shows the complete path of a

ray of light travelling from air to a liquid.

7. The fish in a pond appears to be

A deeper in the water than it really is
because light reflected from the fish will
refract towards the normal
The refractive index of the liquid is given by
B deeper in the water than it really is
sin 60' sin 30' because light reflected from the fish will
A B
sin 50' sin 50' refract away from the normal
c nearer to the surface than it really is
sin 60" sin 40'
D because light reflected from the fish will
sin 40" sin 50' refract towards the normal
nearer to the surface than it really is
because light reflected from the fish will
refract away from the normal

Chapter 12
 8. The critical angle for an air-glass interface is L2. An object is placed in front of a converging
42". Which diagram shows the incorrect path of lens of focal length f, as shown below. At whicn
a light ray passing through a glass prism? position will the image be formed?

tens

13. The image formed by a slide projector on the

screen ts _.
A real, inverted and diminished
B real, inverted and magnified
C virtual, upright and diminished
D virtual, upright and magnified

9, A thin converging lens is used to focus the

Section B: Structured euestions
rays from the Sun onto a piece of paper. When 1. (a) Figure 12.66 below shows a large letter F
the rays burn a hole in the paper, the disrance placed in front of a plane mirror with two
between the lens and the paper is incident rays.
the focal length of the lens.
A less than half B equal to half
C equal to D equal to twice
10. The diagram shows the position of an obiect
relative to a lens. In which position woulO the
viewer be unable to see the image?

r, Fiture 12.66

(i) Using the laws of reflection, locate

the position and draw the image of F.
(ii) State the characteristics of the image
of F.
Ll,. A person attempts to measure the focal length of
(b) An optician's test card is fixed 4OO cm
a lens, as shown in the diagram.
behind the eyes of a person who looks into
a plane mirror 1300 cm in front of him, as
shown in Figure 12.67. Find the distance
from his eyes to the image of the card.

plane mirror

XY z
Which distance is the focai length of the lens?
AX BY Figure L2.67
CZ D X+Y
2. (a) What is refraction? 4. (a) Given that the refractive index of water is
(b) Figure 12.68 shows the path of a light ray 1.33, find the angle of refraction of a light
from air through a glass block and into air ray at the water-air interface in Figure
again. 12.69.

r Figure 12.68
r. Figure 12.69
(i) Determine the refractive index of the
glass.
(ii) State the angles x and y. (b) Calculate the critical angle of water and
draw, in Figure 12.69, the refracted ray and
3. The refractive indices of some transoarent the reflected ray when the critical angle
materials are shown ln Table 12.6. is reached.

v Table 12.6 5. (a) Figure 72.7O shows a ray of light incident

on a right-angled prism of refractive index
1.5. Using Snell's law, calculate the angle
of refraction of the ray within the prism.

(a) For the same angle of incidence,

(i) which medium will cause light to bend
the most?
(ii) which medium will cause light to bend
the least? t Figwe L2.7O
Explain your choice in each case.
(b) Given that the refractive index of flint (b) Determine whether this ray within the prism
glass is t.7 and the speed of light in air will undergo total internal reflection when it
is 300 000 km s-1, what is the speed of hits the face AB of the prism.
light in flint glass?
(c) Given that the speed of light in crown glass 6. A converging lens is used to project a 250 mm
is 200 0OO km s-1 and the speed of light in image of a square slide onto a screen 1OO0 mm
air is 300 000 km s-1, what is the refractive away. The focal length of the lens is 2OO mm. By
index of crown glass? means of a scale drawing, determine
(a) the distance of the slide from the lens;
(b) the size of the slide.

Chapter 12
Section C: Free-Response Questions 3. Figure 12.72 shows the behaviour of a ray of
*1. light passing through an optical fibre from one
Figure L2.7L shows a lady of height 1.5 m
end A to the other end B.
looking into a vertical plane mirror GH, Her eyes
are LO cm below the top of her head.

t Figwe L2.72

(a) (i) Explain why the light ray changes

t Figwe L2.7L direction at Q.
(ii) Explain why the light ray undergoes
(a)
total internal reflection at R and S.
By drawing a ray diagram, determine
(b) lf the refractive index of the glass that
(i) the minimum length of the mirror that
is used to make the optical fibre is 1.5,
allows the lady to see a full-length
calculate the angle of refraction at Q.
image of herself;
(c) On Figure 12.72, complete the path of the
(ii) the height of the bottom of this mirrbr light ray after refraction at T.
above the floor.
(d) State two advantages of using optical
(b) Suppose that the mirror is moved away
fibres instead of copper wires in
from the person at a speed of 1 m s-1,
telecommunications.
determine the speed at which the image
appears to move and state the direction of
its movement.

2. (a) Explain, with the help of diagrams, how the

reflection of a parallel beam of light by a
sheet of white paper differs from that by a
polished metal surface?
"(b) A bus driver has the centre of a 20 cm wide
plane mirror placed 50 cm in front of him.
lf the rear of the bus is 500 cm directly
behind the plane mirror, how wide is his
field of vision of the rear whenever he looks
into the mirror while driving?
Ever wished that the images captured on your mobile phone
cameras were as sharp as those captured by Digital Single
Lens Reflex (D-SLR) cameras? Currently, the capability of
mobile phone cameras is limited by the need to fit into a
small space. As a result, the lenses used are small and have
short focal ranges. However, this is set to change with the
development of the liquid lens.

Early models of the liquid lens consisted of two immiscible

liquids of different refractive indices, like oil and water. These
liquids are contained in a short transparent tube, whose
internal surface is coated with a liquid repellent. The liquid
repellent helps shape the two liquids into a hemisphere,
allowing the liquids to act as a lens.

The strength of the water-repellent substance can be altered The shape of a liquid lens can be changed
by varying the electric field.
by applying an electric field to it. Changing the strength of
the water-repellent substance changes the shape of the
liquid lens, and consequently, the focal length of the lens. By
varying the electric field, the liquid lens can be changed from
a convex lens to a concave lens.

The advantages of liquid lenses are many. These include

increased reliability, lower power consumption, smaller
dimensions for the camera, wider focal range, and a much
quicker response time. The liquid lens technology is still
undergoing further development, undertaken by research
laboratories, such as Singapore's Institute of Materials
Research and Engineering (IMRE), and other commercial
entities.

The liquid lens closely mimics the human eye lens. In

a group of five, create a simple poster explaining the
physics of human vision. Highlight the characteristics
that are mimicked by a liquid lens.
Singapore's IMRE is conducting research on a
method of changing the shape of liquid lenses without
using electricity. Find out how this method works
and its advantages.
State a possible problem that could arise with the use
of the liquid lens in mobile ohones.
Have you seen the Mexican Wave produced by fans at sports stadiums? In Singapore,
the Mexican Wave is commonly known as the Kallang Wave. \NhaI do these waves and
sea waves have in common? What is the ohvsics behind these waves? We will find
out in this chapter.
 13.1 Introducing Waves
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe wave motion using vibrations in ropes and springs, or waves in a

. show an understanding that waves transfer energy without the transfer of matter;
. state the differences and similarities between a transverse wave and a longitudinal
wave, and provide appropriate examples of each.

When we think of the word waves, sea waves usually come to mind.
Besides sea waves, there are other types of waves, such as sound waves
and radio waves. What do all these waves have in common? What are the
Figure 13.1 characteristics of a wave?
^ create lhe Mexican
To
fVave, successive
sections of spectators What is a wave?
stand up with their arms A wave is made up of periodic motion.
raised and then sit down.
Periodic motion is motion repeated at regular
intervals. For example, the swinging motion
of a pendulum bob (Figure 1-3.2), from the
extreme left to the extreme right and back to
its starting position, is said to be periodic,
One complete cycle of such motion is known
as an oscillation or a vibration. The source of
any wave is a vibration or oscillation.
Search the Internet
for an animation of
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy
a mini Kallang wave.
Use keywords such from one olace another. lt does not
to
as "kallang wave" and transfer matter during the energy transfer
r. Figure 13.2 An oscillation
"animation". (Figure 13.3). is completed when the
pendulum bob moves from
A to B, and then back to A.

v Figure 13.3 As ripples spread outwards, any object on the water surface (e.9. an
empty bottle) will only bob up and down. This shows that waves transfer energy without
transferring matter.

:
How are wa s formed?
We can produce waves using a rope, a ripple tank or a Slinky spring. From
each of these cases, we can learn how energy is transferred from one point
to another.

We can produce waves along a rope by fixing one end of the rope to a wall
and moving the other end up and down rapidly (Figure I3.4).

1,. One end of the rooe is fixed.

2.
';;
i*..;";;;;i;.;,,o'-,i",;;'-
hand (i.e. source) is transferred to the
rope particles (e.9. P) by a rope wave.
3. The rope particles at/near the free end
move up and down (i.e. vibrate) as the
wave passes through them.
4. The rope wave moves towards the wall.
Moving down

I Oirection of vibration + direction of wave

5. The KE of the rope particles near the

source is transferred to rope particles
further away (e.9. Q) as the wave
progresses.
6. The rope particles farther away vibrate
up and down.
7. The rope wave continues to move
towards the wall.

Moving
down
8. Note that the rope particles vibrate up
and down about their rest positions.

(Not drawn to scale)

r Figure 13.4 The rope particles vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the wave motion.

Note that the rope waves move towards the wall, while the rope particles
only vibrate up and down about their rest positions (Figure 13.4). The energy
from the hand is transferred by the rope waves towards the wall. The rope
is the medium through which the waves move.

Waves
 We can use a ripple tank to observe waves. In such a tank, there is a small
dipper set near the water surface (Figure 13.6).

water particles
at the surface
1.. The dipper is set near the tanK
orl6a
water surface.

2. The kinetic energy (KE) from the dipper

vibrating dipper (i.e. source) is movrng down
transferred to the water particles
directly below it by a circular
ripple (i.e. wave). tank tank
edge edge
3. The water particles move up and
down (i.e. vibrate) as the ripple
passes through them.
4. The circular ripple spreads
outwards towards the tank edges.
t{ Oirection of vibration + direction of wave

5. The KE gets transferred to the dinnor

adjacent water particles and movrng up
eventually to water particles
at the tank edges as the ripple
progresses. tank tank
6. The water particles at other parts edge oal60
also vibrate up and down as the
ripple passes through them.
7. The circular ripple continues to
dipper
spread outwards towards the
moving down
tank edges.

8. Note that the water particles tan k

vibrate up and down about their edge
rest positions.

spherical r Figure 13.5 The water particles vibrate in (Not drawn to scale)
dipper a direction perpendicular to the wave motion.

Note that the circular ripples (i.e. waves) move towards the
tank edges, while the water particles only vibrate up and
down (Figure 13.5). The energy from the dipper is transferred
by the ripples towards the tank edges. Can you identify the
I medium in this case?

circular ripples are produced

on the water surface

< Figure 13.6 A small dipper in a ripple tank

produces circular ripples (waves).
 ina
Stretch out a coiled spring or Slinky on the floor and keep one end fixed.

Left-to-right motion
Move the free end of the Slinky left and right (Fi$ure 1.3.7). Viewing this from
the top, we can see the individual coils move perpendicularto the direction
of the wave.

r Figure 13.7 Left-to-right motion of the

hand generates waves in a Slinky (top view).

Push-and-pull motion
Next, push and pull the free end of the Slinky rapidly (Figure 13.8). We can
see the individual coils move parallel to the direction of the wave. Dark
bands, where the coils are compressed, are seen travelling along the Slinky
towards the fixed end.

pull push dark band where coils compress

r Figute 13.8 Push-and-pull motion of the hand

also generates waves in a Slinky (top view).

From Figures 13.7 and 13.8, we can observe that the individual coils are
restricted to oscillating motion. The individual coils do not move from one
end to the other. The waves, however, move from the free end of the Slinky
to the fixed end.

As the waves move, energy is transferred from one end of the Slinky to the
other. Can you identify the medium in this case?

From our observations of waves produced by the rope, ripple tank and
Slinky, we can infer that waves have the following properties:

Waves
 pes of wave motion
There are two types of wave motion: transverse and longitudinal waves. We
Recall what you have
learnt about light can produce them using a stretched Slinky that is fixed at one end.
waves in Chaoter 12.
nsverce
Move the free end of the Slinky up and down repeatedly (Figure 13.9). Do
you notice that the up-and-down movement (i.e. vibration) of the individual
lGf Link coils is perpendicular to the wave motion? We call this type of wave a
Search the Internet tlansverse wave. Water waves and light waves are transverse waves.
for an interactive
wave simulation. Use
keywords such as A I direction of vibration of the coils
+ direction of the wave motion
"what is a wave" and I I in ilr" stretched Slinkv along the Slinky
"demonstration".

A direction of vibration
I

r Figure 13.9 Fortransverse waves, the vibration of

the coils (f{) is perpendicular to the wave motion (+).

Ghapter 13
Push the free end of the Slinky forward to compress it and pull it backwards
to stretch it(Figure 13.1O). Do you notice that the forward-and-backward You will learn about sound
waves in Chapter 15.
movement (i.e. vibration) of the coils is parallelto the wave motion? This
type of wave is called a longitudinal wave. Sound waves are longitudinal
waves.

direction of vibration of the coils direction of the wave motion

+in the stretched Slinkv along the Slinky

--+ direction of wave motion

r Figure 13.1O For longitudinal waves, the vibration

of the coils (f) is parallel to the wave motion (+).

Waves
 From what you
have learnt so far,
t. Periodic motion is a motion that repeats at regular intervals.
have you found the
2. One complete cycle of periodic motion is known as an oscillation or a
vibration.
answers to Let's
Explore (a) and (b)?
3. Waves transfer energy from one point to another without transferring
the medium the waves travel in.
4. There are two types of wave motion:transverse and longitudinal waves.
5. Transverse waves are waves that travel perpendicular to the direction
of the vibration. Examples include water waves and light waves.

direction of vibration

6. Longitudinal waves are waves that travel parallel to the direction of

the vibration. Examples include sound waves, and the pushing and
pulling of a Slinky.

----------> direction of wave

direction of vibration
Longitudinal wave

1,. Which of the following statement(s) about rope waves is,/are correct?
(a) Rope waves travel up and down, while the rope moves sideways.
(b) Rope waves provide a mechanism for the transfer of energy from
one ooint to another.
(c) Rope waves travel sideways, while the rope moves up and down.
2. State one similarity and one difference between transverse waves and
longitudinal waves. Give an example of each type of wave.

L3.2 Properties of Wave Motion

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
define, with reference to waves, the terms speed, frequency, wavelength, period,
amplitude and wavefront;
. recall and apply the relationship velocity = frequency x wavelength to solve
related problems.

Describing waves
Figure 13.11, shows transverse rope waves that are formed when we move
the free end of a rope up and down rapidly. Six ribbons, P, Q, R, S, T and
U, are tied at different points along the rope. By observing the movement
of these ribbons, we can find out how points along the rope vibrate as the
waves move from left to right.

Ghapter 13
 Points along a wave are in phase if they have
the same direction of motion. same soeed
and same disolacement from their rest
position.
Its Sl unit is the metre (m). For example,
. P, S and V (i.e. all crests along a wave are
We can find the amplitude of a transverse wave by in phase);
measuring the height of its crest or the depth of . R and U (i.e. all troughs along a wave are
its trough from the rest position. in phase);
o Q and T (i.e. all alternate points at the
rest position along the wave are in phase).

A trough is the
lowest point of a
transverse wave.

r Fiture 13.11 A transverse rope

wave and some terms related to waves wavelength

For transverse waves,

it is important to know
how to label the
Its Sl unit is the metre (m). o crest;
. trouBh;
To find the wavelength of a transverse wave, we can . amplitude;
measure the distance between . wavelenelth.
. two successive crests (e.9. P and S, S and V);
. two successive troughs (e.9. R and U);
. any other two nearest points in phase (e.9. Q and T).
Waves
 Displacement-distance graph
Figure 1-3.12 shows a displacement-distance graph of the rope wave in
Figure 1.3.1-1. A photograph of the rope at an instant is equivalent to a
displacement-distance graph.

A dispfacement-distance graph describes the displacements of all particles

at a particular point in time.
Displacement,/cm

Distance/cm

t= O s

; a 13.12 Displacement-distance
rest
positiori the rooe wave at a certain instant

-c1
_i
Points above the rest position are shown as positive displacements. Points
_ (b)
c-
At time t below the rest position are shown as negative displacements.
;

; According to the graph, the amplitude and wavelength of the wave are
5 cm and 40 cm respectively.

Displacement-time graph
c) At Figure 13.13 shows the displacement-distance graphs captured at different
instants during the flicking of the rope in Figure 13.7L

By tracking the displacements of ribbon Q and plotting them against time,

we obtain the displacement-time graph of Q over one second (Figure 1,3.74).
A displacement-time graph describes the displacement of one particle over
d) At rme 075 S
a time interval.

Displacement/cm

period f

rme
amplitude A

Time/s
o.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
amplitude A

< Figure 13.14 Displacement-time

r Figure 13.13 graph of Q over one second
distance graphs at different
instants over one second
According to the graph, the amplitude and the period of the wave are 5 cm
and 1.0 s respectively.
Chapter 13
 The period is equivalent to the time taken for the wave
to travel through a distance equal to its wavelength.

Its Sl unit is the second (s).

The frequency of a wave is also the number of crests (or

troughs) that go past a point per second.

f n Figure t3.t4,
one complete wave is produced per second
the frequency of the wave is t.O Hz. We can relate
Its Sl unit is the hertz (Hz). -
frequency to period by the following equation:

.1,
'- T
f--

The higher the frequency, the greater the number of waves

produced in one second. A higher frequency also implies
that the period is shorter.

Since a crest (or any point on a wave) travels a distance of

one wavelength in one period, the wave speed is given by:

,=ih where y= wave speed (in m s-1);

Its Sl unit is the metre per second 1= wavelength (in m);
(m s-t). 7= period (in s).
t
Since f =
i'
v=f),

A wavefront can be drawn by joining all the adjacent wave

crests. Depending on how the waves are produced, the
wavefronts can be straight lines (Figure 13.15), concentric
circles (Figure 13.16), or any other shape.

straight Quick Check

dipper What is the speed
of the wave in
Figures 13.11to 1.3.14?

spherical
dipper
r Figure 13.15 A straight dipper produces plane
waves that give rise to plane wavefronts.

> Figure 13.16 A spherical dipper ,

produces circular waves that give

rise to circular wavefronts.
Waves
 orked €xample l3.l
Figure 1-3.17 shows a displacement-distance graph of a wave.

Displacement/cm

4
2 \ /\
0 Distance,/cm
100
-2
-4
-6 r, Figure 13.17

(a) What is the wavelength of the wave?

(b) The period of the wave is 1.0 s. What are its frequency and speed?
(c) What will be the wavelength of the wave if its frequency is increased to 5.0 Hz, with no change in
. speed? Sketch the resulting wave profile with its wavelength marked clearly.

Solution
(a) Wavelength 2 = 50 cm
(b) Given: period f = 1.0 s
1
FrequencY f = 1= LO Hz
I

Using the wave speed equation,

wave speed 2
":
[r]? ,.*waverength

(c) Given: wave speed y= 50 cm s-1

frequency f =5.OHz
Using the wave speed equation,
v = f ),
"v
n=i
_50cms-1=10cm
5.0 Hz

Displacement/cm

wavelength

\
Distance/cm
5 10 15
-2
\

Chapter 13
 orked Cxample 13.?

(a) Figure 13.18 shows a wave along a Slinky with a frequency of 3 Hz and a wavelength of 0.3 m.
What is the wave speed?

direction of
vibration
r Figure 13.18

(b) Given that in a vacuum, the speed c and wavelength ), of green light are 3.0 x 108 m s-1 and
0.6 pm respectively, calculate the frequency of the green light.
(c) Compare the waves in (a) and (b) and comment on them, in terms of speed and frequency.

Solution
(a) Given: frequency f'= 3 Hz
wavelength l. = 0.3 m
Using v = f2;
v=3Hzx0.3m
= O.9 m s-1

(b) Given: wavelength ), = 0.6 pm = O.6 x 1O-6 m

speedc=3.O.x1O8ms-1
Using c = f,1,, wherq f is the unknown frequency of the green light:
r=*A
_ 3.0 x 108 m s-1
0.6 x 10s m
= 5.O x IOta Hz
(c) The speed and frequency of green light are much greater than the speed and frequency of the
waves in the Slinky.
 orkcd Cxample I3.3
Figure 13.19 shows the graph of a wave travelling to the right with a velocity of 1.0 m s-1 at a
certain instant.
Displacement,/cm

6
4
2
\ I
P R
0 Distance/cm
5 10 1_20305 40
-2
-4 r/
\
\/ Figure 13.19
-6 distance d= 30 cm

(a) What is the frequency of the wave?

(b) Sketch the profile of the wave after O.O25 s and state whether the two particles P and Q have
. moved up or down.

Solution
(a) Given: speed y= 1.0 m s-1
From the graph, distance d is equal to three wavelengths.
Hence,32= 30 cm .

),= tO cm = 0.10 m
Using v = f2,
frequency fof the *"u" = *h
_ 1,O r! s-1 = lO Hz
0.10 m
11
(b) Period T=1=
r tOHz
This means that in 0.1 s, the wave travels an entire wavelength.
Therefore, in the next 0.025 s, the wave will travel O.25 (= of a wavelength to the right.
Tff
Using Figure 13.19 as reference, the new profile in the next 0.025 s is shown below:

Displacement/cm

4
2

0 Distance/cm

-2
-4
-6
distanced=30cm
comparingthis graph with Figure L3.19, we can see that P and Q have moved down.

Chapter 13
 highest points and troughs are the lowest points of a From what you have
transverse wave. learnt so far, have you
2. The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point from found the answers to
its rest position. The Sl unit is the metre (m). Let's Explore (c)?
3. The wavelength L of a wave is the shortest distance between any two
points on the wave that are in phase. The Sl unit is the metre (m).
4. The period f of a wave is the time taken to produce one complete wave.
The Sl unit is the second (s).
5. The frequency f of a wave is the number of complete waves produced
per second. The Sl unit is the hertz (Hz).

6. Frequency and period are related by the equation

'T f= 1.
7. The wave speed v is the distance travelled by a wave per second. The Sl
unit is the metre per second (m s-t).
Wave speed v = frequency f x wavelength ),
8. A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all adjacent points
that are in phase.

Displacement/cm
L. Figure 13.20 shows the displacement-time
graph of a periodic motion. What is the (a) 0.15
period; (b) frequency; (c) amplitude?
0.1
2. State the relationship between the speed,
frequency and wavelength of a wave. 0.05
3. Sketch a graph to show how the displacement
o Time/s
of a particular point on a wave, of amplitude 01
O.4 m and wavelength 10.0 m, changes with
time if the wave is travelling at a speed of
-o.05
-0.1
('7 \"'
o.2

5.0 m s-1. Mark the amplitude and period on

the graph clearly. -0.15 r FiSure 13.2O

How do tsunamis originate?

In shallower waters near the Tsunami waves reach
@ fne energy is carried across the shore, the waves decrease the shore, leading to
ocean surface by waves. The waves in speed and wavelength, but widesoread destruction.
may reach speeds of more than increase in height.
800 km h-1, and have wavelengths
of 160 km or more and heights
(i.e. amplitudes) of 1 m or less.

e the
The ocean floor pushes
water upwards,
thus transferring huge
amounts of energy to it.

Movements of tectonic plates cause

an earthquake at the ocean floor. The
ocean floor gets distorted or ruptured.
Activity 1: Self-revision on waves (4) Click on the 'Oscillate' option on the left, to
(1) Search the Internet to find out more about set the wave moving.
waves. Use keywords such as "wave", (5) There are some green dots on the string.
"amplitude", "period", " frequency", and
(a) Describe and explain their movements.
"wavelength". (b) What kind of wave is this?
(6) Slide the 'Amplitude'tab and 'Frequency' tab
(21 Discuss ,with your friends and jot down the
to a value of 25 and of 5O respectively. Set
points that the 'Tension' tab to high.
(a) coincide with what your teacher has (a) Measure the amplitude (in cm) using
taught.
the on-screen ruler.
(b) do not coincide with what helshe has
(b) lf you could set the 'Amplitude' tab to a
value of 150, what would the amplitude
taught. Clarify them with your teacher
and share what the teacher tells vou ofthe wave be?
with your friends.
(71 Describe how you would verify that the
wavelength is independent of the amplitude.
Activity 2: Interactivb simulation on wave
(8) Now activate the timer.
terms and the wave speed, equation
(a) (i) Describe how you would use the
simulation to find the frequency of
Visit http://phet.colorado.edu and search for an the wave when the 'Frequency' tab
interactive simulation to carry out Activity 2. Use is set at 20.
the keyword "wave on a string". (ii) How do you improve the accuracy
of the measurement?
(1) Activate the on-screen ruler by clicking on the (b) Calculate the speed of the wave.
'Rulers' option at the top right corner of the
screen. Activity 3: lmpact of waves
(21 Set the damping effect to zero by sliding to
the left the 'Damping' tab at the top of the Waves manifest themselves in different forms.
screen.
Making use of the Internet, briefly describe one
(3) At the bottom right corner of the screen, select
constructive and one destructive form of waves
the 'No end' option. You will see a window in real life.
appearing.

Chapter 1il
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevant
section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) j Waves consist of vibrations.

-L?- ; Y-"191 ::1"11L:1 Yi
?i1'lT? - *-:- i 15.1
(b) i Vibrations transfer energy away from the source. : 1,3.I
.:
9-:ry:v_=-1yr: 11v_9lr:Tg-1i::l1rl9_lT 9'i:":-1"t :il!.l1!ier __*_ i______r___13:_

-!91.;-I119::11=i*"jy-!
=1"-'!,311!911*t9:ill9t"t'*l11rurtlv-9,1-:i"l--*-ly::.-
'! :- t- !3-?*--

-!1f:1!9.'lla3y1y:T-9y:-:-tlt"-1el:1y::"l"t9ll't-9Tj:ii*:*-----*--
rl
* i * i -!:?--
,,, j For a wave with constant speed, the longer its wavelength, the higher its i I 4.
Le.z ^
TTAflI IAN'\/ I

(i);A|inethatjoinsa||adjacentcreStSonaWaVeisca||edawavefront.

(k) j We can obtain the wavelength of a wave from its displacement-time graph. i I r3.2

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions

1. What does a wave transfer? 4. The figure below shows the displacement-time
A Molecules B Energy graph of a particle in a transverse wave. lf its
C Matter D Force speed is 2 cm s 1, which of the following pairs
of amplitude and wavelength is correct?
2. As a transverse wave passes, the particles of the Displacement/cm
medium oscillate
A oarallel to the direction of wave travel
B in ohase with one another
C perpendicular to the direction of wave travel
D with different freouencies Time/s

3. Which of the following is an example of

longitudinal waves?
A Waves in a ripple tank
B Light waves in air Amplitude/cm Wavelenglh/cm
C A vibrating guitar string A o.o2 0.006
D Sound waves produced by a vibrating B 0.003 o.o2
guitar string
c 0.003 0.04
D 0.006 0.04
5. A vibrating dipper of frequency 3 Hz produces Section C: Free-Response Questions
water waves in a ripple tank. Which of the
following is a possible wavelength and speed of
7,. Figure L3.2L shows the instantaneous position
of some particles in a medium through which
the waves?
waves are passing continuously in the direction
Wavelength/cm Speed/cm s-r
indicated by the arrow.
A 3 1-

B 15 5 €
c 3 6 ABCD
D 4 L2

r Figure 13.21
Section B: Structured Questions Describe the motion of the particles A, B, C and
7'. (a) What is meant by 'a frequency of 2 Hz'? D if the wave is
(b) (i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the (a) longitudinal;
waveform in a rope with a wavelength (b) transverse.
of 5 cm and an amplitude of 3 cm.
(ii) Assuming the rope wave is travelling 2. Figure L3.22 shows a displacement-distance
from left to right at a speed of graph and a displacement-time graph of a wave.
0.50 m s 1, calculate the frequency
of the wave. Displacement/m

0.6
2. Water waves enter a dock at a rate of 72O
crests per minute. At the dock are two poles 0 Distance/m
72 m apart. A worker watches a particular wave
crest pass from one pole to another in 4 s. -0.6
Calculate the
(a) frequency of the wave motion; Displacement/m
(b) wavelength of the waves. 0.6

Draw the displacement-distance graphs for the 0

following waveforms:
-o.6
(a) Two waves that have the same amplitude
and speed, but one has a frequency that is t Fitwe L3.22
twice that of the other
(b) Two waves that have the same speed and (a) State the amplitude of the wave.
frequency, but one has an amplitude that is (b) State the wavelength of the wave.
twice that of the other (c) (i) State the time taken for one complete
oscillation.
(ii) Calculate the frequency of the wave.
(iii) Calculate the speed of the wave.

Chapter 13
We live in a technologically advanced world, where more and more electronic gadgets
are going wireless. We have mobile phones, wireless computers and even mobile
televisions! lt seems like these wireless gadgets are able to detect and receive
information out of thin airl Where does the information come from? How does the
information travel through air?
 L4.7, Electromagnetic Waves
It is important to be
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
able to recall the
electromagnetic waves
. describe the seven -components of the electromagnetic spectrum;
in order of frequency (or
. state the properties of electromagnetic waves.
wavelength).

The following mnemonic hat are electromagnetic waves?

may be useful: When you listen to the radio on your mobile phone, watch your favourite
TV programmes or heat up apizza in a microwave oven, you are using
Rugby (Radio waves)
(Microwaves)
electromagnetic waves.
Match
ls (lnfrared)
Very (Visible light) Electromagnetic waves, which include visible light, make up a family of waves
Unlike (Ultraviolet) known as the electromagnetic spectrum (Fi$ure 14.!). Note the seven
Xylophone (X-rays) components of the spectrum, and compare their frequencies and wavelengths.
Game (Gamma rays)

shorter
tn
bacteria
nouse baseball full stop molecule
a

LOo 103 ro2 101 10-1 7O-2 10 3 7O-4 10-5 10 6 LO-1 1O-8 10 s 10-10 10-11 tO 12

LO4 105 106 LO7 108 10s 1010 LOtt Lo12 1013 LO14 101e to2a

tower higher
-+
e.g. )" = LOa m, e.g.L=tO8m,
f = tO12 Hz f= 3 x 1016 Hz

FO o6
.i=3cm, /" = 0.6 L-- tO-ro m,
Um
f = tOlo Hz f=5xLO1aHz f=3x|OaeHz

L=3 m, 4x lar'Hz 7.9 x tOla Hz

L-- 70-12 m,
f=tO8Hz f=3x7O2oHz

r. Figure 14.1 c spect onenrs

In the electromagnetic spectrum, electromagnetic waves are arranged in

order of frequency or wavelength. Radio waves have the longest wavelength
(and lowest frequency), while gamma rays (i.e. y-rays) have the shortest
wavelength (and highest frequency).
Chapter 14
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is directly related to its energy.
The higher its frequency, the hi{her its energy.

The electromagnetic spectrum is continuous there is no sharp boundary

between one type of electromagnetic wave and the next.
-

Properties of electromagnetic waves

Although they are known by different names and have different wavelengths
and frequencies, all electromagnetic waves share some common properties
(Table t4.t).
v Table 14.1 Propefties of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are transvetse waves. They comprise electric

and magnetic fields that oscillate at 90'to each other.

Electric field

electric field oscillation

(horizontal)

Distance

magnetic field oscillation (vertical)

2. They can travel through vacuum.

They do not require any medium to travel from one point to another.
Unlike electromagnetic
3. They transfer enelgy from one place to another. waves, sea waves and
For example, electromagnetic waves from the Sun transport thermal and sound waves require a
light energy through space (i.e. vacuum) to the Earth. medium to propagate.

4. They travel at the same speed of 3.0 x 1O8 m s-1 in vacuum, with their
respective frequencies and wavelengths.

5. The wave speed equation, v = fl, is applicable to all electromagnetic

WAVES.
v = wave soeeo
f = frequency of the wave
2 = wavelength of the wave

6. When an electromagnetic wave travels from one medium to anothet

(e.9. from air to glass), its
. speed and wavelength change;
. fiequency does not change.
Its frequency depends only on the source of the wave.

For example, when light travels from vacuum to water, its speed
decreases from 3.0 x 108 m s-r to 2.25x 108 m s 1. lts wavelength also
decreases, while its frequency remains unchanged.
Recall what you have
7. They obey the laws of reflection and refraction. learnt about the laws of
reflection and refraction
8. They carry no electric charge.
in Chapter 12.

Electromagnetic Waves
 orked €xample l4.l
(a) All electromagnetic waves can undergo reflection. State three other
properties common to all electromagnetic waves.
(b) Microwaves produced by a source travel at a speed of 3.0 x 108 m s-1
and a frequency of 1.5 x 1010 Hz in vacuum.
(i) Calculate the wavelength of these microwaves.
(ii) Mark and label the position of these microwaves in Figure 14.2.

10-t2 to-3 7o-2Lo-t t

Waveleng[h/m --->
tFigwet4.2

Solution
(a) Any three other properties from Table 1-4.7
(b) Given: wave speed y= 3.0 x 108 m s-1
frequency f = !.5 x 1-O1o Hz
(i) Using the wave velocity equation,
v = f ).
v 3.0 x 108 m s-1
= 2.O x 10-2 m
1.5 x 1O1o Hz
( ii)
visible Iight mtcrowaves
gamma
radio waves
rays
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to IO12 10-e to-3Lo2Lo-t !
Let's Explore (a)? Wavelength,im -->

Looking back in time

A supernova is a violent explosion that
occurs when a star is dying.

In 1987, astronomers spotted a

supernova named SN1987A. The
light emitted travelled 1.66 x tO2L m
before reaching the Earth.

Using the formula speed = diglance ,

ume
we know that the light took about
175 000 years to reach us! No wonder
astronomers say viewing a supernova
is like looking back in time!

> Supernova SN1987A

Chapter 14
 1,. The electromagnetic spectrum lists L. In which of the following are the electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves in order of waves arranged in order of increasing wavelength?
frequency or wavelength: A microwaves, ultraviolet, infrared, X-rays
o Radio waves (lowest frequency, B X-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves
longest wavelength) C ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves, X-rays
o Microwaves D infrared, ultraviolet, microwaves, X-rays
. lnfrared radiation 2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of
o Visible light electromagnetic waves?
o Ultraviolet radiation A They travel at the same speed in vacuum.
. X-rays B They are transverse waves.
o y-rals
(highest frequency, shortest C They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
wavelength) D When they travel from one optical medium to
Electromagnetic waves have common another, their frequencies, wavelengths and
properties, as listed in Table 14.1. soeeds decrease.

L4.2 Applications and Effects of

Electromagnetic Waves
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o state applications of- electromagnetic waves;
. describe the effects of absorbing electromagnetic waves.

Applications of electromagnetic waves

In this section, we will discuss the applications of electromagnetic waves,
starting with radio waves and ending with gamma rays.

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.

r We can tune to FM or AM
Radio waves of longer wavelengths can travel around obstructions (e.9. channels on most radios.
buildings and hills) better than those of shorter wavelengths. For good
reception, radio waves of shorter wavelengths need an unobstructed straight
path between the transmitter and the receiver.

v Table L4.2 Radio waves and their applications

What we hear over the
radio are sound waves,
not radio waves.
Long Wave (LW) . AM radio
Medium Wave (MW)
About
lOmto2km
. Submarine Sound waves are
Short Wave (SW) communication converted into radio wave
signals. These signals
. FM radio are then transmitted from
Very High Frequency (VHF)
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
About
10cmto10m
. Over-the-air television radio stations over long
(or terrestrial television) distances to our radios
(i.e. signal receivers). Our
radios then convert the
signals into sound waves.

Microwaves have wavelengths that range from about 1 mm to 10 cm. They

are used in microwave ovens to transfer energy. Microwaves penetrate food
and cause the water molecules within to vibrate vigorously (i.e. millions of Which has a higher
oscillations per second). These molecular vibrations generate heat that frequency, LW or VHF?
eventually spreads throughout the food.
Electromagnetic Waves
 r Figure 14,3 To determihe your
location using GPS, your GPS receiver
(e.9. smaftphone) receives signals via
Visit http://www. microwaves from at least three satellites.
discovery.com to watch a
video on how GPS works.
Use keywords such as
"GPS" and "satellite".
Microwaves are used for communicating with satellites because they can
penetrate the atmosphere and travel through haze,light rain, snow, clouds,
and smoke. The satellite dishes must be positioned in the line of sight,
without any obstruction between the transmitting satellite and the receiving
satellite dish.

Microwaves also carry signals in a mobile phone network.

Infrared (lR) remote controllers are used to control a variety of electrical

devices such as televisions, air conditioners or hi-fi systems.

The human body, like any other object, gives out lR radiation. The amount
of lR energy emitted by a human body depends on its temperature. Ear
thermometers (Figure 14.4) work on this principle. They determine body
temperature by measuring the amount of lR radiation that is emitted from
the eardrum.
t Figlure L4.4
Ear thermometers were Many households and businesses use intruder alarms that are passive
used extensively during the
Severe Acute Respiratory infrared (PlR) detectors. These detectors are termed 'passive' as they
Syndrome (SARS) epidemic do not emit lR radiation. Instead, they detect changes in the level of lR
in 2003. They detect body radiation in the environment. For example, when a person enters a room,
temperature faster than
conventional thermometers. the increase in the level of lR radiation will be detected.

Light is used in optical fibres for medical purposes and telecommunications.

Also, visible light allows us to see, and hence enjoy activities such as
watching movies, surfing the Internet and reading books!

Chapter 14
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is used in sunbeds for artificial tanning.
Artificial tanning is popular in countries with long periods of limited
sunlight. However, since overexposure to UV radiation may lead to
premature aging and even skin cancer, medical authorities have advised
against excessive exposure when using sunbeds.

UV radiation is also used in germicidal lamps to sterilise medical

and laboratory equipment.

In radiology, high-frequency (i.e. high-energy) X-rays are used for radiation r Figure 14.5
Different colours on a
therapy. High-energy radiation, such as X-rays, is used to kill cancer cells in monitor display of an
radiation therapy. X-ray machine indicate
different types of
materials. Usually, orange
In radiography, X-rays of low frequencies are used to produce X-ray images indicates the oresence
for the diagnosis of medical conditions such as fractures or tooth decay. of organic materials. Why
would airport security be
interested in detecting
X-rays also play an iinportant role in airpoTt security. Airport security organic materials?
personnel screen carry-on baggage for potential threats efficiently and
effectively (Figure 14.5). X-rays can also be used to check for tiny flaws in
heavy metal equipment.

Gamma rays are the most energetic in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Exposure to these rays can kill living cells. Scientists and doctors have put
this potentially harmful property to good use, by using it to treat cancer. In
a medical procedure called the Gamma Knife radio surgery, gamma rays are
directed at brain tumours to kill cancer cells (Figure 1.4.6).

unit housing
Weak beams of y-rays are emitted
from cobalt-60 sources.

protective helmet
o These beams are focused on the
brain tumour through holes in a
protective helmet worn by
the patient.

O Individually, each beam is too weak

to damage the normal tissues it
passes through on its way to the
tumour (i.e. cancer cells).

The weak beams converge and the

combined energy is sufficient to
kill the tumour.

a Figure 14.6 Gamma Knife radio surgery is non-invasive,

resulting in lower costs and a speedier recovery.

Electromagnetic Waves
 Science Bites Effects of electromagnetic waves
The selfless twotime
Nobel laureate lonising radiation is radiation that has enough energy to remove electrons
Marie Curie was the first
from atoms or molecules, thus creating ions. The process of ion formation
scientist who dedicated her life
to the study of radioactivity. is known as ionisation. We are all exposed to ionising radiation, which
Being a woman at a time when mainly comes from natural sources. Figure 14.7 shows the various
gender inequality was the sources of radiation and their respective contribution to the worldwide
norm, she struggled hard for average exposures.
recognition.

Despite their poverty, and

the chance to become rich,
Marie and her husband Pierre Gamma rays
Curie refused to patent the from the Earth
radium isolation orocess
they developed. They felt that
patenting it would be against
the scientific soirit since it '
would hinder the progress
of other scientists in their
resqarch on radium.

Marie Curie is an inspirational Others (all man-

character; her perseverance, made sources)
intelligence and selflessness Source: World Health Organisation L%
are exemplary. She was the first
female Nobel laureate, and is
r, Figure 14.7 Sources and distribution of average
radiation exposure
still the only female to have won
the Nobel Prize twice!
Exposure to ionising radiation (e.9. UV radiation, X-rays and y-rays) can
damage biological molecules (e.9. proteins and DNA) and lead to abnormal
patterns of cell division. This may cause
. cancers such as leukaemia (i.e. cancer of the blood);
. a developing foetus to become deformed. That is why X-ray imaging is
not employed on pregnant women. Instead, other alternatives such as
ultrasound imaging are used.

At barbecues, we feel the heat from the burning charcoal if we are

near the barbecue pit. The heat radiating from charcoal is actually
r Marie Sklodowska Curie infrared radiation. We feel warm because our skin and clothes absorb the
(7867- 1934)
infrared radiation.

From what you have

learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (b) and (c)?

) The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear

accident resulted in people being
exposed to high levels of ionising
radiation. Do you think that nuclear
power should be totally ruled out?

Chapter 14
 orked Cxample 14.?
Ultrasound and X-rays are both used to provide increasing frequency
information about tissues inside the human
body. Ultrasound is sound with a frequency visible light X-rays
greater than the highest audible frequency
r, Figure 14.8
for humans. X-rays are a component of the
electromagnetic spectrum and have a higher
frequency than visible light.
(a) Name three components of the electromagnetic spectrum, otherthan X-rays and visible light.
(b) Copy Figure 74.8 and, on it, mark the positions of the three components stated in (a).
(c) State an application of each component named in (a), and their effect(s) on people, if any.
(d) State a property common to all components of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Solution
(a) Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, gamma rays (any three)
(b) increasing frequency

Radio Micro- Infrareo Visible Ultraviolet X-rays Y-rays

waves waves radiation light radiation

(c) Refer to Section 74.2.

(d) Refer to Table 1-4.1-.

onked €xample 14.3

The height of a television aerial is half a wavelength. lt transmits radio waves. Given that the
frequencyof the signal is 1-00 MHz, what isthe heightof the aerial? Takethe speed of radiowaves
in air to be 3.0 x 108 m s-1.

Solution
Using the wave velocity equation,
f7,
v 3.0 x 1-08m s-1
f tOO x 106 Hz =3.0m
4

, x3.0m=1,5m
Height of aerial =

f electromagnetic waves include the use of: 1,. A radio station is broadcasting a
(a) radio waves in radios, over-the-air television and radio wave signal at a frequency
communications;
(b) microwaves in microwave ovens, satellite television of 1.0 x 1,06Hz. What is the
wavelength of the radio waves?
and telecommunications;
2. When visible light passes from
(c) infrared radiation in remote controllers, vacuum into glass, its wavelength
ear thermometers and intruder alarms;
(d) visible light in optical fibre applications; changes from ),rto /,, and its
(e) UV radiation in sunbeds and in sterilising equipment; speed from vrlo v2. Express v, in
(0 X-rays in radiation therapy and imaging; terms of )"r, ),, and v'
(g) y-rays in cancer treatment.
2. Some effects of electromagnetic waves include:
(a) infrared heating;
(b) damage to living matter due to ionising radiation. Electromagnetic Waves
 listed, by wavelength or frequency, ln

a Transverse waves a Heating a Radio waves (radio, over-the-air TV)

a Tranqfor onor'v a lonisation and a Microwaves (microwave oven,
a Do not need a medium to propagate damage to living cells satellite TV)
a Travel at 3.0 x 108 m s-a in vacuum lR radiation (remote controller,
a v= f2 applies to them intruder alarm)
o From one medium to another, a Visible light (optical fibre)
.t changes, f remains unchanged a UV radiation (sunbed, sterilisation)
=+ V cnanges
o X-rays (radiation therapy, flaw
a Obey laws of reflection and detection)
refraction y-rays (cancer treatment)
. Carry no charge

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevant
section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

J,"l I YIT*ly_:-:-l?y:,lnger wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. t4.r
(b) i Transverse waves do not need a medium to propagate. !4.r
(c) r EM waves travel at the speed of light in any medium. : I4.t
(d) X-rays and y-rays are ionising radiation that can be used to kill cancer
' cells. : 1,4.2

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 14
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 2. Figure 1.4.!O lists the components that make up
the electromagnetic spectrum.
L. All electromagnetic waves have the same
A soeed in a vacuum
B microwaves ;:*1
B -.
^ "ii;ll"
speed in a given medium y-rays X-rays
C frequency in a vacuum
r FigJre 14.10
D frequency in a given medium

2. Gamma rays, visible light and radio waves are all

(a) What instrument would you use to detect
radiation B?
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Which one of
the following correctly lists the three waves in order
(b) Describe briefly one use each of X-rays and
radiation A.
of decreasing wavelength?
A Gamma rays, visible light and radio waves (c) State two ways in which electromagnetic
waves differ from sound waves.
B Radio waves, gamma rays and visible light (d) Describe briefly the effects of X-rays and
C Visible light, gamma rays and radio waves y-rays on the human body.
D Radio waves, visible light and gamma rays
3. Which of the following summarises the change in
3. ln the determination of the distance of the
Moon from the Earth, the time delay between
wave characteristics across the electromagnetic
the transmission and reception of a radio
spectrum, starting fr"om radio
laves? "rlu"rr.
Speed in wave signal is 2.5 s. Given that the speed and
Frequency Wavelength frequency of the radio waves are 3.0 x 108 m s-1
and 10 MHz respectively, calculate the
A increases decreases decreases (a) distance of the Moon from the Earth;
B increases decreases constant
C decreases increases increases (b) wavelength of the radio waves used.
D decreases increases constant
Section C: Free-Response Question
4. A VHF radio station broadcasts radio waves of
wavelength 3.0 m. Given that the speed of radio 1,. Microwaves are waves in the electromagnetic
waves is 3.0 x 108 m s-1, what is their frequency? specrrum.
A 1.0 x 10€ Hz (a) (i) State one electromagnetic wave
B 9.0 Hz that has wavelengths longer than
C 1.0 x 108 Hz mtcrowaves.
D 9.0 x 108 Hz (ii) Explain why the frequency of the
wave stated in (i) is lower than the
5. Radio waves travelling at 3 x 108 m s-1 in air are frequency of microwaves.
transmitted from a vertical aerial at a frequency of
90 MHz. What is the wavelength of these waves? (b) Microwaves can be used to send telephone
A O.3O m messages over long distances. They
B 3.3m are sent from dish aerials on top of tall
C 6.0m buildings or towers. There are often several
D 30m booster stations olaced between the
transmitter and the receiver, as illustrated
in Figure !4.I1.
Section B: Structured Questions
booster
1,. The electromagnetic spectrum is represented in
Figure 14.9.
transmitter -->
station ---> recerver

Figure 14.11
Suggest why the
(i) aerials are placed on top of tall buildings
r Figure 14.9 or towers;
(a) ldentify Y and Z.
(ii)booster stations are necessary.
(b) What can you say about the speeds of X, Y
and Z in vacuum?

Electromagnetic Waves
 Aithorioh the,atest mohile nhones still transmit and
receive signals via eler'trnmao.etic wA\/cq ir-rst like the first
dcncr:tinn mnhilc nhnncq their rzaoo
,o- nf h^^
Svr,vruLrv' pr r-,,--. -, a^^^kiri+i^^
-OVOUlllLlUJ I loJ
expanded beyond mahing and receiving calls.

With continual technological improvements, mobile

networks and mobile phones are now able to handle much
more information at higher speeds This has made watching
movles and surfing tne lrternet on rrobile phones a
common srgnt.

rL^ J
r^^^^^- ^Tonp
| | lY qPOl lEJg vVgI E Ol rvr ,S ihe
I rv firsr to thi,rh of crealive
Lr I rl uSeS
nf mnhila nhnno NITT l-\nt'1n\,4n
vr riruvilu vr rvr u fp6hnnlnrr
LUwrrrrvrv6y. r\rr uuvurvrv 12 ran2noqp
\u JuPurruru
telecommunicatlons comoanv) was the first to launch the
3G service in 20C1".

Thc dcvelonment n;' 3G technnlopv rrshered in lhe efa of

sirrartphones and made entertainment orr the go smooth
-
bi'owsing of webpages, fast dournloading and playing of high-
quaiity music. sireaming of videos and live program'xes
possible at affordable costs.3G and smartphones have -
: qn lrrnrroht cf{;nienrrr intn nrrr lilreq hv:llnurino rrc. tn m:ko
h-hl/ +v-h^-^+;^h^ hill ^^,,*^^+^
>uuuru udrn lrdrsduru|5 d||u
^h, uilt l_rdyiltu tL5, ,^^1,,+^
IUpty L-h^ii^
LU ^u-iltdil5,

and so on. even when we are on the move.

In iime lo corle. with ne\ver iech:ologies coming onboard.

you may just need to brirg yoLrr mobile ohones. in place of
vnrir hnnlxc nar anrl n2nor fn qnhnnicl

Which electromagnetic wave is used in mobile

phone communications? Suggest reasons whv this
electromagnetic wave is used rnsiead of otheis.
2 The World Health Crganisation (WHO) has classified
rxobile phone raoiaiion as "posslbly carcinogenic".
In groups, discr-rss rhe reasons for ihis classification
anci the inrplications of this classification. Will the
knowledge you gathered affect the way you use mobile
phones? Why?

Chapter 14
Most dolphins have acute eyesight. However, they do not rely solely on their sense of
sight to manoeuvre through the water. Even in turbid waters, dolphins are capable of
detecting obstacles in their path. How are they able to do this? The physics behind
sound will explain this phenomenon.
 L5.L What is Sound?
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe how sound is generated by vibration;
. describe the mechanism bv which sound travels.

Since sound is a type of wave, it has amplitude, frequency and wavelength.

Sound waves travel parallel to the direction of vibration of a medium, and
Recall the characteristics hence are longitudinal waves.
of longitudinal waves in
Chaoter 13.
How is sound produced?
Have you noticed that acoustic guitarists mute the sounds coming from
their guitars by placing their palms lightly on the guitar strings? This mutes
the guitar because it stops the guitar strings from vibrating.

Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. The medium is

usually air, but it can be any gas, liquid or solid.

How does a sound wa propagate?

An object vibrating in air causes the layers of air particles around it to be
displaced. This displacement of particles causes sound waves to propagate.

We cannot see the displacement of air particles, but if we dip a vibrating

tuning fork in water, we will see that the water is displaced (Figure 15.1).

g A vibrating tuning fork

is dipped into a glass
of water.

@ Water is displaced
because the vibrating
tuning fork displaces the
surrounding molecules,
which then disolace
their neighbouring
molecules, and so on.

r Figure 15.1 A vibrating object displaces the particles in a medium.

As sound is a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration of air molecules

is parallel to the direction in which the wave travels. This is similar to the
longitudinal waves produced when a Slinky spring is made to vibrate parallel
to its length (Figure 75.2).
Ghapter 15
 direction of motion of hand compressron

r Figure L5.2 A longitudinal wave in a SIinky spring

Like all longitudinal waves, sound waves propagate as a series of

compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
. Compressions are regions where air pressure is higher than Visit http://www.acs. psr
the surrounding air pressure. edu/drussel l/DemosTwJvesT
. Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is lower than the wavemotion.html and watch a
simulation on the oscillation of
surrounding air pressure. particles in a longitudinal wave.

Figure 15.3 shows how sound waves are produced by a vibrating

tuning fork.

Layers of air are in undisturbed

positions.
\/
A compression (C) is produced
as the prongs push outward.

V C
A rarefaction (R) is produced as

q tl
the prongs move inward.

c
Another compression (C) is created
as the prongs move outward again.

V CR
After a while, a series of C and

q lil is set up in the air.

rarefactions (R)

How is air pressure

related to air density?

compressions (C) motion of particles propagation < Figure 15.3 As a tuning fork vibrates, it
associated with of sound shifts layers of air inward and outward, creating
sound a series of comoressions and rarefactions.
 Graphs of sound waves

Figure 15.4 shows

. a sound wave produced in a hollow pipe containing air by the vibrating
diaphragm of a loudspeaker;
. the pressure-distance graph of the sound wave at a certain instant.

At any position along the pipe where the This rising and falling of
sound wave travels, the air pressure air pressure is regular and
alternates between rising above and falling --- continuous, as long as sound
below the surrounding air pressure. . ' is produced.

loudspeaker

vibrating
diaphragm hollow pipe

Distance
surrounding
along the
arr pressure
hollow pipe

o o

@ fne wavelength ,1, of the sound wave is

the distance between the centres of two

consecutive compressions or rarefactions.

r Figure 15.4 A sound wave produced in a hollow pipe of air

Ghapter 15
Displacement-distance and displacement-time graphs can
You learnt how to draw
also be drawn for longitudinal waves such as sound waves.
displacement-distance and
To draw the displacement graphs of sound waves, we must fix
displacement-time graphs for
which direction is positive and which is negative. Here, we take transverse waves in Chaoter 13.
displacement to the right as positive, and displacement to the
left as negative.

Figure 15.5 shows the displacement-distance graph for al' The displacement-distance graph is
the particles at a particular point in time over a distance. By for all particles along the vibrating
tracking the movement of the single particle P in Figure 15.5, medium, whereas the displacement-
we can plot the displacement-time graph for that particle over time graph is for any one particle in
a time interval (Figure 15.6). the vibrating medium.

11t11t1tltt11t1t
direction of wave
-
Displacement

r Figure 15.5 The displacement-distance graph of the particles in a sound wave

P ------> positive direction Displacement

Attimet=O I original undisturbed
I position

nttime r=i
Attime t=
|
Attime t=ff
Attime t= f

r Figure 15.6 The displacement-time graph of one particle in a sound wave

Sound
 orked Cxample l5.l
Figure 15.7 shows the positions of particles of a medium at a particular instant when a longitudinal
sound wave, travelling from left to right, passes through the medium. At the instant shown, the
particles P and Q are passing through their original undisturbed positions. Before the wave arrived,
the particles were all spaced equally apart on the vertical lines shown.
P v

o lo o a o

r, Figute 15.7

(a) Draw arrows next to each particle to indicate the displacement of each particle.
(b) On the diagram, mark a centre of
(i) compression (C);
(ii) rarefaction,(R).
(c) By making measurements on the diagram, find the
(i) wavelength of the wave;
(ii) amplitude of vibration of the particles.
(d) For the instant shown in Figure 15.7, sketch the
(i) displacement-distance graph of all the particles;
(ii) pressure-distance graph of all the particles.
Solution
(a) and (b)
PQ
tl
?"?
ll
CR
(c) (i) The distance between particles P and Q is half a wavelength.
Wavelength = 2 x distance between particles P and Q
=2x6cm
=t2cm
(ii) AmplitudeA=0.8cm
(d) (i)

Distance/cm

( ii) Pressure
(High)+AP

surrounding
pressure

(Low) -AP

Chapter 15
L5.2 Transmission of Sound
be able to:
Learning Outcomes
- Youa should
. explain that sound needs medium for transmission;
. explain that the speed of sound differs in solids, liquids and gases;
. describe a method for determining the speed of sound in air.

You have learnt about

Gan sound be transmitted through vacuum? the properties of
Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves need a medium to travel from electromagnetic waves
one point to another. The belljar experiment demonstrates this (Figure 15.8). in Chapter 14.

. Electric bell on . Electric bell on

. Vacuum pump off . Vacuum pump on
< to power
You can see the suppry Air is drawn out of the
movement of the bell jar. The sound of the
/' striker and hear the bell becomes faint and
sound of the bell. connecting disappears, even though
wrres the striker is still hittins
the bell.
In this experiment,
striker
an electric bell is
suspended in a . Electric bell on
sealed belljar. . Vacuum pump off
As air flows back
into the bell jar, the
sound ofthe bell
can be heard again.
ro vacuum pump

r Figure 15.8 The belljar experiment shows that sound cannot travel through vacuum.

Silent space movies?

When you watch science-fiction movies
that feature space travel, the movement
of spaceships through space is often
accompanied by the whirring sound of the
spaceships' powerful engines. In reality,
you should not hear anything because
sound cannot travel in a vacuum. rr

Why do you think movie producers u

sound effects even when they are not
scientifical ly accurate?

The next time you watch a movie, try

spot scientific inaccuracies. Remember,' i:
seeing and hearing is not believing!
 Medium of transmission
Any medium which contains particles that can vibrate will transmit sound.
Based on what you However, sound waves travel at different speeds in different media:
learnt in Chapter 9,
can you explain why speed of sound speed of sound speed of sound
sound travels fastest In gas in liquid
in solids?
Table 15.1 shows the approximate speed of sound in different media.

v Table 15.1 Speeds of sound in some media

From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers
to Let's Explore
(a) and (b)?
Measuring the speed of sound in air
Investigation 15.1 demonstrates one method of measuring the speed of
sound in air.

Xm ffist$ $ nx $ .& l

e*1{v*
To measure the speed of sound in air by a direct method

r*c* {..}r€
1. Using a measuring tape, observers A and B are positioned
at a known distance d aparl in an open field (Figure 15.9).
2. Observer A fires a starting pistol.
3. On seeing the flash of the starting pistol, observer B
starts the stopwatch and then stops it when he hears the sound. r Figure 15.9 Measuring
the speed of sound
The time interval t is then recorded.

es{.iits an igctrssicit
A typical set of data: d = 800 m, t = 2.4 s

The speed of sound in air v = =

+*l = 333 m s-1

The accuracy of the speed of sound in air v can be increased in two ways:
1. Repeat the experiment a few times, and calculate the average value of the speed of sound in air.
Taking the average minimises the random errors that may occur while timing the interval.
2. Repeat the experiment but with the positions of observers A and B interchanged. This cancels
the effect of wind on the speed of sound in air.

fs.l t, I5.?
uced by vibrating sources placed 1,. "Sound is a longitudinal
longit wave and it is transmitted
In a meotum. as a series of compressions and rarefactions in
2. A sound wave is an example of a longitudinal the medium."
wave. lt comprises a series of compressions (a) Explain the meaning of the sentence above.
and rarefactions. (b) State the distance between the centre of
3. Sound requires a medium for transmission. one compression and the centre of the
4. Sound travels fastest in solids due to the close nearest rarefaction in terms of wavelengths.
packing of the particles in the solid state. 2. Can sound travel directly from one spaceship to
another one nearby? Why?
3. Give a rough estimate of the speed of sound in
solid, liquid and gas.
Ghapter 15
15.3 Reflection of Sound
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
explain how an echo is formed;
. lf you let out a shout
describe the use of echoes in measuring distances.
in an empty hall, you
will not hear a distinct
echo. Instead, you will
What is an echo? hear many echoes.
Figure 15.10 illustrates what an echo is. Can you explain why?

Stand 50 m from a
large unobstructed The sound is refleeted
direction of
wall and clap your by the wall, and you
incident sound
hands once.
, a hear the sound of
direction of the clap repeated
a reflected sound after a moment. The
repetition of the clap
a open space
is known as an echo.

one clap
< Figure 15.1O Forming a single echo

How are echoes formed?

An echo is formed when a sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces, such
as a large wall or a distant cliff. The laws of reflection of light also apply
Recall the laws
to sound waves. Figure t5.tt shows a simple experiment to illustrate the of reflection from
reflection of sound. Chapler L2.

hard, flat surface

(such as a wall)

cardboard tube cardboard tube

ear detects loudest

reflected sound when
source of sound
barrier to angle of incidence I
(such as a
prevent sound equals angle of reflection r
ticking clock)
from source
6
v
ltr
travelling directly (

to the ear

r Figure 15.11 Sound reflected off a surface

Sound
 Uses of echoes
Echoes can be used to
. measure large distances;
. detect the location of objects (i.e. echolocation).

For example, the depth of the sea or the position of shoals of fish can be
found by sending out a signal (a pulse of sound) and noting the time interval
before the reflected signal (the echo) arrives (Figure !51-2).

returning echo

V - pulse of sound
-
depth
of sea
pulse progress

a shoal of fish

r Fiture L5.L2 A ship sends out a pulse of

sound to determine the depth of the sea.

Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) is a type of technology that works

based on echoes. lt is used by ships for navigation at sea and to detect the
position of other vessels.

orked Cxample l5.e

In calculations
involving echoes, the Figure 15.73 shows a man standing a distance d away from a cliff.
total distance travelled When he lets out a shout, he hears his echo 4 s later. How far away
by the sound is twice is he from the cliff? (Take the speed of sound in air to be 330 m s-1.)
the distance between
the source and the
reflecting surface.
In other words, the
speed of sound
2d
v = wnere o ts rne
t
-. < Figure 15.13
distance between the distance d = ?
source and reflecting
surface, and t is the Solution
time taken to receive Given:
the echo. time t for sound to travel from man to cliff and back to man t=4s
speed of sound y= 330 m s-1
d is the distance between man and cliff,

330ms-1x4s
=660m
Chapter 15
 orked €xample 15.3
The sole survivor of a shipwreck swims to an island, which is 3OO0 m from a vertical cliff
(Figure 1.5.1.4). He sees a ship anchored between the island and the cliff. A blast from the ship's
horn is heard twice with a time laose of 4 s. Calculate the distance d of the ship from the survivor.
(Take the speed of sound in airto be 330 m s-1.)

<-distance d=? _____-_-><- 3000 m - d

time t, <--time t2

shiP
r Figure 15.14
5olution
Given: soeed of sound in air v = 330 m s 1
The figure below is a sketch of the paths travelled bythe sound.

distance travelled
Using v =
time taken
33Omr-r-3000-m-d Lz
d (3000m-d1
33Oms1= 30OOm-d
Time taken for first blast to be heard = tr 2s
Time taken for second blast to be heard = 2tz* 30OOm-d=330ms-1 x2s
Since the time lapse is 4 s, 3000 m - d= 660 m
(2tr+tr) -tr=4s d=2340m
2tr= 4 Therefore, the distance of the ship from the
tz=2s' survivor is 2340 m.

r5.3
L. An echo is the repetition 1. A woman standing 1.0 km away from a storm hears the sound
of a sound due to the of thunder 3 s after she sees a flash of lightning. Calculate the
reflection of sound. soeed of sound in air.
2. Echoes can be used for 2. A oulse of sound is transmitted from a ship towards the
measuring distances and seabed. lf the echo is received afler t s, calculate the depth of
locating objects. the sea, given that the speed of sound in water is 15OO m s-1.

Seiearee &ites
How do dolphins navigate underwater?
Dolphins emit a series of clicks at about 100 kHz through their foreheads, and receive
the echoes through their lowerjaws. From the frequencies ofthe echoes and the
direction from which they arrive, dolphins can deduce the nature and location of objects
in their path. r Bats navigate by emitting
high frequency sounds, which
humans cannot hear!
Other animals, such as bats, also navigate with echolocation. What about humans?
Do you think humans can navigate with echoes? Why? Find the answer on the Internet. Sound
 L5.4 Ultrasound
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
state what ultrasound is;
. describe how ultrasound is used in quality control and prenatal scanning.

hat sounds are audible?

Audible means'able to be heard'. The human ear is only capable
of detecting sounds in a certain range of frequencies. The range of
frequencies in which a person can hear is known as the range of
audibility. For humans, this range is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

Older people cannot hear as well as The top and bottom values of the range are known as the limits of
^
young people. The ability of one's eardrums audibility. For the human ear, the lower limit is about 20 Hz and the
to respond to sound decreases with age.
The range of audibility is reduced as the upper limit is about 20 000 Hz. Figure 15.15 shows the range of
lower limit rises and the upper limit falls. audibility of some organisms and the range of frequency of sounds
produced by some objects.

i ratin ru8 r o hietle

Human ears cannot hear low Human ears cannot hear high frequency sounds called ultrasound.
frequency sounds called lf you blow a dog whistle, a dog may bark in response, even though
infiasound. A vibrating ruler can you do not hear any sound. This is because the frequency of the
be seen but not heard. This is sound produced by the whistle is above the upper limit of audibility
because the frequency of the of humans but within that of dogs.
sound produced is below the
lower limit of audibilitv of the
human ear.

frequency of a
vibrating ruler
audible range
of a dog

frequency of a
dog whistle
<+

Infiasound Ultrasound
Frequency/Hz
tto 100 1000 10 000 1 00 000 1 000 000
r Figure 15.15 Spectrum
of sound frequencies

How do elephants communicate?

Elephants use infrasound to 'talk' to one
another over long distances (up to 10 km).
Infrasound waves have longer wavelengths,
and are thus able to travel over long
distances without being distorted.
Chapter 15
 hat is ultrasound?

ln otherwords, ultrasonic frequencies are frequencies above 20kHz. Ultrasound

has many uses. Bats and dolphins use ultrasound in echolocation, and most
sonar technologies use ultrasound.

Uses of ultrasound
Quality con I
Manufacturers of concrete use ultrasound to check for cracks or cavities in
concrete slabs (Figure 15.16). lt can also be used to inspect metal pipes
and measure the thickness of wooden boards.

Ultrasound emerges
from a transmitter.
By comparing the
ultrasound emitted and
received, the presence
Ultrasound passes and location of defects
through the concrete can be identified.
slab and is received
oy a sensor. r. Figure 15.16 Inspecting
concrete with ultrasound

natal scann
Ultrasound can be used to obtain images of
structures in the body. lt is commonly used
to examine the develooment of foetuses.
Ultrasound is used instead of X-rays,
because ultrasound is less hazardous due
to its lower energy.

Ultrasound pulses are sent into the womb

of a pregnant woman via a transmitter.
By measuring the time taken for the
ultrasound pulses to be reflected, the depth
of the reflecting surface within the womb r A doctor scans the womb of a pregnant woman. The monitor
can be derived, and an image formed. shows an ultrasound image of the foetus inside the womb.

Ultrasound is sound with freouencies 1,. A vibrating source produces ultrasound at a frequency
above the upper limit of the human of 40 kHz. Calculate the wavelength of this ultrasound
range of audibility (i.e. above 20 kHz). in water if the speed of sound in water is 1500 m s-1.
2. Some uses of ultrasound include 2. Why is ultrasound preferred to X-rays for prenatal
echolocation in animals, sonar, quality scanning, although both types of waves can be used
control and prenatal scanning. to obtain images of internal organs?

Sound
 15.5 Pitch and Loudness
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. relate the loudness- and pitch of a sound to the amplitude and frequency of the
sound wave respectivelv.

We experience a great variety of sounds every day. Some sounds are pleasant,
whereas some are not. Pitch and loudness are among the characteristics of
sound that help us determine whether a sound is pleasant.

r A music ensemble produces pleasant sounds, whereas a construction site

generates noise unpleasant sounds.
-

Pitch
We often describe sounds as being high-pitched or low-pitched. Do you know
what causes a sound to be high-pitched or low-pitched?

Pitch is relative. For example , a 2OO Hz sound has a higher pitch compared to
a sound of 100 Hz. However, the 200 Hz sound has a lower pitch compared
to a sound of 400 Hz.

Two tuning forks of different lengths produce sounds with different pitch
(Figure I5.!7). This is because the tuning forks generate sound waves of
d ifferent frequencies.

tuning fork with tuning fork with

long prongs set short prongs set
into vibration into vibration

Sound waves of short

wavelength are produced.

< Figure 15.17 Tuning

I I

This gives a low-pitched This gives a high-pitched forks with prongs of

souno. souno. different lengths produce
sounds of different pitch.
I

Chapter 15 different frequencies

To observe the waveforms of sound waves, we use a microohone and a
cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) (Figure 15.18).

@ Souno waves @ Sound waves are @ fne waveform is displayed

are directed to converted to electrical on the c.r.o. screen as a
the microphone. energy by the microphone. displacement-time graph.

microphone

o
longitudinal sound waves

cathode-ray
leads connect microphone oscilloscope
souno source to Y-inputs of oscilloscope

r Figure 15.18 A c.r.o. can be used to visualise sound waves.

lf the sound waves produced by the tuning forks in Figure 1-5.17 are
channelled into a c.r.o., the resulting waveforms will look like the ones
shown in Figures 15.19 and 15.20. Note that the same time base is used. You will learn more about
the c.r.o. in Chapler 22.

r Figure 15.19 The waveform for the ^

Figure 15.20 The waveform for the
tuning fork with long prongs. tuning fork with short prongs.

From Figures 15.19 andt5.2O, the period f, of the longtuningfork is longer

than the period Io of the short tuning fork.

Hence, the tuning fork with long prongs produces a sound with a lower pitch
or frequency compared to the tuning fork with short prongs.

Try lt Out
Get three glass bottles of the same size and shape. Fill the
bottles with different levels of water. Now, blow across the
top of each bottle. Listen to the note each bottle produces.
Why is there a difference in the pitch of each note?

In groups, try to play a simple song using bottles filled with

different levels of water. Record which note each bottle
plays. Then, explain how you managed to do this.
 Loudness
To the human ears, the loudness of a sound is subjective. For a particular
volume of sound, some may find it loud, whereas others may find it soft.

Figures 15.2t and L5.22 show two waveforms of the same frequency but
with different amplitudes of vibration.

plitude

r Figure L5.2L A loud sound has r Figure L5.22 A soft sound has
a large wave amplitude. a small wave amplitude.

A pure tone is a sound of a single frequency, which is represented by sinusoidal waveforms. Tuning forks and push-
button telephones produce pure tones. However, most sounds, such as your voice and notes from musical instruments,
produce other waveforms. Such waveforms are produced by blending sound waves of different frequencies.

< The waveform produced by a tuning

fork is a sine curve.

< The waveform produced by a recorder

Time < The waveform produced by a violin

From what you have learnt so far, have you

found the answers to Let's Explore (c)?
Of these quantities speed, frequency,
-
wavelength, and amplitude
associated with the - which is
(a) loudness of a sound?
L. Pitch is a property of sound that is related (b) pitch of a sound?
to the frequency of the sound wave. 2. In terms of loudness and pitch, how would you
2. Loudness is a property of sound that is compare the sounds made by a mosquito flying
related to the amolitude of the sound wave. near your ear and the croaking of a bullfrog?

Chapter 15
 , , ri ti An introduction to sound waves
Search the Internet for a video to find out about how sound is produced and how it travels. Use kepvords
such as "acoustics", "sound" and "lesson starters". In pairs, answerthe following questions.
(a) How does sound travel to the ears? State one advantage of having two ears.
(b) Describe the sound produced in the two rooms. What causes these differences?
Pitch and loudness
7-. Search the Internet for a video to find out about the different sounds produced by musical
instruments. Use keywords such as "pixar" and "band". Name the instruments in the video that
produce the following types of sound:
. a loud and low-pitched sound
o a loud and high-pitched sound
. a soft and low-pitched sound
o a soft and high-pitched sound

2. Visit http://phet.colorado.edu and search fora simulation on sound waves. Clickon Run Now! and
follow the steps below to answer questions (a) to (c). Use keywords such as "sound", "fourier"
and "harmonics". There are three panels shown on the applet:
. 'Amplitudes' shows bar graphs of different frequencies;
. 'Harmonics' shows sine waves of the frequencies translated from 'Amplitudes';
. 'Sum' shows the combined effect of all the freouencies in 'Harmonics'.
ln the bottom right corner under Sound Controls, you can check the 'Sound' box to listen to the
sound corresponding to each sound wave.
(a) In 'Amplitudes', manipulate the amplitude bars one at a time from A, to Arr, What do you
observe and hear?
(b) Using'Harmonics', state the wavelengths for A' A, and A.. Can you deduce the wavelength
of 4."?
(c) Manlpulate a few amplitude bars and observe how the sine wave in 'Sum' changes. Can you
describe some of the characteristics of this sine wave?
 transmission ecnoes

properties

Applications Frequency
o Measure large range
distances
o Detect the location
of objects

The speed of
propagation
depends on the
medium:
vgas <v.. .<v..
ilquto 5o|o

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

i
(a) i Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. : i t5.I
(b)lSoundWaVeSaretranSVerSeWaVeSthatcompriSeaSerieSofrarefactionS.
(c) : Sound cannot travel through
"
a vacuum. 15.2

(d) I The speed of sound is the same regardless of the medium. 75.2

(e) I nn echo is formed when a sound is refracted by a dense medium. *:- --"...-.:--:**
1-5.3

(t) Ultru.ound is sound with frequencies above 20 MHz. 115.4

(g) I A loud sound has a large wave amplitude, and a high-pitched sound has
155
a snort oenoo.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 15
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions
*4. The figure below shows two boys, A and B,
standing in front of a tall building. Both boys are
1. The sound from a tuning fork propagates in air facing the building. When boy A claps his hands
and this results in a series of compressions once, boy B hears two claps that are 2 s apart.
and rarefactions. In the figure below, the areas
labelled Q represent regions where air particles
are closely packed together. What is the
wavelength of the sound?
a

Based on the information given, what is the

speed of sound in air?
A 30Omsr
10m B 340ms'
C 350 m s-1
A 2.Om D 500 m s-1
B 2.5m
C 5.0m *5. A man stands between two cliffs as shown in
D 10m the figure below. After he claps his hands once,
s and the
2. A spaceship with astronauts on board orbits the
he hears two echoes
- one after 0.5
other 0.3 s after the first. lf the speed of sound in
Moon. The astronauts see an asteroid crashing air is 330 m s 1, what is the distance between the
onto the surface of the Moon. Why do they not two cliffs?
hear the explosion caused by the crashing of
the asteroid?
A All the sound waves are absorbed by the
surface ofthe Moon. cliff 2
B The sound waves are reflected from the
surface of the spaceship.
C The sound waves are unable to travel from
the Moon's surface to the spaceship. A 264m
D All the sound waves are absorbed by the B 2!5m
surface of the spaceship. C 165m
D 99m
3. Based on the information in the table below,
which statement correctlv describes the speec; 6. Jack whistles into a microphone that is
of sound? connected to a cathode-ray oscilloscope. Without
changing the controls on the oscilloscope, Jill
whistles into the same microphone. The figures
below show the waveforms that are displayed on
the oscilloscooe.
)ack

A The denser the substance, the lower the

soeed of sound.
B As the density of the substance decreases, Which of the following statements is correct?
the soeed of sound decreases. A Jill whistles louder than Jack but with
c The speed of sound is greater in metals a lower pitch.
than in gases. B Jill whistles louder than Jack but with
D The soeed of sound increases as the a higher pitch.
densitv of the substance increases. C Jack whistles louder than Jill but with
a lower oitch.
D Jack whistles louder than Jill but with
a higher pitch.
Section B: Structured Questions
t. A microphone connected to a cathode-ray
oscilloscope is used to capture sound from a
tuning fork. The trace displayed on the screen
of the oscilloscope is shown in Figure !5.23.

l,rrrlrrrrrl
A
I
o246810
l(. Time delay (ms)

A r Figure 15.25

D (a) What is the time taken for a pulse to travel

from the boat to the seabed and back?
(b) Given that the speed of sound in water
is 1500 m s-1, calculate the depth of the
r Figure 15.23 water below the transmitter. State any
assumptions that you made to arrive at
(a) Which of the measurements, A, B, C or D,
your answer.
is the amplitude of the sound wave?
(c) How will the signal on the oscilloscope
(b) On the same axes in Figure t5.23, sketch screen change as the boat travels into
the waveform produced when
deeper water? Why?
(i) the tuning fork is struck harder;
(ii) a tuning fork that produces a sound
of a higher pitch is used.

2. Figure L5.24 shows a boat, which sends out

pulses of ultrasonic waves at intervals of 10 ms.
The pulses are reflected from the seabed as
echoes, which are received by a receiver on
the boat. The signals of the outgoing pulses
and the echoes are displayed on the screen
of an oscilloscope. Figure 15.25 shows the
trace obtained at an instant when two pulses of
ultrasonic waves were emitted and an echo
from the seabed was received.

paths of transmitted
and reflected pulses

t Figwe L5.24

Chapter 15
Lightning is a spectacular sight, but be sure to observe it from a safe place, as
lightning strikes can be fatal. According to statistics from the Meteorological Services
Division in Singapore, between 20OO and 2OO3, about 0.35 lightning deaths occurred
each year for one million residents. However, the majority of those who are struck by
lightning manage to survive. How is this possible? Let's find out.
 L6.7, Electrostatics
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
state that there are positive and negative charges, and that charge is measured in
coulombs (C);
. state that like charges repel and unlike charges attract;
. describe and explain how electrostatic charging of insulators occurs.

When you rub a balloon against your hair, the balloon attracts your hair
(Figure 16.1). Why?

Both the balloon and your hair acquire static (non-moving) electric charges
due to the friction from rubbing. These charges cause the attraction between
the balloon and your hair. How do objects become charged by rubbing?

hat are electric charges?

Figure 16.1 Rubbing a To understand what happens during electrostatic charging by means of
^
balloon against your hair
charges both the balloon friction, we must first know that matter is made up of tiny particles called
and vour hair. atoms. Atoms are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Figure 16.2
shows an atom and the oarticles it is made up of.

proron
[-
-l
l- n"r,,.on

,\ nucleus
\
Path of electrons-\/
I

I
I

( Negative ly-ch ar ged) e I ectro n s

r, Figure 16.2 Atomic model of a helium atom move around the nucleus.

An atom has an equal number of electrons and protons it is electrically

-
balanced. We say it is in the neutral state. An atom becomes charged
when the number of electrons and protons is not equal. This occurs when
electrons are removed from or added to the atom.
. lf electrons are removed, the atom becomes positively charged.
. lf electrons are added, the atom becomes negatively charged.

An atom that is charged is called an ion.

Ghapter 16
How do positive and negative chatges interact?
When charges are brought together, they interact in a particular manner: like
charges repel and unlike charges attract (Figure 16.3).

Like charges
deduction repel.
two charged two charged
glass rods ebonite rods

When two positively-charged glass When two negatively-charged ebonite

rods are brought near each other, rods are brought near each other,
the glass rods repel each other. the ebonite rods repel each other.

When a negatively-charged -\ attraction

ebonite rod is brought near a Unlike charges
6{ deduction attract.
positively-charged glass rod, \'\ charged
the rods attract each other. charged rod
glass rod \\ebonite
\)

r Figure 16.3 Repulsion and attraction between like and unlike charges

Measuring electric chatge

Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C), its Sl unit. The amount of
charge carried by an electron or a proton is 1.6 x 1O-1e C. How many electrons
do you think are needed to produce a 1 C charge?

Since one electron carries a charge of 1.6 x 10-1e C, we need

1C
= 6.25 x 1018 electrons to make a charge of 1 C!
1.6 x 10-1e C

This shows that one coulomb is a very large quantity. In practice, we usually
measure charge in submultiples of coulombs, such as millicoulombs
(1 mC = 1O-3 C) or microcoulombs (1 pC = 10-6 C). Electric charge can be
measured using a coulombmeter.

Static Electricity
 Comparing electrical insulators and conductors
Materials can be classified as electrical insulators or electrical conductors,
according to their properties. Table 16.1 shows the differences between
electrical insulators and electrical conductors.

v Table 16.1 Comparison between electrical insulators and conductors

Motion of charged Charged particles are not free to

particles Charged particles are free to move about.
move about.

Ability to conduct
High
electricity
By friction
Method of - whentheelectrical
become charged,
insulators
electrons remain at By induction (explained in Figures 16.6
charging the surface where the material has been and 16.7)
rubbed. An example is given in Figure 16.4.

Copper, iron, steel, graphite, and fluids

Examples Glass, Perspex, silk, and wool j (i.e. liOuids and gases) that contain mobile
I charged particles (i.e. ions or electrons)

Electrostatic charging by friction

Efectrostatics is the study of static electric charges. Some materials, like
glass and silk, acquire electric charges when they are rubbed together.
This is because rubbing transfers electrons (negative charges) from one
During electrostatic
charging, it is the material to another (Figure 1-6.4).
eiectrons, and not
the protons, that are The electrons transferred are unable to move about freely within the
transferred. material, and they remain at the surface where the material has been
rubbed. Materials in which electrons are not free to move about are electrical
insulators. Electrical insulators do not conduct electricity, and are charged
by friction.

glass rod glass rod glass rod

Before rubbing, the glass Different materials have different As the glass rod loses
rod and the oiece of silk affinities for electrons, i.e. some electrons, it becomes positively
are electrically neutral, materials attract electrons weakly, charged. As the piece of silk
i.e. they each contain whereas others attract electrons gains electrons, it becomes
an eoual number of strongly. negatively charged.
orotons and electrons. When the glass rod and the piece of
silk are rubbed together, the atoms
at their surfaces are disturbed.
Some electrons from the atoms at
the surface of the glass rod are
transferred to the oiece of silk.

Figule 16.4 Rubbing a glass rod with a piece of silk causes the transfer of electrons.
^
Chapter 16
Note that electric charges are not created or destroyed during electrostatic
charging; they are only transferred from one material to another.
Run a plastic comb
through your hair several
Figure 16.5 shows some pairs of materials and the charges they acquire times. Then, place the
when rubbed together.
comb close to a stream
of water from a tao. The
water bends towards the
comb! Why?

From what you have

Positively charged Negatively charged learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
r Figure 16.5 The charges acquired when materials are rubbed together Let's Explore (a)?

t. State the two types of electric charges and

state the Sl unit of electric charge.
2. A polythene rod is rubbed with wool and a
glass rod is rubbed with silk. When the two
rods are brought close together, what is
observed and why?
3. Distinguish between an electrical insulator
and an electrical conductor.

L6.2 Principles of Electrostatics

Charging conductors by induction

Induction is the process of charging a conductor without contact between
Insulators can be
the conductor and the charging body. Conductors can be charged by charged by friction, but
induction, but not by friction, as mobile electrons can be easily transferred not by induction. Why?
to and away from conductors.
Static Electricity
 Figure 16.6 shows how two metal spheres can be charged by induction.

Step 2
Bring a negatively-charged rod near (but
not touching) sphere A. This causes the
electrons in both metal soheres to be
repelled to the far end of sphere B. Now,
sphere A has excess positive charges, while
sphere B has excess negative charges.

/'\
hA I (B
r Figure 16.6 Charging two conductors by induction
charges. Spheres A and B have been
charged by induction.
\Z \Z
-
L-r
-
L-r
I

Figure 16.7 shows how a single metal conductor can be charged by induction.
Note that a negatively-charged rod can also be used for induction. The steps
are identical, except that electrons flow out of the conductor to the ground
during earthing. This makes the conductor positively charged.

Step 1 Step 2
Bring a positively- positively- Without removing the Free electrons move from
charged glass rod near charged rod glass rod, earth the earth to the conductor.
a metal conductor on an positively-charged end
insulating stand. The free rfr of the metal conductor l**l
electrons in the metal uij by touching it with your
tlil
are drawn towards the insulating hand. This neutralises the
end near the positively- stand positive charges on that
charged glass rod. end of the conductor.

Step 3
With the glass rod
still in place, remove
your hand from the
conductor. This stops
the earthing process.

r Fiture 16.7 Charging a single conductor by induction

Neutralising charged insulators and conductots

A charged object can be neutralised by discharging the excess charges on it.

Insulators can be discharged through heating or by providing humid

conditions (Figure 16.8).
Chapter 16
 A positively-charged A negatively-charged water molecules
glass rod is brought balloon floats in

+++++++
near a flame. humid air.
o
o lntense heat from Water molecules o
o c e the flame ionises
nearby air particles.
in air are electrical
conductors.
(D
0 These ions Excess charges are O
neutralise the excess
charges on the glass
transferred to the
water molecules
o
rod, and the glass from the surface of
rod is discharged. the balloon.
o
(a) Discharging through heating (b) Discharging due to humid conditions
purner r, Figure 16.8 Two methods of discharging charged insulators

A charged conductor ban be discharged by earthing, because electrons are

free to move about in conductors. When we earth a charged conductor, we
provide a path for
. excess electrons to flow away from the charged conductor, or
o electrons to flow to the charged conductor.
This makes the number of positive and negative charges in the conductor
equal (i.e. the conductor becomes neutral). Figure 16.9 shows how a
charged conductor can be discharged.
Electrons flow through
the body from earth.

negatively-charged
metal sphere Electrons flow positively-charged
through the body to metal sphere
earth. The human
body is a relatively
good conductor
and allows
electrons to flow
from the conductor
(a) Earthing a negatively-charged ear+h
to the ground.
(b) Earthing a positively-charged metal
metal sphere causes the sphere causes electrons to flow to the "-urtf',
excess electrons to flow away sphere from the ground, to neutralise
from the sphere to the ground. the excess positive charges.
r Figure 16.9 Eafthing a charged conductor

Electrical conductors, such as copper, are able to

conduct electricity because they contain mobile
charged particles (electrons). L. Describe how a single neutral conductor
2. Electrical conductors can be charged by induction. can be made positively charged.
3. Electrical insulators that are charged can be 2. lf you are given two metal spheres
neutralised (discharged) by heating or exposure to on insulating stands and a positively-
humid conditions. Electrical conductors that are charged rod, explain how you can
charged can be neutralised by earthing. charge the two metal spheres such
4. During electrostatic charging and discharging, only that they have an equal number of
electrons are transferred. opposite charges.

Static Electricity
 V1 v2
16.3 Electdc Field
+- @--> Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
Like charges repel . -
state what an electric field is;
o draw electric field patterns.
Q" Q,
-> +@ Consider a single charge Qr. lf another charge Q is placed near Q, both will
Unlike charges attract experience either a repulsive or attractive force, depending on whether they
r, Figure 16.10 Two are like or unlike charges (Figure 16.1-0).
charges in close proximity
attract or repel each other. The force experienced by the charges is known as an electric force.
This force is experienced without the charges being in contact with each
other. The region in which a charge experiences a force forms an electric
field around the charge.

Electric field lines,of ,

a positive charge

Representing electric fields n.fi

.

An electric field can be illustrated with lines and arrowheads (Figure 16.11).
:The lines are electric field lines. The arrowheads on the lines indicate the
direction of the electric field. This refers to how a small positive charge
would behave if it were free to move in the electric field along the lines.

Electric field lines of

a negative charge

r, Fiture 16.1J- The electric

field lines are directed away
from a positive charge and
towards a negative charge.

Figures t6.12 to t6.14 show the electric field patterns for different charge
configurations. Take note of the direction of the electric field lines.

The arrowheads on the electric field lines indicate the direction

Search the Internet for a of the force that would act on a small positive charge close by.
video that demonstrates
electric field line
patterns for different
charge configurations.
Use keywords such
as "semolina seeds",
"castor oil" and "electric
field patterns".

> Figure 16.12 Electric field

lines of two opposite charges ll
placed close together
Electric field lines that are closer Electric field lines that are
together indicate a stronger farther aoart indicate a weakerr
Chapter 16
electric field in this region. electric field in this region.
 . The electric field lines ls there any position
T start from positive in an electric field
T charges on one plate and where an isolated point
end on negative charges charge experiences no
T
on the other olate. electric force?
+ . The field is uniform near
+ the middle of the plates,
+ where the electric field
lines are parallel.
Figure 16.13 Electric field lines From what you have
^ two positive charges placed close
of learnt so far, have you
together
- how do the field lines of r Figure 16.14 Electric field lines found the answers to
two negative charges look? between parallel charged plates Let's Explore (b) and (c)?

onked €xample 16.l

(a) Draw the electric field pattern of two negative charges placed close together.
(b) An electroscope is an instrument that detects the presence of electric charges. Figure 76.I5
showsthe structure of an electroscope. The brass cap, brass rod, and gold leaves are electrical
conductors. In an uncharged electroscope, the gold leaves are parallel, as shown in Figure
16.15. However, when a positively-charged glass rod is placed near the brass cap, the gold
leaves diverge, as shown in Figure 16.16. Explain how this happens.

tr + + + + n-chargedglassrod
Drass cap brass cap
insulator insulator
earthed metal case earthed metal case
with glass window with glass window

brass rod brass rod

gold leaves gold leaves diverge

earth earth
r Figure 16.15
Solution
(b) When a positively-charged glass rod is
placed near the brass cap, negative
charges are induced on the brass cap,
due to the flow of electrons from the
gold leaves to the brass cap. Since
both gold leaves are positively charged,
they repel each other.

ld is a region in which an electric Sketch the electric field lines due to

charge experiences an electric force. (a) an isolated negative charge;
2. The direction of the electric field is the direction (b) a positive charge and a negative charge
of the force acting on a small positive charge placed close to each other.
placed in the field.

Static Electricity
 When the accumulation
of charges is large
enough, it can ionise
A thundercloud becomes the air particles nearby.
electrically charged The ionised air particles
due to friction between provide a conducting path
water molecules in for the electrons in the
the thundercloud and cloud to reach the Earth.
air oarticles in the Electrons that follow this
atmosphere. discharge path to the
Earth form lightning.

Negative charges tend

to gather at the bottom
Lightning tends to strike
of the cloud.
tall or isolated structures.
Thus, lightning
conductors protect tal I

. Thenegatively-charged buildings, by providing

underside of the cloud a conducting path for
repels the electrons electrons in the air to
near the surface of flow from the top of a tall
the Earth. The surface building to the Earth. This
of the Earth becomes prevents lightning from
positively charged. damaging tall buildings.
Electric charges can accumulate on trucks due to friction between the road and
the rotating tyres of the trucks. When a sudden discharge occurs, it may cause
sparks, and ignite flammable items that the trucks may be carrying. To prevent
this. some older petrol tankers have a metal chain at the rear of the vehicle.
This chain hangs close to the ground, and provides an earthing path for excess
cnarges.

Electrostatic discharge can also damage electronic equipment, such as circuit

boards and hard drives. To protect these equipment, they are usually packed in
antistatic packaging. Antistatic materials have a thin layer of metallised film, which
acts as an electrostatic shield for the equipment placed inside.

r Excess charges on a petrol tanker flow to the ground r An antistatic bag protects sensitive electronic
through a metal chain. Nowadays, instead of metal components from damage due to electrostatic discharge.
chains, most petrol tankers use synthetic rubber tyres
that contain carbon to aid electric discharge.

How can a person survive a lightning strike?

Lightning strikes can be fatal
- the large electric
current of a lightning strike can cause cardiac
arrest and death if it passes through a person.
Most of the time, if a person is struck by lightning,
most of the electricity passes over the surface
of the person's body. This process is called an
external flashover. lt results in nasty burns and
damaged nerves and muscles, but not death.
This is how some people can face nature's wrath
and still escaoe alive! Read more about externa
flashovers on the lnternet.

> Lightning strikes can cause burn marks that

form a feathery pattern, called Lichtenberg
figures. Find out more about it on the Internet.

Static Electricity
 Practical applications of electtostatics

Photocopiers use static electricity to produce printed documents. The

photocopying process is summarised in Figure 16.18. Note that laser printers
use a similar mechanism to produce printouts.

charged wire
o there
Inside the photocopier,
is a metal drum, which
is coated with selenium. I rne drum is charged
positively on its entire
Selenium is a photoconductor,
surface. This is done by
i.e. it only conducts electricity
rotating the drum near
in the presence of light.
a highly-charged wire.

o The original image

to be photocopied
@ fne darker areas of the
image reflect less light. The
is placed on a corresponding regions on the
sheet of clear glass drum remain insulating, and
above the drum. the positive charges remain
on the surface of the drum.

@ nn intense beam
of light is shone
on the image. @ ffre lighter areas of the image
reflect more light onto the
drum below. These areas of
the drum become conducting
and are discharged.

toner cartridge with

O n. the drum continues rolling, the
negatively-charged
positively-charged image on the
toner powder
drum attracts the negatively-charged
toner powder in the toner cartridge.

o Asheet
positively-charged
of paper is passed
Q) ftre sheet of paper
heated and pressed.
is

over the drum surface. This fuses the toner

Negatively-charged toner to the sheet of paper
powder is attracted away permanently.
from the drum and onto
the sheet of paper.

I Figure 16.18 How static electricity is used in a photocopier

Chapter 16'
When power stations burn fossil fuels to generate electricity, they produce
waste gases and flyash. Fly ash is a mixture of smoke and dust particles. The
waste gases and fly ash are usually released into the environment through
chimneys. Fly ash emission is of great concern as it pollutes the environment.

To address this concern, power stations have electrostatic precipitators

installed to remove the fly ash produced. Figure 16.19 shows how an
electrostatic precipitator works.

The fly ash particles are then The metal plates

routed past metal plates that are attract the
positively charged or earthed. negatively-charged
fly ash particles, so
the gases leaving
positively-charged or the plates are free
earthed metal plates of fly ash particles,

negatively-
charged fine
W ES

@ fne waste gases and fly

ash are passed through chimney
a negatively-charged wire
grid. This makes the fly ash
particles negatively charged. fly ash rises with
waste gases

r Figure 16,19 How an electrostatic precipitator works

The fly ash particles stuck to the metal plates are collected and can be used
as a bonding agent in cement.

paint
Automobile manufacturers apply the principles of electrostatics to spray paint
vehicles. As a spray of paint leaves the nozzle of the spray paint gun, the
particles of paint become charged byfriction. The paint particles contain like
charges, so they repel one another and spread out when they leave the nozzle.
The charged paint particles are attracted to the metallic car body, which is
earthed. ln this way, a uniform coat of paint is produced on the vehicles.

v Like spray painting, a crop sprayer uses

the principles of electrostatics. Find out on
the Internet how a crop sprayer works.

Static Electricity
 The Van de Graaff generator
The Van de Graaff generator is a machine that can produce a
potential difference of up to 5 million volts! Particle accelerators
use these generators to produce large potential differences for
nuclear research experiments that study subatomic particles.

A silk belt passes The positively-charged comb at the

repeatedly over the bottom draws electrons away from
two rollers and gets the silk belt, leaving positively-
charged in the process. charged particles on the belt.

The positively-charged particles are carried up to the metal sphere.

A comb at the top transfers electrons from the metal sphere to the
positively-charged belt. This discharges the belt before it returns
down the pulley. Thus, the metal sphere gradually becomes positively
charged, while the spherical device gradually becomes negatively
charged. This creates a potential difference between the two objects.
You will learn what a ootential difference is in Chapter 17. r A Van de Graaff generator

1,. Some hazards of electrostatic charging are lightning, and

electrostatic discharge near flammable substances.
2. Electrostatic charging is used in L. Describe two hazards of
r photocopiers; electrostatic charging.
. electrostatic precipitators to reduce air pollution; 2. Describe any two applications
. spray painting to produce an even coat of paint. of electrostatics.

is the study of

poses nazarqs have

sucn as applications in
can De
categorised into
. Like charges
interact
as follows: ser up
repel
o Electric fields
Unlike charges
attract
are produced on
the surfaces of

Electrical Electric field lines

insu lators . directed away from a positive charge
o directed towards a negative charge
v-
I th,.oreh

Friction
Chapter 16
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) I There are two types of electric charges: negative charges and electrons.
(b) :; nn electrically neutral object contains no electric charges.
charges. , : 16.1-

. Pnqitiva .h2rdas (protonS) "': transferred

v(v":1 are from a pieCe Of silk to a glass rod when I
^3 ^:ll-.^ ^:l^^^ -^l ..,L^- l
\"' these two objects\v'are rubbed
/ar ''
together. j

: positively-charged '^A attracts ^ liih+

a light, conducting h^ll
ball. Th^
The k^ll
ball *^., be either
may h^ I i

(d) ,i Anegatively
^^^i+i.,^1., ^r^-a^A rod ^++'^^+^ ^^6i,,^+;^< ^i+h^v
i 16.1,
-- -
'-' ^j;;.^;,''^;^;::" ^,,,^^^^.^^A
charged or uncharged. i i
(e), apositive charge Qis placed between a negative charge Q, and a positive
t-' ryhen
Q, Q wlll move away from Q, towards Qr.
i i !6.1
.-i
charge i i

An electron has 1 C of charge. l-o.

t0 -L

,o, One can charge conductors through friction because conductors contain free ': ' 16.7
\b' electrons. 16.2

(h)C-onouctorscanbe.r'u,g"ooyeartrring

_":l'_t_:-91:tg9a:_yig-q',_{:_91'_:1,?F1_:
(j) i Electric field lines always point towards a positive charge. I i 16.3
al
,.-,
tKl
The strength of oil electric
an EtguLt ru field is TEPTEJEilLEU
ilEru rJ represented uyby the closeness
u 19 urvJgr vr the
rgJ) of electric
Lr rs sreuLr ru
16,3
Ttelo ltnes orawn. i i

- -"-- -. .--t-..*-- ----

, The arrowhead on an electric field line ol'"t:: shows the direction ur
t'_i:,:,""tt'"" of the
LrrE force on q
rvrus vrr small
a rrrrqrr i l

\''
ill '','o".o'o.t:"t'.'"]: "'1"
positive charge placed at a point in an electric field.
16.3
'.
In spray painting a car, the paint droplets are given unlike charges so that they I j 4c A
(m) ^.^..^^,'...^,,^.-.^^;. ^..^.-..^ ^_._
the car.
r-o.z+
'"'' spread uniformly over I i

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions

t. The Sl unit of electric charge is the 3. How does an electrical conductor differ from an
A coulomb B amoere electrical insulator?
C volt D watt Conductor lnsulator
A lt is negatively It is positively
2. A glass rod becomes positively charged when ch arged. charged.
it is rubbed with silk. The glass rod becomes B lt has free It does not have
charged because it electrons. free electrons.
A gains protons c It gets hot quickly. It gets hot slowly.
B gains electrons D It cannot be charged. It can be charged.
C loses electrons
D gains protons and loses electrons

Static Electricity
4. lf a rubber rod repels a pith ball, what can be The force is measured and recorded in Table 16.2.
deduced about the charges on the rubber rod
v Table 16.2
and the pith ball?
A Only the rod is charged.
B Only the pith ball is charged.
C Either the rod or the pith ball is charged,
but not both.
D Both the rod and pith ball carry like
cnarges.

5. The figure below shows a negatively-charged rod

held near, but not touching, a metal rod.

(a) What can you say about the charge on the

conducting plate?
(b) With reference to Table 16.2, what can you
deduce about the strength of the electric
field of the conducting plate? Explain your
Which of the following statements best
answer.
describes the movement of the charges?
(c) Suggest a reason why there is no change
A The electrons from the charged rod jump in the force acting on the charged sphere
across the gap and enter the metal rod.
when its distance from the plate is between
B The electrons in the metal rod move 1.OO mm and 1.20 mm.
from X to Y.
C The positive charges in the metal rod
move from Y to X.
D The positive charges in the charged rod Section C: Free-Response Questions
move from X to Y. t. (a) Electrostatic discharge is a hazard for
petrol tankers. Some petrol tankers
have a conducting chain attached, which
Section B: Structured Questions dangles near the ground. Explain the
purpose of this chain.
*1. (a) lf a student is given an ebonite rod, a glass
(b) In Figure !6.21, an electrician is using an
rod, some fur and a piece of silk, how can
electrostatic discharge mat to discharge
he produce two kinds of charges?
excess charges on an electrical appliance.
(b) Explain why electrostatic attraction to a
He also wears an antistatic wrist strap
charged body cannot be used as proof that
when he works on sensitive equipment.
an object is electrically charged.
How do electrostatic discharge mats and
antistatic wrist straos work?
2. (a) A negatively-charged polythene strip attracts
a suspended object. ls it correct to conclude
that the object is positively charged"
(b) A negatively-charged polythene strip repels
a suspended object. What can be deduced
about the charge on the suspended object?

3. Describe an experimental procedure to

determine the charge on a non-conducting rod.

4. A light, charged sphere is placed along various

posltions above a conducting plate (Figure t6.2O). r Figure 16.21
The sphere experiences an upward force exerted
2. With the help of diagrams, describe the use of
by the plate.
electrostatic charging in a

light, charged sphere

(a) photocopier;
(b) electrostatic precipitator.

r Figure 16.20
Chapter 16
 Before aeroplanes became a common mode of transport, people travelled by air using
airships, or Zeppelins. In the early 1900s, the popularity of airships was rising when,
on May 6,1937,Lhe Hindenbu€ disaster occurred. fhe Hindenburgwas the largest
airship ever constructed. As the Hindenburgwas about to land, a spark on its suface
caused the hydrogen-filled airship to explode. The entire airship became engulfed in
flames within 37 seconds. What caused the spark that triggered the explosion? We
will find out in this chaoter.

S
 L7.1- Electilc Current
Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- You
. define the term current and state its Sl unit;
. differentiate between conventional current and electron flow;
. apply the formula charge = currentx time to solve problems;
. draw electric circuit diagrams.

hat is electric current?

An object becomes charged if electrons are added to or removed from it.
When the charged object is provided with a conducting path, electrons Start
to flow through the path from or to the object.

When electrons move, we say that an electric current is produced. An

electric current is formed by moving electrons.
Each line of light in
^ plasma globe shows
this Conventional culrent and electron flow
a path of electrons. The
movement of electrons
Figure 17.1 shows the difference between conventional current and
forms electric currents. electron flow.

Before the discovery of electrons, scientists

believed that an electric current consisted of
moving positive charges.
Although this belief was later proven wrong,
the idea is still widely held, because the
discovery of electron flow did not affect the
basic understanding of an electric current,
which is the movement of charges.
This 'movement' of positive charges is called
conventional current,

An electric current is actually caused by the

flow of electrons from a negatively-charged
terminal to a positively-charged terminal.
This is because the electrons are repelled by
the negatively-charged terminal and attracted
conventional
to the positively-charged terminal. currenr
This movement is known as electron flow.

r Figure 17.1 Conventional current versus electron flow

In this book, the term current refers to conventional current, unless

otherwise stated.

Chapter 17
How do we measure electric current?
Since electric current consists of moving electric charges, we measure
Recall from Chapter 16
electric current by determining the amount of electric charge that passes
that electric charge
through a conductor per unit time. is measured in
coulombs (C).

In symbols,

I_ where 1= cuffent (in A);

Q = charge (in c);
t = time taken (in s).

The Sl unit of electric current is the ampete (A). One ampere is the electric
current produced when one coulomb of charge passes a point in a conductor
in one second.

An instrument called the ammeter (Figure t7.2) is used to measure the

strength of an electric current in an electric circuit.
o The ammeter should be connected in series to the rest of the circuit
(Figure t7.3).
o The current should flow into the ammeter through the positive '+' or red
terminal and leave through the negative '-' or black terminal.

r Figure L7.2 An
analogue ammeter

(a) Actual set-up (b) Circuit diagram

r, Figure 17.3 An ammeter connected in series to measure the current 1

orked Cxample l7.l

The current in a lamp is 0.2 A. lf the lamp is switched on for two hours, what is the
total electric charge that passes through the lamp?

Solution
Given: current I = O.2 A
timet =2hx6omin,
th lmin
= 7200 s
Total electric charge Q = It
= (O.2 A)(72OO s) = 1440 C = t.4 x 103 C

Current Electricity
 Drawing circuit diagrams
To help us solve problems involving electric circuits, it is useful
You need to be familiar with the
to learn how to draw circuit diagrams such as the one shown in
symbols used to represent the
Figure 17.3(b). Circuit diagrams represent electric circuits.
components in electric circuits.
This will help you draw and
interpret circuit diagrams. Figure 17.4 shows the four main components of an electric c ircu it.

A power source (e.9. a cell) @ Conductors (e.g.

drives the electric charge <-- copper wires) connect
around the circuit. the comoonents.

A load (e.9. a bulb) A switch opens or

converts electrical energy closes the circuit.
to other forms of energy to
oerform a function.
r Figure 17.4 Main components of an electric circuit

Table t7.t shows the circuit symbols for some other common
electrical components.
v Table 17.1 Circuit symbols

switch wires joined galvanometer

wires crossed ammeter

I

rl fixed resistor voltmeter

i- variable resistor
two-way switch
(rheostat)

------O e G- earth connector

coil of wire capacitor

thermistor

light-dependent semiconductor
resistor (LDR) diode

Chapter 17
It is important to be able to understand different arrangements of circuit
symbols in circuit diagrams. Figures t7 .5 and 17.6 show how we can interpret
two circuit diagrams.

switch
(open)
light bulb (off)

light bulb (off)

The bulb is unable to light up as the switch The circuit is closed, yet the bulb remains
is open, i.e, there is a break in the circuit. unlit. This is because there is an alternative
A break in the circuit means that current path of negligible resistance (wire X) for
cannot flow through it. current to flow through.
Besides open switcheS, breaks in circuits Therefore, the current does not flow through
can occur due to loose connections, or the bulb.
missing or broken wires. We call this a short circuit.

r Figure 17.5 An open circuit r Figure 17.6 A short circuit

From what you have learnt so far, have you

found the answers to Let's Explore (a)?

e rate of flow of electric charge Q through

a
a given cross-section of a conductor, i.e. 1
t
2. The Sl unit of current is the ampere (A). L. What is the eouation that relates
3. Conventional current is taken to be the flow of positive electric charge to electric current?
charges. Electron flow is taken to be the flow of negative 2. State the Sl unit of current.
charges, which is in the opposite direction to conventional 3. What do you understand by an
current flow. ooen circuit?

L7.2 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

v Figure L7.7 Danger signs warn people to
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. define electromotive- force (e.m.f .) and potential difference (p.d.); stay clear of the electrified train tracks.
o state the Sl unit of e.m.f. and p.d.:
. calculate the e.m.f. when a few sources are arranged in series.

Danger signs (Figure t7.7) such as those near MRT

tracks warn us to keep away from the high voltage train
tracks. What does voltage or volt mean?

The volt is the unit of measurement for the electrical

properties electromotive force (e.m.f.) and potential
difference (p.d.). The e.m.f. and p.d. cause the charges
in a circuit to move.
 hat is electromotive force?
Consider the flow of water in a pipe (Figure t7.8).

highest pressure

lf a water pump is
Water does not added, the pressure
flow through the difference it generates
pipe on its own. will make the water
move around the pipe.

(a) Without a water pump (b) With a water pump

r Figure 17.8 Water in a pipe

Similar to how a pump is needed to make water flow around the pipe, an
electrical energy source is needed to move electric charges around a circuit.
The 'pumping' action of the electrical energy source is made possible by
the electromotive force (e.m.f.).

ln symbols,
r lf the water pump in
Figure 17.8(b) represents
a dry cell, which terminals E = where € = e.rTr.f. of the electrical energy source (in V);
of the dry cell represent the W = work done, i.e. amount of non-electrical energy
points of highest pressure converted to electrical energy (in J);
and lowest oressure?
0 = amount of charge (in C).

The Sl unit of e.m.f. is the joule per coulomb (J C-r; or volt (V). The e.m.f.
of an electrical energy source is one volt if one joule of work is done by the
source to drive one coulomb of charge completely around a circuit.

There are many types of electrical energy sources. A common electrical

energy source is the dry cell. ln a circuit diagram, the dry cell is represented
by the symbol jlF. Notice that a dry cell has both a positive terminal and
a negative terminal.

electrons

A look inside a typical dry cell

A dry cell consists of a carbon rod that acts as a positive
t electrons
terminal and a zinc sheath that acts as the negative terminal. I
The zinc sheath encloses the contents of the dry cell. This light bulb
includes an electrolyte paste that lies next to the zinc sheath. (load)
When the dry cell is connected to a bulb, a chemical reaction
converts the stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
This causes electrons to flow in the circuit.

> Cross-section of a dry cell

(connected to a circuit)

electrons ------>
Chapter 17
 < Figure 17.9 Does
Most battery-operated appliances use more than one dry cell the battery holder of
(Figure 17.9). The number of dry cells and how they are arranged this remote control
determine the amount of e.m.f. supplied to an appliance' show a series or
parallel arrangement
Dry cells can be arranged in series or in parallel. Figure L7.tO of dry cells?
shows how the arrangement of cells affects the resultant e.m.f.

v Circuit A v Circuit B

The effect is that ..

o The resultant e.m.f. is larger than the o The resultant e.m.f. is equal to that of
e.m.f. of each cell. a single cell.
Resultant e.m.f. = 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V Resultant e.m.f. = l-.5 V
o The eells last for a shorter time o The cells last for a longer time
compared to those in Circuit B. compared to those in Circuit A.

This is because ...

The charges gain only a portion of the

energy from each cell.

r Figure 17.1O How cell arrangement affects resultant e.m.f.

Set up a fruit cell as shown on the right. You will need zinc and copper electrodes,
a light bulb, connecting wires, and fruits such as lemons, oranges, apples, grapes,
and bananas.
1,. Note the brightness of the bulb when the circuit is connected to a lemon.
2. Repeat the experiment using the other fruits.listed above. Do you notice ztnc
differences in the brightness of the bulb when it is connected to different electrode
fruits? Which fruit gives th.e greatest brightness?
3. Provide a hypothesis for this phenomenon. You may search the Internet
for additional information to formulate the hypothesis. r Set-uo of fruit cell

Culrent Electriclty
 hat is potential diffetence?
When a dry cell is connected to a light bulb, the bulb converts the electrical
energy provided by the dry cell to light and thermal energy. For each coulomb
of charge passing through the light bulb, the amount of electrical energy
converted to other forms of energy is called the potential diffetence (p.d.).

Do not confuse In symbols,

e.m.f. and p.d., even
though they have the ,_ w
tl- where \,2= potential difference or voltage across a component (in V);
same unit. The e.m.f. Q W = wotk done, i.e, amount of electrical energy converted to
e is provided by a other forms (in J);
source of electrical
energy, but p.d. Y
0 = amount of charge (in c).
refers to the electrical
The Sl unit of p.d. or voltage is the same as that for e.m.f. the volt (V). The
energy converted
to other forms by a
-
p.d. or voltage across a component is one volt if one joule of work is done to
circuit component. drive a unit charge through it.

The mystery of the exploding airship flown through a storm. As the Hlndenburg approached
The Hindenburgairship was essentially a balloon made the landing site, anchoring ropes were let down to
of cotton fabric stretched over an aluminium alloy frame. the ground. The ropes provided a conducting path for
The balloon was filled with hydrogen gas, which enabled a current to flow from the airship's aluminium alloy
the airship to float. Hydrogen gas is highly flammable. frame to the ground. However, due to the inadequate
design of the airship, the cotton outer skin could
fhe Hindenburg disaster spelled the end of airships as a not be discharged quickly enough, causing a large
mode of air travel. Of the many suggested explanations potential difference to build up between the cotton outer
for the explosion of the Hindenburg, the most widely skin and the aluminium alloy frame. This resulted in
accepted one is the discharge of static electricity. the formation of sparks due to electrostatic discharge,
According to this explanation, the Hindenburghad which then ignited the hydrogen in the balloon, causing
accumulated static charges on its surface as it had just the exolosion.

:c
r, The aluminium alloy frame of the Hindenburgwhen it was under construction

Ghapter 17
How do we measute e.m.f. and p.d.?
An instrument called the voltmeter (Figure 77.tL) is used to measure the
(a) e.m.f. of a dry cell
The positive and negative terminals of the voltmeter must be connected
to the positive and negative terminals of the dry cell respectively.
(b) p.d. across a component (e.9. a bulb)
The voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component
(Figure 17.72).
A multimeter (Figure L7.tt(b)) is an instrument that can measure voltage
(p.d.), current or resistance. We will learn what resistance is in Section 17.3.
(a) An analogue voltmeter
When a voltmeter is used to measure e.m.f. or p.d., the positive '+' or red
terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to the positive '+' terminal
of the cell, and the negative '-' or black terminal of the voltmeter should be
connected to the negative'-'terminal of the cell.

(b) A multimeter

r Figure 17,11 Different

types of instruments
that measure ootential
difference

(a) Actual set-up (b) Circuit diagram

r Ffgure L7.L2 A voltmeter connected in parallel to measure the p.d. Vacross the bulb

orked €xample 17.? orked Cxample 17.3

The e.m.f. of a dry cell is 1.5 V. What is the A charge of 4.00 x 104 C flows through an
energy provided by the cell to drive 0.4 C of electric heater. lf the amount of electrical energy
charge around a circuit? converted into thermal energy is 9.00 MJ,
calculate the potential difference across the
Solution ends of the heater.
Given: e,m.f. € = 1.5 V
charge Q=O.4C Solution
tA/
where W = energy provided by
Given: charge Q = 4.00x 104 C
Using e = *,v energy W= 9.00 x 106 J
the cell. By definition,
W= eQ potential difference V =
= (1.5 VX0.4 C) #g.OO
x tOu.t
=0.6J 4.00 x 104 C
=225Y

Cunent Electricity
 force (e.m.f.) is the
work done by a source in driving a unit Distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d.
charge around a complete circuit. The potential difference across a light bulb is found
The potential difference (p.d.) across a to be 3.0 V. The current flowing through it is O.4O A.
comoonent is the work done to drive a (a) How much charge flows through the light bulb
unit charge through the component. in two minutes?
3. The Sl unit of e.m.f. and p.d. is the (b) How much electrical energy is dissipated by
volt (V). the charge calculated in (a)?
4. The resultant e.m.f. of cells in series is Calculate the resultant e.m.f. of three 2 V cells that
the sum of all the e.m.f.s of the cells. are arranged in series.

From what you have

learnt so far, have you L7.3 Resistance
found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)? Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
define the term resistancei
. apply the formula resistance = current solve problems;
. describe an experiment to determine resistance;
. state Ohm's Law; --!4]to
. understand and draw the 1-V characteristic graphs for ohmic and
non-ohmic conductors;
. describe the relationshio between the resistance of a metallic conductor
and its temoerature.

hat is resistance?
The resistance of a component is a measure of the opposition an electric
current experiences when it flows through the component.

In symbols,
heatrng element

r, The heating element of

ft = where R = resistance of the component (in A);
an electric kettle has high
V= p.d. across the component (in V);
resistance. This enables 1= cuffeht flowing through the component (in A).
it to generate thermal
energy from electrical
energy effectively. From the definition of resistance, we can see that for a given p.d., the
higher the resistance, the smaller the current passing through.

The Sl unit of resistance is the ohm (O). One ohm is the resistance of
Link a component when a potential difference of one volt applied across the
component drives a current of one ampere through it.
You will learn how to
apply the relationship

n^ =
V,In Serles an0
7
parallel circuits in
Chapter 18.

Chapter 17
 orked €xample 17.4
A potential difference of 24O V applied across the heating coil of an electric kettle
drives a current of 8 A through the coil. Calculate the
(a) resistance of the coil;
(b) new current flowing through the coil if the potential difference applied is changed to 22O Y.

Solution
(a) Given: voltage V = 24O V (b) Given: voltage V = 22O Y
current 1= 8 A From (a), resistance R is 30 O.
Bydefinition,R=I= 240
8A
V
rhus, 1=#=##=7.3A

hat are resistors?

A resistor is a conductor in a circuit that is used to control the size of the
current flowing in a circuit. Resistors can have resistances that range from
a few ohms to several millions of ohms. There are two types of resistors
fixed resistors and variable resistors (Figure 77.1,3).
-

Fixed resistors Variable resistors

A fixed resistor has a resistance of fixed A variable resistor has a resistance that
value. Common types of fixed resistors can be varied. lt is used to vary the
include carbon film resistors and amount of current flowing in a circuit.
wire-wound resistors.

/'

r Some common fixed resistors e, A rheostat is a type of variable resistor.

r, Figure 17.13 Types of resistors

How a variable resistor works -------> current out

The diagram on the right shows how a
variable resistor works. By moving the
slider along the metal rod, the length of
wire through which current flows can be -------->
varied. In turn, the resistance can be varied. coil of constantan wire
current in
You will learn the relationship between
resistance and wire length in Section 17.4. r A variable resistor

Culrent Electricity
 How do we measure resistance?
Circuit components other than resistors also have resistance. We can
measure their resistances by measuring the current flowing through them
and the p.d. across them. Figure !7.!4 shows a current l flowing through
a lamp and a potential difference V across it. With these two quantities,
we can apply the formula R = to calculate the resistance of the lamp.
+

(a) Actual set-up (b) Circuit diagram

ot"r: L7.L4 Circuit to determine the of a lamp

I :":'".:n""
lnvestigation 17.I describes how an ammeter and a voltmeter can be used
to determine the resistance R of an unknown resistor.

Ohm's Law
How do we determine
ln !826, German physicist Georg Ohm discovered that when physical
the unknown resistance conditions (such as temperature) are constant, the electric current in
of a fixed resistor? a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it. This relationship is known as Ohm's Law.

In symbols,
In V where 1= current (in A);
Y= potential difference (in V).

V
I = R = constant
Thus, according to Ohm's Law, the resistance of metallic conductors
remains constant under steady physical conditions.

Chapter 17
Ohmic con ctors
Conductors that obey Ohm's Law are known as ohmic conductors.
Figure 17.15 shows the characteristic I-V graph of an ohmic conductor at
a constant temperature.

The graph
o is a straight line that passes through
the origin;
. has a constant gradient that is equal to the
inverse of the resistance R of the conductor.
1
Note: Since = R= constant,
i "on.t"nt,
v/v
r, Figure 17.15 Characteristic I-V graph of an ohmic conductor

Investigation 17.l
two2Vdrycells
Objective
To determine the resistance of an ohmic resistor (which has low
resistance) using a voltmeter and an ammeter

Apparatus
Voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, two 2 V dry cells, resistor R
of unknown resistance

Procedure
t. Set up the apparatus according to the circuit diagram
in Figure 77.!6.
2. As a safety precaution, adjust the rheostat to the maximum
resistance. This is so that the initial current that flows in the
circuit is small, to minimise the heating effect of the circuit.
r Fiture 17.16 Circuit set up to
determine resistance
3. Record the ammeter reading l and the voltmeter reading V.
4. Adjust the rheostat to allow a larger current to flow in
the circuit. Again, record the values of I and V.
5. Repeat step 4 for at least five sets of 1 and V readings.
b. Plot V/V against /A. Determine the gradient of the graph. Q,V)

Results and Discussion

The gradient of the graph gives the resistance of the resistor R
(Figure 17 .I7). Note that the resistance of a conductor can gradient
be found using the gradient of the graph only if it is ohmic I
(i.e. it has a constant resistance).
= resistance

lf I/Awere plotted against V/V, how could r Figure L7.L7 Graph of V/Y
the resistance R be determined? againsl I/A

Curlent Electricity
 Non-ohmic con ctots
Conductors that do not obey Ohm's Law are known as non-ohmic conductors.
The graphs in Table The current flowing through non-ohmic conductors does not increase
17.2 are plotted with proportionally with the potential difference. ln other words, the resistance R
current 1 on the y-axis
and p.d. Von the x-axis.
of such conductors can varv.
This is because p.d. is
usually the independent We can differentiate between ohmic and non-ohmic conductors using their
varlable, and current is 1-Vgraphs. The I-V graphs of non-ohmic conductors are not straight lines.
the dependent variable.
the I, ratio is not a constant, as non-ohmic conductors do not have constant
resistances. Table 17.2 shows the characteristic curved 1-V graphs of
non-ohmic conductors,

v Tabfe L7.2 Characteristic 1-ygraphs of some non-ohmic conductors

Filament lamp The filament As the currents increase, the

lamp (or the devices generate more heat,
light bulb) and thus their temoeratures
CONVCTIS Increase.
electrical energy
As temperature increases,
to light and heat the resistance of the filament
energy.
lamo increases.
fhe I-V graph of the filament
lamo shows that the
tl
resistance (f) increases witfr
temperature.
fhe I-V graph of a
diode diode is a device semiconductor diode shows
that allows that when a p.d. is applied
current to flow in the forward direction, the
in one direction current flow is relatively large.
only (the forward This means the resistance is
direction). low in the forward direction.
v/v When the p.d. is applied in
the reverse direction, there is
almost no current flow. This
means the resistance is very
high in the reverse direction.

We will learn more about the other factors that affect the resistance of
metallic conductors in Section 17.4.

Chapter 17
 orked €xample 17.5
Figure 17.!8 shows how the current 1 in the filament of
a lamp depends on the potential difference V across it. o.4
(a) Calculate the resistance of the filament when the
ootential difference is 1.0 V. 0.3
(b) Describe how the resistance of the filament o.2
changes, if at all, when the p.d. across it increases.
0.1
Solution
(a) From the graph, wnen 1.0 V, 1= 0.16 A tzJ+
By definition,
r, Figure 17.18
resistance R =
I #*+=6.2se=6.3o
(b) The gradient of the graph decreases as the p.d. This means that the ratio V
I
which is the resistance R of the filament, increases when the across it

From what you have learnt so far, have you

found the answers to Let's Explore (c)?
of a component is the ratio of the potential
difference across it to the current flowing through it,
t/
i.e, R =
7. The Sl unit of resistance is the ohm (O). To find the resistance of non-ohmic
2. Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductors using a V-l graph or an I-V
metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential graph, we use the coordinates of a given
difference applied across it, provided the physical point and not the gradient at that point.
conditions remain constant.
3. The resistance of a metallic conductor in a circuit can be
determined using an ammeter and a voltmeter.
4. The I-V graph of an ohmic conductor is a straight line that
passes through the origin. (a) Describe how the resistance of
5. The I-Vgraph of a non-ohmic conductor is not a straight the filament in a lamo varies
line, i,e. it does not obey Ohm's Law. with temoerature.
6. An increase in the temperature of a metallic conductor (b) Does Ohm's Law apply to a
causes an increase in its resistance. filament lamp? Why?

Overcoming life's challenges

As a young adult, Ohm aspired to be a professor in a major German university. Despite
not having the advantages of a wealthy or academic family background, Ohm worked hard
to achieve his dream. This meant taking on less fulfilling teaching positions to support
himself. He was fortunate to land a job in a school with a laboratory, where he conducted
his scientific research. There, he was able to overcome obstacles such as insufficient or
unsuitable laboratory apparatus by innovating and creating his own equlpment. He also
diligently studied the works of famous scientists of that time.

Ohm's hard work and perseverance paid off. A significant contribution he made to the
scientific world is the discovery of Ohm's Law, which forms the basis of our understanding
of electrical circuits. The unit of electrical resistance, the ohm, is named in his honour.

Achieving success can take as long as decades. What attitudes do you need to possess Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854)
to overcome obstacles and achieve success. like Ohm did? ^

Curlent Electricity
 L7.4 Resistivity
A large current may should be able to:
heat up the metallic
Learning Outcome
- You
. apply the relationship of the proportionality of resistance to the length and
conductors in a circuit
cross-sectional area of a wire to solve problems.
over time. Since an
increase in temperature
results in an increase
According to Ohm's Law, the resistance R of a metallic conductor is a
in the metallic
conductors' resistance, constant if the physical conditions remain the same. However, if temperature
the overall circuit increases, the resistance of the metallic conductor will also increase,
resistance will be
affected. Therefore, to Besides temperature, the resistance R of a conductor also depends on
get accurate readings t. its length l;
during experiments,
we should use low
2. its cross-sectional area A (or thickness);
cu rrents.
3, the type of material it is made of.

Table 17.3 shows the relationshio between resistance and the cross-
sectional area and length of a wire.

v Table 17.3 Relationship between resistance and the cross-sectional area and length of a wire

wire P

wire S I

wire Q i

o Wires P and Q have the same length and are made . Wires S and T have the same cross-sectional area
of the same materia.. and are made of the same material.
. The cross-sectional area of wire P is larger than . Wire S is longer than wire T.
that of wire Q.
Experiments have shown that when the length
Exoeriments have shown that when the of a wire is increased, its resistance increases
cross-sectional area of a wire is increased, its proportionally. In other words, the resistance R is
resistance decreases proportionally. In other words, directly proportional to the length I when the
the resistance R is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area and type of material are
cross-sectional area A when the length and type of the same.
material are the same.
R*l (2)
R*+ (1)

Combining (1) and (2) from Table 17.3, we obtain

Experiment 14 r=e+ where R = resistance of the wire (in O);

How does length p (a constant) = resistivity, a fixed property of the
affect the resistance wire's material (in A m);
of a wire? / = length of the wire (in m);
A = cross-sectional area of the wire (in m2).

Chaptet 17
 I
Rewritine R = o:;. we have rln-RA The Sl unit of resistivity p is v Table 17.4 Resistivities of some
-,4, L materials at 20'C
the ohm metre (Am).

fableLT.4liststhe resistivities of some materials. In general, materials 1-.6 x 1-0 8

that have lower resistivities are better conductors of electricity.

For example, since copper has low resistivity, and thus a low resistance, 1.7 x tO-8
current can flow through copper easily. This explains why the wires in 5.5x108
electric circuits are usually made of copper. Can you suggest why silver
is not used to make wires? 9.8 x 1O-8

49 x 10-B
Materials with high resistivities have their advantages too. For example,
(a) nichrome is used to make the heating coils in electric kettles. For a 100 x 10-8
given dimension, it has a high resistance dueto its high resistivity.
3000 x 10-8
This causes it to produce a lot of thermal energy when a current
flows through it.
(b) tungsten has high resistivity too, hence it is used in light bulbs.
Tungsten converts electrical energy to light and thermal energy due
to its high resistance.

orked €xample 17.6

In an electrical heater, 15 m of nichrome wire of cross-sectional area
2.O x tOi m2 is used to make the heating element.
(a) Calculate the resistance of the nichrome wire given that the resistivity
of nichrome is 100 x 10-8 Qm.
(b) lf the nichrome wire is replaced by a copper wire of identical length
and cross-sectional area, what will the resistance of the copper wire
be? (Resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8 f)m.)
(c) Using the answers obtained in (a) and (b), comment on the suitability
of the nichrome and copper wires as heating elements,

Solution
(a) Given: length / of nichrome wire = 15 m
cross-sectional area A = 2.O x 10-7 m2
resistivity p of nichrome = 100 x 1-0€ O m

Resistance R of nichrome wire is R = 4 Resistivity is not the

A
_ (100 x 10€ OmX15 m) same as resistance.
= 75 f) . Resistivity is a
2.O x IO-7 m2
property of the
(b) Given: resistivity p'of copper = 1.7 x 10-8 Om material that is
!'J independent of the
Resistance R'of copper wire is P' =
dimensions of the

-
(f.z ro*orxrs r) n ., n material. lts Sl unit
" x tO-7 m2
2.O
- is the Qm.
. Resistance depends
(c) In order to produce thermal energy, heating elements should have on the length and
high resistance. For given dimensions, the nichrome wire has cross-sectional area
a higher resistance (75 O) than the copper wire (1.3 Q) because of the material. lts
nichrome has a higher resistivity (100 x 10-8 Q m) than copper Sl unit is the Q.
(1.7 x 10-8 Q m). Therefore, the nichrome wire is more suitable for
use as a heating element.

Curlent Electricity
 17.4
The resistance R of a wire is directly proportional 1,. State the equation for resistivity.
to its length l, and is inversely proportional to its 2. How does the resistance of a wire vary with
cross-section al area A. its length and cross-sectional area?

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) I Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge. lts Sl unit is the ampere. i _, i L7 .t
(b) I Conventional current is in the direction opposite to electron flow. f j t7.7
,_.
{cl
. Tfre e.m.f. and p.d., both measured in volts, are defined as the work qone
ne worK to qrlve
done ro drive I i g
' i
l
aunrr cnarge around a complete circuit. 'z
*.**-...-**---i-...- --*.-- -- 4-'- -
1l:
(d) I The e.m.f. is a force. I : 77.2

,_. , Theresultante.m.f.of
"'- '---:'::"' -::""' several cellsarrangedinseriesisthesumof theindividual :
(e) l
17.2
'-' e.m.f. of the cells.
j The resistance of a metallic conductor can be calculated using the formula : i

(f) , y 17.2
; ''-
"_ I'
rct ; The resistance of metallic conductors remains constant even if physical conditions
'o' varv. This is in accordance with Ohm's Law.
j The characteristic I-V Craph for a metallic conductor at constant temperature is a I

(h) i straight line through the origin, while those for a filament lamp or a semiconductor : t7.3
I diode are curves. i
'-'--'t----- i

(i) i Heating a metallic conductor causes the resistance of the conductorto decrease. : 17.3

shorter wire has a lower resistance than a longer wire of equal cross-sectional j
(J' j Aarea
,,.
and identical material.
! rt4-7'+A
'--''-
,,-. A thicker wire has a higher resistance than a thinner wire of equal length and
tKt , .. .. - i . 4-7 A
roentrcal matenal. i I

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Ghapter 17
 related to

defined as rate
of flow of
r- o'
r-- wnere
t / = lenEIh
where A = cross-Sectional area
t = time
related to
if constant if not

Electromotive force € Potential difference Obeys Ohm's Law

(Sl unit: V) (Sl unit: V) InV
where where
I
I

Y.
I I
e=! ,,w Ohmic conductors . Non-ohmic conductors
a a
wnere wnere
W = work done by W = work done to
source to drive a drive a unit
unit charge around charge through a
the circuit component

Section A: Multiple-Choice euestions

t. A resistor converts 350 J of electrical energy to 3. The ammeter reading in the circuit below is l_ A.
other forms of energy. What is the amount of Which of the following could be the voltmeter
charge that flows through it when a p.d. of 7 V is reading and resistance of the resistor?
applied across it?
A 0.20 c
B 5OC
c 350C
D 2450 C

2. Which of the following set-ups cannot be used to

determine the resistance of resistor R?
Voltmeter reading Resistance
A 1V 2Q
B 4V 0.25 O
c 10v 1OO
D t2v 6f)
4. A piece of tungsten wire has a cross-sectional
area of 0.5 mm2 and a length of 1.0 m. What are
the dimensions of a second piece of tungsten
wire with half the resistance of the first?
Length/m Araa /mm2
A 1.0
B 0.50
c 0.50 1i
D o.25
Curent Electricity
Section B: Structured Questions Section C: Free-Response Questions
L. (a) What is the relationshio between current 1 t. (a) The V-I graphs for two conductors, A and
and charge Q? State their respective B, at a steady temperature are shown in
Sl units. Figure L7.L9. Deduce the resistances of
(b) A positively-charged sphere carrying a A and B.
charge of 0.4 mC is earthed using a wire.
(i) Calculate the average current flowing
through the wire if the time taken to
discharge the sphere is 0.2 s.
(ii) Draw a labelled diagram showing the
direction of conventional current flow.

2. (a) What do you understand by the terms

current and potential difference?
(b) A potential difference of L2Y causes r/A
2.0 x IO2o electrons to pass a point in a o.2 0.4 0.6
wire in 1.0 minute. Calculate the r Figute 17.19
(i) amount of charge that passes the point
in 1.0 minute, given that the charge of
(b) Both conductors are made of the same
material and have the same length.
each electron is 1-.6 x 10-1s C;
(ii) electric current in the wire; (i) Which conductor is thicker?
(iii) resistance of the wire. (ii) What is the ratio of their cross-
sectional areas?
3. A lisht bulb is connected to a 6.0 V e.m.f. supply.
(c) Do the conductors A and B obey Ohm's
Law? Explain your answer.
An exoeriment is carried out to measure the
current flowing through the bulb as the potential
(d) Sketch the graphs of current 1 against
p.d. Vfor a (i) filament lamp;
difference across it is varied. The results are
shown in Table 17.5.
(ii) semiconductor diode.

v Table 17.5 *2. An electric eel delivers electric shocks to stun

its victims. The eel's electrical ability is due
to special cells in its body. These cells, known
as electrocytes, are able to produce an e.m.f.
of approximately 0.15 V each. A typical adult
eel possesses 5000 to 15 000 electrocytes
arranged in series.
(a) An electric eel needs to be in contact with
its victim for an average period of 5.0 ms
in order to stun it. lf a current of 0.75 A is
used, determine the amount of charge that
will pass through the victim in 5.0 ms.
(a) Plot a graph of potential difference against (b) A person in water got an electric shock
current, using the values from Table 17.5. from an adult electric eel. The adult eel
(b) Using the graph drawn in (a), determine applied a p.d. of 2200 V across the
the resistance of the bulb when the person's skin for 5.0 ms. Assuming that
potential difference across it is 2.5 V. the resistance of human skin is 2000 O
(c) The 6.0 V e.m.f. supply is replaced with when it is wet, determine the
a 10.0 V e.m.f. supply. (i) minimum number of electrocytes
(i) Determine the potential difference that the adult eel had;
applied across the bulb if the current (ii) electric current that passed through
flowing through it is 0.32 mA. the oerson's skin:
*(ii) Explain how it is possible for a 10.O V (iii) energy used by the eel to shock
e.m.f. supply to produce a current of the oerson.
0.32 mA. (c) Explain how it is possible for the electric
eel to produce a p.d. of 22OO V when each
electrocyte is only capable of producing
n1E\/

Ghapter 17
The electric eel is a remarkable fish that has a unique way of killing its prey by
electrocution. Did you know that a two-metre-long electric eel can produce a
-
potential
difference of several hundred volts? This high voltage generates the lethal current
needed to kill its prey. How is the electric eel able to produce such a high voltage?
 18.1 Seties Circuits
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o -
state that for a series circuit, the
- current at every point is the same;
- sum ofthe p.d. across each component is equal to the p.d. across the
whoie circuit.
. calculate the effective resistance of resistors in series:
. apply these principles to solve problems.

ln Chapter 17, we learnt how the arrangement of dry cells affects the
resultant e.m.f. supplied to the circuit. In this chapter, we will study how
series and parallel arrangements of circuits affect current, potential
difference and resistance.
light bulbs
In a series circuit, the components are connected one after another in a
single loop (Figure t8.t). A series circuit has only one path through which
electric charge can flow.
r Figure 18.1 Two light
bulbs connected in series
Gurrent in a series circuit
Table 18.1 shows two electric circuits that can be set uo to measure the
current at various points in a circuit when resistors are arranged in series.
Killer electricity
The body of an electric v Table 18.1 Current in series circuits
eel contains 5000 to
6000 biological cells
called electrocytes.
Each electrocyle
Single resistor f The same current
produces a small R '1 -r -2
voltage. However, as flows into and out of
the electrocytes are resistor R.

arranged in series,
the resulting voltage
can range from 500
to several thousand
volts. Water is a good
conductor of electricity,
so wnen prey comes Resistors R" and R^ in series r1 -'z-'z
-I' -tl The same current
into contact with the flows through R.
eel, water conducts and Rr.
current from the eel
to the prey, and the
prey gets an electric
shock. What a way to
fry your meal!

From Table 18.1, we can see that the current does not vary in a series circuit.
Potential difference in a series circuit
fable 1"8.2 shows an electric circuit that can be set up to measure the
potential difference across the resistors in a circuit when they are arranged
tn sefles.
v Table 18.2 P.d. across resistors in a series circuit

Resistors R. and R^ in series vt = Vr+ V, The p.d. V, across the

whole circuit is equal
to the sum of the p.d.
across R, and Rr.

t= V, The e.m.f.e of the

electrical source is
equal to V..

For n resistors placed in series, the p.d. V. across the whole circuit is

Vr= Vr.+ Vr+ ... * Vn

Resistance in a series circuit

Fifure 18.2 shows how we can find the effective resistance R of two
resistors, R, and R, that are connected in series.

tvrl ,, I

t1+_______rJ
a Resistors in series
The current l that flows through R. and R,
r Equivalent resistor

is the same, because they are connected The resistors R, and R, can be
In senes. replaced by a single resistor R with a
Since = IR, V"= IR,
V resistance R.
V'= IRt The resistor R has the potential
From the equation Vr= V"+ V,we know that difference or voltage V. across it and
Vr= Vr* V"= IRr+ IRr= I(Rr+ R") the current l flowing through it.
V^ '3_R
Therefore, j= R"+ Rr. I

R= R"+ R,

r Figure 18.2 Effective resistance of resistors in series

D.G. Gircuits
 For n resistors placed in series, the effective resistance R is

Experiment 15 R=Rr+R2+...+R"
How is the effective
resistance of resistors
in series measured?

onked €xample la.l

When a circuit has
Figure 18,3 shows three resistors of values 2C),4 O and 6 Q connected
multiple resistors in
series, what is the in series to a 6 V dry cell.
formula we use to (a) What is the effective resistance of the three resistors?
calculate the (a) p.d. (b) What is the current measured by (i) ammeter Ar; (ii) ammeter Ar?
across the whole (c) Calculate the p.d. across each resistor.
circuit; (b) effective
resistance?

< Figure 18.3

Solution
(a) Effective resistance R= Rt+ R"+ Rr= (2 + 4 + 6) Q = 12 f)
(b) (i) Since V= 6 V and effective resistance R = t2 {1,
r=!=lI=0.5A
. R I2A
The current measured by ammeter A, is 0.5 A.
(ii) Since the circuit is connected in series, the current measured by
ammeter A, is also 0.5 A.
(c) Let V' Vrand V. be the p.d.s across the 2 Q,4 Q and 6 O resistors
respectively. Using V= IR,
V.=IR.=0.5Ax2{L=1,V
Vr=IRr=O.5Ax4{t=2Y
Vr=IRr=0.5Ax6f)=3V
Note: (1) Vr+ V"* Vr= 6 V = e.m.f. of the cell
(2) The p.d. across a resistor of a larger resistance in a
series circuit is greater than the p.d. across a resistor
of a smaller resistance.

Useful electric shocks

While electric shocks can kill, they can also be used to save lives.
Have you ever seen defibrillators in public places? A defibrillator
is a device that can save the life of a person who is having a
heart attack. lt is connected to a power source and generates a
A
potential difference so that an electric current flows through the
heart. The heart is given a controlled electric shock to 'jolt it back
to life' (i.e. to make it start pumping blood again).
E
> A oortable external defibrillator
in a shopping mall in Singapore t
Chapter 18 D 3
L8.2 Parallel Gircuits
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
o -
state that for a parallel circuit, the
- current from the source is the sum of currents in each branch:
- p.d.s across each branch are the same.
o calculate the effective resistance of resistors in parallel;
. apply these principles to solve problems.
r FiSure 18.4 Two light
bulbs connected in oarallel
In a parallel circuit, the components are connected to the e.m.f. source in
two or more loops (Figure 1'8.4). A parallel circuit has more than one path
through which electric charge can flow.

Gurrent in a parallel circuit

Table 18.3 shows an electric circuit that can be set up to measure the
current at various points in a circuit when resistors are arranged in parallel.

v Table 18.3 Current at various points of a parallel circuit

Resistors R, and R, in parallel [r+ I2 The current 1

c flowing from the
^^ll Jl/ilrJ
uEil ^+
^^li+^ dt
junction x into 1,
and Ir.
Currents Irand I,
laler recombine
into 1 at junction y.

For n branches in parallel, the main current 1 is

I = Ir+ 12+ ... + In

ls the current the same at different points of a (a) series circuit;

(b) parallel circuit? Explain your answers.

D.G. Circuits
 Potential difference across a parallel circuit
Table L8.4 shows an electric circuit in which all the resistors are arranged
in oarallel. lt is set up to measure the potential difference across each
resistor, and that across all the resistors in the circuit.

v Table 18.4 P.d. across resistors in a parallel circuit

Resistors R, and R, in parallel =Vz The p.d. V, across the whole circuit
is equal to the the p.d. across each
resistor R, and Rr.

t =V, The e.m.f. e of the electrical source is

equal to V".

Resistance in a parallel circuit

Figure 18.5 shows how we can find the effective resistance of two resistors,
R. and &, that are connected in parallel.

r Resistors in parallel

The current 1is split into 1, and I, because r Equivalent resistor

R, and R, are connected in parallel.
The resistors R, and R, can be
Sincel=!,t.=!
rr KI
replaced by a single resistor R with
l/
a resistance R.
.v
1z= The resistor R has the p.d. Vacross it
R
''2
and the current l flowing through it.
From the equation I = I"+ 1r, we know that
,VV r=4K
'R1R2

VVV < Figure 18.5 Effective resistance

of resistors in parallel
RR1R2
1,tr
RRaR2
Chapter 18
For n resistors placed in parallel,
11,L +-+
RR,R, n

orked €xample lA.e

Figure 18.6 shows three resistors of values 1 f), 3 O and 6 C)
connected in parallel to a 6 V dry cell.

(a) What is the effective resistance of the three resistors?

(b) What is the p.d. across each resistor?
(c) What is the current measured by ammeters Ar, A, and A.?

Solution
lttt
(a) i= (c) (i) ,=#=#=to r, Figure 18.6

\. &. *. Current measured by ammeter A, = 1 A

t =- I1, I tu \t
!-lL
R 1c) 3c) 6e) (ii) Current through the 3 Q resistor = =24
_9 Current measured by ammeter A, ="1 ; +2 A
6O
R= 0.667 Q (iii) 6V
Current through the 1 Q resistor = =6 O
it
(b) As the resistors are in parallel, Current measured by ammeter A. = 6 A + 3 A
the p.d. across each resistor
is equal, .'.p.d. = 6 V Alternatively, since V = 6 V and effective resistance
R = 0.667 f), current measured by ammeter
6V
0.667 f2

When additional resistors are added in parallel to a circuit, the effective

resistance of the circuit decreases. We can explain this using Figure 18'7. Parallel connections can
be represented in different
ln a parallel circuit, the p.d. remains the same across each branch. When R, ways in a circuit diagram.
is connected in parallel to Rr, as shown in Figure 18.7, the current 1in the For examole, a voltmeter
circuit.increases by 1, (since I = I"+ 1r). The effective resistance connected in parallel with
t V^t a circuit component (e.9. a
R
t= fl therefore decreases. cell) can be represented in
the two ways shown below.

Connecting additional resistors

in parallel to R, and R, further
increases the current 1. Thus,
the effective resistance R is
further lowered.

> Figure 18.7 Connecting an

additional resistor in parallel to R"
provides an additional path for the r Representing a
current to flow. Thus, the effective voltmeter connected
resistance is lowered. in parallel with a cell
D.G. Gitcuits
 The water-flow model
To understand the flow of current in a parallel circuit better, we can'use the
water-flow model (Figure 18.8), in which the
. flow of water represents current;
o water level in the bathtub represents potential difference;
. pump represents an electrical source.

When hole 1- is unplugged, bathtub When holes t and 2 are

water flows out slowly. unplugged, water flows out of
The pump is turned on to the bathtub faster.
maintain a constant level The pump has to work faster
of water in the bathtub. to maintain the level of water
This is similar to an in the bathtub.
electrical source driving a This is similar to the electrical
current through a single source providing a larger
resistor in a circuit. power to drive a larger current
to maintain the p.d. when two
resistors are connected in
oarallel in a circuit.
r Figure 18.8 The water-flow model can
represent current flow in a parallel circuit.

Gonnecting light bulbs in series or patallel

What are the advantages of arranging circuit components in series or in
parallel? To answer this question, let us consider the effects of different
bulb arrangements on current (Figure 18.9). The bulbs shown in Figure 18.9
are identical and each have a resistance of R.

When identical
light bulbs are
arranged in

the potential difference across

the effective resistance of

The current flowing through each bulb is

r Figure 18.9 Current in series and parallel arrangements

Chapter 18
Advantages of parallel circuits
. From Figure 18.9, it can be seen that the current flowing through each bulb
in the series circuit is half that of the current flowing through each bulb in
the parallel circuit. Therefore, bulbs connected in parallel glow more brightly
than when connected in series.
. When a bulb in a parallel circuit blows, the other bulbs in the circuit will still
work. This is because each parallel branch forms a complete circuit.

Disadvantage of parallel circuits

. From Figure 18.9, it can be seen that the current flowing through the battery
in the parallel circuit is 21, which is four times the current { in the series r The festive lights used
to decorate Orchard Road
circuit. This means that the source in a parallel circuit provides a larger during Christmas are
power and is depleted more quickly than in a series circuit. connected in parallel.
Can you suggest why?

From what you

The table below summarises the differences between series and parallel circuits.
have learnt so far,
have you found the
answers to Let's
a I = It* 12+ ... + In Explore (a) and (b)?

Current . Same throughout the circuit

a The branch with the least
resistance has the largest
current flowing through it.
a V,= V"+ V2+ ... r V,
Potential a The component with the Same across parallel
difference largest resistance has the branches
highest voltage across it.

. R=Rr+R2+...*Rn I
IItl-
Resistance
RRrRr"R.
--

1-. Figure 18.10 shows a 5 V cell connected to

two resistors in parallel. The current flowing
through resistor R is 0.2 A. Calculate the
(a) resistance of resistor R;
(b) currents I, and I"
(c) effective resistance of resistor R and
the 50 Q resistor;
(d) effective resistance of resistor R and
the 50 C) resistor if they are arranged
in series instead.
2. State one major advantage of connecting r Figure 18.10
light bulbs in parallel.

D.C. Circuits
 18.3 Resistors in Series and Parallel
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
. -
state and apply relevant formulae for current, potential difference, and
resistance in series and parallel circuits, including n = I , to solve
problems involving whole circuits

r Some components in a
The electric circuits in electrical devices typically have resistors in both
circuit board are arranged
in series, while others are series and parallel arrangements. How do we calculate the effective
arranged in parallel. resistance? How do we find the current and p.d. across each resistor? The
following worked examples will show us how.

onked €xample lA.3

Find the effective resistance of the arrangements in Figures 18.11 and I8.I2.

r Figure 18.11 r Figure 18.12

Solution
For Figure L8.1-L, the 3 Q and 6 f) resistors are in parallel.
-Lt13
Therefore,;= = Their effective resistance R=2e). r Figure 18.13
a Ui U rr.
"+
Now, consider the circuit as comprising a 2 f) resistor and a 4 Q resistor
in series (Figure 18.13).
Hence, the effective resistance R, = 2 Q + 4 Q = 6 O.

For Figure 18.12, the 3 O and 4 fl

resistors are in series.
Therefore, their effective resistance is R = 3 O + 4 Q = 7 {2.

Now, considerthe circuit as comprisingaT f) resistor and a 6 Q

resistor in parallel (Figure t8J.4).
..
Hence'
r r 1- t3
k=7a-6o=
I
42a
.'. The effective resistance R = 3.2 Q.

Chapter 18
 orked €xample lA.4
The cell in Figure 18.15 has an e.m.f. of 6 V.
Calculate the
(a) effective resistance of the two resistors
connected in parallel;
(b) current I"from the cell;
(c) p.d. across XY and YZ;
(d) currents Irand Ir.
Solution
(a) Since the 6 Q and 12 O resistors are in
parallel, their effective resistance R is

+= +*
R 60 -1^
!2A = R= (1 *
\6 a)-'n
12t =4 e
(b) Now, consider the circuit as comprising a
10 O resistor and a 4 Q resistor in series
(Figure 18.16).
Hence, the effective resistance
4=1OCl+4Q=14O vn ,1,. v"
Since the e.m.f.€ = 6 V, ''. ,1,

the current r"=

#"T = # = 0.43 A r Figure 18.16

(c) Let R, be the 10 Q resistor. (d) Since Vr. = 1.7 Y,

Since 1, = 0.43 A, then P.d. across XY, 1,.7 V
0.28 A
V*r= IrRr= 0.43 A x 10 O = 4.3 V 6O =
Since the circuit in Figure 18.16 is 1.7 v
connected in series, 1-2e2
-o1LA
e.m.f. t= V^rr Vrr,
then Vr, = €- V*,
=6V-4.3V
= 1,.7 V

From what you have learnt so far, have you

Circuits can contain components that are arranged in
found the answers to Let's Explore (c)?
series or in parallel. To calculate individual and/or effective
current, p.d. and resistance, you need to be able to apply
the appropriate formulae:
C V= IR
. For resistors in series, Rtotur = Rr + Rr+... + 4 In a parallel circuit, the current in each branch
is inversely proportional to its resistance.
r For resistors in parallel, = 1* 1* .
1'
'"" R,o,u, - Rt' Rr' "'-
t/
=L \, Since 1 ;K. and p.d. is equal for each
=
parallel branch, 7*f. The largest current
f(
flows in the branch with the smallest
resistance, and vice versa.
A number of 4 Q resistors are available. Draw diagrams
to show how you can connect a suitable number of
these resistors to give an effective resistance of
(a) L2 O; (b) 2 a; (c) 9 o.

D.C. Circuits
 L8.4 Potential Dividers

hat is a potential divider?

Some electronic circuits, such as those found in radios and battery-operated
toys, require an e.m.f. that is much smaller than that provided by a single
cell. Potential dividers can be used to adjust voltages in these circuits.

Potential dividers can be

^
found in battery-operated toys.

Figure !8.17 shows a potential divider with two fixed resistors. The cell
supplies a voltage Vrthat is divided into two potential differences across
the resistors R, and Rr. The potential difference (,, across R, is then used
to drive another oart of the circuit.

6 The current through the resistors R. and R, is given

V^
by
I - =-9--
R"+ R,
v-
g g The potential difference Vou, across R, is given by
IV\
Vo,, is used to
uut IR.=
V^,,=
' l:--"=l
lR.+R^t
x&
%* drive another
circuit.

< Figure 18.17 Calculating y,t in a simple potential divider

The equation for V"", in Figure 1.8.!7 can be rewritten as

lR^ \
l/'out=lalXl/
\ p- .ru p^ t 'e
LZ

From the above equation, we can see that the output voltage {,, across R,
is a fraction of the input voltage V".

orked Cxample lA.5

What is the output voltage across the 20 O resistor in Figure 1.8J-8?

Solution
Given: V"= 6 V, R, = 10 Q, Rr= 20 {,
R, \rv
vour=(\R_+R/ .

20o x6V=4V
(20 + 10) A
Hence, the output voltage Vour= 4V. r Figure 18.18

Ghapter 18
 ilable potential dividers
Visit http://www. raltron.com/
Potential dividers that are used to vary the output voltage from
cu st,/too s,/vo ltage-d vi de r. as p
a source are called variable potential dividers. They are used in
I i

to try out an applet to deduce

electrical devices, such as electric guitars and MP3 players, to vary how the output voltage of a
the output voltage, and thus control the volume of the sound. voltage divider changes as
resistance changes.
Variable potential dividers make use of variable resistors. Methods
1 and 2 show how two types of variable potential dividers are used
to obtain a variable output voltage %n.

fMethod I etheld 2
. This type of variable potential . This type of variable potential divider makes use of a
divider makes use of a potentiometer (Figure L8.2O). A potentiometer is a
rheostat R, (Figure 18,19). variable resistor that is connected at three terminals,
A rheostat is a variable resistor shown as ooints A, B and C.
that is connected at two e Contact C is a sliding contact. Since resistance
terminals.
R. is proportional to length (R * l) for a fixed cross-
o Since t/
'out = -=--i ^ xV
K1+ K) €
sectional area, the position of C determines the ratio of
resistance of AC to BC.
this means thit wh-en the
resistance R, increases, the o When C is moved towards
output voltage Vou, decreases. B, the resistance across
AC (&.) becomes larger, slider contact
r To obtain a larger output
and that across BC (4.) C can be moved
voltage, the resistance R, along AB
becomes smaller.
should be decreased.
'4,,=R*h;, e

where (Ro. + R .) is the

total resistance of the
resistor R, or
Vout- n" xV €
AA

AC+BC r Figure 18.20 A

where (AC + BC) is the ootentiometer used as a
length of the resistor R. variable potential divider

^r Figure 18.19 A rheostat being

used in a variable ootential divider

knob for adjusting

sliding contact

sliding contact and

ring of resistance
wire enclosed
within the body of
the potentiometer

D.G. Gircuits
 orked €xample lA.6
Figure !8.21-shows a 6 V cell connected to a potentiometer with a
maximum resistance of 100 O. Calculate the output voltage V"", when
the sliding contact is at (a) A; (b) the midpoint between AB; (c) B.

Solution
(a) When the contact is at A, the resistance across AC is
Hence, the output voltage %,, = O V.
(b) When the contact is midway between AB, &. = 50 O and R.
Hence, the output voltage

3V
(c) When the contact is at B, Ro. = 100 O and Ru.=OQ.
Hence, output voltage Vo,, = input voltage = 6V.

Transducers
Transducers are
1,. A potential divider divides an input voltage into different voltages to
produce a lower output voltage. This output voltage drives another part
electronic devices of the circuit.
that convert energy 2. The output voltage across a portion of a potential divider is proportional
from one form to to the resistance of that oortion.
another. While input
transducers convert
3. We can obtain a variable output voltage by including a variable resistor
(e.9. a rheostat or a potentiometer) in a potential divider.
non-electrical energy
to electrical energy,
output transducers
convert electrical
energy to other forms
of energy. Examples of 18.5 Input Transducers
output transducers are
loudspeakers, lamps, Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
light-emitting diodes . -
explain how thermistors and light-dependent resistors used as input
(LEDs), voltmeters, transducers in potential dividers;
and ammeters. . describe how thermistors and LDRs work, and solve problems

Input transducels are electronic devices that respond to changes in physical

conditions, such as temperature and liElht. They can be used in potential
dividers to vary the output voltage, thus enabling electronic systems to
respond to changes in the physical conditions,

souno
( non-electrical energy) microphone
(input transducer)

> The microohone is

an example of an input
transducer. lt converts
Chapter 18
sound to electrical energy.
Input transducers are widely used in control systems, electrical instruments
and electronic communications. Examples include thermistors, LDRs,
microphones, photocells, thermocouples, and pressure sensors.

In this section, we will learn how the thermistor and the light-dependent
resistor (Figure 1-8.22) work. These transducers work in potential dividers
to control the output voltage according to changes in physical conditions.

Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

actual device

r. Figure LS.22fhermistors and LDRs are examples of input transducers.

Thermistors
Athermistor is a resistorwhose resistance varies with temoerature. A common
thermistor has resistance that decreases as its temperature increases, and
vice versa. Figure 18.23 shows the use of a common thermistor R* in a
ootential divider.

@ ffre output voltage is given by Since the resistance R ,

of the common thermistor
%*= xV" decreases as its
temperature increases,
where R, = resistance of the the output voltage V"",
thermistor (in O); also increases with
R = resistance of the fixed temoerature.
resistor (in O);
4 = voltage suPPlied by
electrical source (in V).

r, Figure 18.23 Common thermistor in a potential divider

The sensitivity of the thermistor to temperature allows it to be used in

the circuits of appliances that measure or control temperature. By using
a voltmeter to measure Vou,, we can derive the temperature. The output How does the resistance
voltage Vo,, can also be used for other purposes, such as controlling of a common thermistor
switches that turn temoerature alarms on or off. change with temperature?

I9H
You have learnt in Chapter 17 that the resistance of a metallic conductor increases
with temperature. Common thermistors, however, behave in the opposite manner,
i.e. the resistance of a common thermistor decreases with increasing temperature.

D,G, Gircuits
 Light-dependent resistors (LDRs)
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases as the
amount of light shining on it increases, and vice versa. Figure 18.24 in
Worked Example 18.7 shows the effect of an LDR in a potential divider.

orked €xample lA.7

Figure 1.8.24 shows an LDR, Rro* in a potential divider with a fixed
resistor R of resistance 10 kQ. The cell has an e.m,f, of 9 V. The
resistance R,_o* of the LDR in two rooms, Room A and Room B, is
given in Table 18.6.
v Table 18.6

A 100
B

(a) One of the rooms had its lights switched off when the resistance r Filure 18.24 LDR in a
of the LDR was measured. Based on your understanding of LDRs, potential divider
which room was it? Why?
(b) Calculate the output voltage Vo,, across the fixed resistor R when
the LDR is olaced in Rooms A and B.

Solution
(a) Room A; the resistance of an LDR increases when the amount of
light shining on it decreases. Since the LDR has a higher resistance
in Room A, it is likely to be the room with its lights switched off.
(b) The output voltage across resistor R is given by %* =
Vo,.
R+ =+-,
R.o*
V

In Room A, R o, = 100 kQ. Then

10 ko
%*= p*fu* v= (10 + 100) kO x9V=0.82V
In Room B, Rro* = 5 kO. Then
ko
v= (1010 x9V=6.0V
%*= n*fi;* + 5) ka

Worked Example 18.7 shows how the output voltage of a potential divider
varies with the amount of light shining on the LDR. When the light intensity
increases, the resistance R.o* decreases. This results in a higher Vou,. The
sensitivity of the LDR to light intensity allows it to be used in devices that
measure light intensity (e.9. light meters) and in automatic street lights.
 Input transducers (e.9. thermistors and Figure 18.25 shows a potential divider
light-dependent resistors) convert non- with a thermistor and a fixed resistor R
electrical energy to electrical energy. of resistance l-00 O connected to a
2. The resistance of thermistors varies 6 V cell. Given that the resistance R.,* 6 v
with temperature. of the thermistor is 500 O and 50 Q at
3. The resistance of LDRs decreases as 0'C and 100'C respectively, calculate
the intensity of light incident on them the voltmeter readings at these
tncreases. two temperatures. r Figurc 18.25

Build Your Own Circuits

Go to http://phet.colorado.edu/ and search for an appletthat allows you to build your own electric
circuits. Use keywords such as "circuit construction kit" and "dc".

Click on'Run Now!'to run the program. You will see several electrical components. To construct a
circuit, simply drag each component onto the main space. (Tip: lf you need to make a change to a
component after it has been connected, right-click on it and select the appropriate option.)
7,. Drag a battery into the main space. Check the box for voltmeter under 'Tools'. Connect the positive
terminal of the voltmeter to the positive end of the battery, and the negative terminal of the
voltmeter to the negative end of the battery. What is the e.m.f. of the battery?
2. Construct the series circuit in Figure 1.8.26.
(a) Connect two resistors in series with a battery. Connect ammeters at points A, B and C of
the circuit.
(b) Measure the currents at A, B and C. Record the readings in Table 18.7.
(c) Using the voltmeter, measure the p.d.s Vov V"" and Vo.. Record the readings in Table 18.7.
v Table 18.7

IA Vo"

IB vu"
Ic Vo"

(d) Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit.

3. Construct the parallel circuit in Figure L8.27.
(a) Connect two resistors in parallel with a battery. Connect ammeters at points D, E and F of
the circuit.
(b) Measure the currents at D, E and F. Record the readings in Table 18.8.
(c) Using the voltmeter, measure the p.d.s Vrn, Vrn and Vo,. Record the readings in Table 18.8.
v Table 18.8

ID V,o D

IE V,,

IF Vo,

(d) Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit.

4. (a) Compare the p.d. you recorded for both circuits
with the e.m.f. of the battery. What can you conclude?
D.C. Gircuits
(b) Compare and comment on the effective resistances calculated for both circuits.
 <- v"----*
characteristics

Current:
I=Ir+1,
Potential difference: Potential difference:
PV(Er rLrOl variable Vr= V"+ V, Vel2=V,=V^
dividers (with potential Effective resistance: Effective resistance
fixed resistors) dividers R= Rr+ R, L L,I
RRrR2

hAtan+i^malarq

Fixed R. and fixed R, Variable R, and fixed R, Variable R. and variable R,

R, can Oe I
I replaced with an
I

{
vout= Rr+R'R2xv
I

Input transducer I

€ Y
f(.
^
VourP€
=3xV
,.AB

or
Thermistor Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
=AC"y
AB€

Resistance decreases when

Resistance varies with
the amount of Iight shining on
temperature
it increases
Ghapter 18
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

,_. , When resistors are connected in series in a circuit, the current is split among ii ii 40
re'r 4
t''
(a, jtheresistors.
+hn raoia+nro J-6'-t
'r:*
(b) . In a
qarioe nirnr ril, the p.d. across the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.
'' !81,
''-' across each."":"'".
circuit component. j r

the electrical source of a parallel circuit is equal to the current in

'

(c) i i Ig.2
ncn. :l

.
(o,
.. ln a oarallel circuit, the p.d. across the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d. 1e )
^^-^^^ ^^^L ^i-^..i+

(e) Pin a parallelcircuitisgiven

Theeffective resistance
' Ro
" by+=+-++
'Re Rt H2 ..++, ra.r I
R"
lwhiletheeffectiveresistanceR^inaseriescircuiti givenby4=&i4+...+4. j
1 ro'z
1.8.2

- - ---:-
i
-'''.-+..*'.''-*-*':-'*-*--*-'**--'--*
For a circuit that has two resistors connected in series, we may derive the current
(0 flowing through the resistors by dividing the sum of the p.d. across each resistor by i 183
..
i their
.i..
effective resistance. :
ti i

ror
(5' iThemaximumoutputvoltageof apotentiometerisalwaysequal totheresultant I i 1RL
'o' i e.m.f. of the cells in the circuit.
circuit.
'.
i :

.. . j, The
,,
(h) ;-..-::-:..-:,:-.^:^-^' their
fne resistances of both the common thermistor and the LDR decrease as their : a :
18.5
tem peratures Increase.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 2. In the circuit below, the reading on ammeter A2 is

1 A and that on ammeter Ao is 3 A. What are the
L. The diagram below shows three identical
readings on ammeters A, and A.?
resistors.

',.o)
tr--"

A.,
What is the voltage reading of a voltmeter
connected across XY? Arreading/ A A, reading/ A
A2V A 1.5 n6
B 3V B z 1_

c 4v c 3 1_

z
D 6V D 3

D.C. Circuits
3. In Diagram A, resistor R. is connected to an For questions 6 and 7, refer to the diagram below.
e.m.f. source. The ammeter reading is 2 A and In the circuit shown, the resistors have equal
the voltmeter reading is 6 V. In Diagram B, a resistance R. a
new resistor R^ is now connected in parallel with
resistor R1. The ammeter and voltmeter readings
are now 3 A and 6 V respectively.

6. The effective resistance between PO is

A3RB2R
24 -.
^
Diagram A Diagram B C=RD=R
23
What is the resistance of resistor Rr?
7. What can be deduced about 1, I' 12, 13and Io?
A 9f2 B 6f,
c 3c) D 2A A l=l.r=lo=lr+1,
B I = It= Ir= Ir+ Io
4. Which of the following combinations of resistors C I, Ir, Ioand Ir= I,
has the lowest resistance?
D I, 1", Ioand Io= Ir+ I"
AB
8. In the potential divider circuit below, the variable
resistor R, has a maximum resistance of 4 Cr.
What are the minimum and maximum possible
values of Vout?

R1
(0Oto4o)
L2V I

5. A resistance of 1.5 O is needed for a circuit.

R2
However, the resistors available are of 6c)
resistances I A, 2 Q and 3 Q. Which of the
four circuits shown can be used to obtain the
required resistance? Minimum Vorr/Y Maximum Vour/Y

A 0 4.8
A B 0
c 2 4.8
D h 12

Chapter 18
9. The circuit below is used to detect the level of 2. A 6 V cell is connected to three resistors in the
sunlight. The resistance of the LDR is 1 Mo in circuit shown in Figure L8.29. The current flowing
the dark and 100 O in bright sunlight. What is the through the source is 0.8 A. Calculate the
voltmeter reading in dark and bright conditions? (a) current 1r;
(b) current 1r;
(c) value of the resistance of resistor R.

in
Voltmeter reading Voltmeter reading in
the dark/V bri{ht sunlight/V
A40 r Figure 18.29
8412
c80 Two resistance wires, A and B, are connected
D84 in parallel to a power source of e.m.f. 5.0 V.
Figure 18.30 shows the voltage-current
10. The diagram below shows a thermistor connected relationship of the two wires.
in a potential divider circuit at room temperature. v/v
The resistance of this thermistor decreases with
an increase in its temperature. Which of the 5.0
following happens to the voltmeter reading when
4.O
the thermistor is heated?
power suppry 3.0

1.0

r/A
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
r Figure 18.3O

A Decreases
(a)
B Decreases and then increases Calculate the resistance of wire A and wire B.
C lncreases
(b) lf both wires are made of the same material
D Stays the same and have the same thickness, what can you
conclude about their lengths? Explain
your answer.
Section B: Structured Questions (c) Calculate the currents flowing through wire
A and wire B.
7,. For the circuit in Figure 18.28, calculate the
(a) effective resistance across AB;
(b) effective resistance across CD;
(c) effective resistance of the whole circuit;
(d) current flowing through the 6 O resistor.
2A 3O

r Figure 18.28

D.C. Gircuits
Section C: Free-Response Questions (b) Compare the advantages and
disadvantages of connecting light bulbs in
L. The electrical wiring in a house is complex.
series and in parallel. Explain your answer.
When an electrical failure occurs, it is hard to
determine the cause of the failure. To determine
3. Variable resistors are used in circuits to oroduce
the cause, an electrician uses a voltmeter to variable output voltages.
determine the o.d. across two ooints in a circuit. (a) Using an e.m.f. of 9 V, a variable resistor
Table 18.5 shows the readings the electrician
with a range of O O to 12 Q, and a fixed
took for the circuit shown in Fieure 18.31. resistor of 24 Q, design a circuit that can
produce a variable output voltage of O V
to3V.
(b) Perform calculations to show that your
design produces the desired voltage
outout.

*4. Figure 18.32(a) shows a circuit in which bulbs 1

and 2 (of resistances R, and Rr) are connected
in series. Figure 1.8.32(b) shows the same circuit
after bulbs t and 2 are replaced by a single bulb
3 of equivalent resistance R.

r Figure 18.31

v Table 18.5

1,.'" ,1,. ,1, ivi

"
r Figure 18.32(a) r Figure 18.32(b)

According to the Principle of Conservation

of Energy,
power power power
dissipated = dissipated + dissipated
by bulb 3 by bulb 1 by bulb 2
(a) Given that power P dissipated by a bulb is
(a) Explain whythere is no p.d. across BC. P=lV,
(b) lf the current flowing through Ro is 0.50 A, where 1= current flowing through the bulb,
determine the resistances of (i) Ro; (ii) Rr. V= 0.d. across the bulb,
(c) State the location of the fault in the circuit, use the Principle of Conservation of Energy
and a oossible cause of the fault. to derive the formula for the effective
(d) lf the current flowing through Ro is 0.50 A, resistance R of bulbs t and 2.
and the current flowing through R, is (b) Using a similar method as in (a), derive
one-fourth of that flowing through Ru and the formula for the effective resistance of
Ru, calculate the resistances of (i) Rr; bulbs 1 and 2 when they are arranged
(ii) R5; (iii) R6. in parallel.
(e) Calculate the effective resistance across EF.

2. (a) Using four identical resistors, design a

circuit in which the p.d. across
(i) each resistor is one-fourth
of the e.m.f.;
(ii) each resistor is the same
as the e.m.f.;
(iii) each resistor is half of the e.m.f.;
(iv) one resistor is the same as the e.m.f.,
and the p.d. across each of the other
three resistors is less than the e.m.f.

Chapter 18
Power transmission lines carry currentat high voltages, which can kill. This is why
power transmission cables are insulated, and placed high in the sky or buried deep
in the ground, When these lines need to be repaired, utility companies cannot
shut down the power, as it would cause great inconvenience to industries and
black out entire cities. Repairs to power transmission lines must be done while
the lines are electricallv live. So how do technicians repair these lines without
getting electrocuted?
 19.1 Uses of Electricity
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
o -
describe how electricity can be converted into thermal energy by household
appliances such as electric kettles.

Electricity can be converted to other useful forms of energy. In this section,

we will look at some common appliances that convert electrical energy to
thermal energy.

Electric heating
Many household appliances convert electrical energy to thermal energy
(Figure 19.1). These appliances have heating elements that are usually
made of nichrome, an alloy of nickel and chromium. Nichrome is used
because it has high resistivity and can withstand high temperatures.
When an electric current passes through these heating elements, they heat
up rapidly.

in appliances such as

Electric kettle Electric iron Electric radiator Electric hotplate

heating
heating element
element

Water is heated by The metal base is heated Air is heated by radiation A pot of soup placed on the
conduction and convection. by conduction. and convection. heating element is heated by
conduction and convection.
r Figure 19.1 Convefting electrical energy to thermal energy

Filament lamps convert electrical energy to light energy. The light energy
generated by a filament lamp is due to an intense heating effect in the
filament of the lamp (Figure 19.2). The filament is a tungsten wire, with
a small cross-sectional area, that is coiled. Tungsten is used because
of its high resistivity and high melting point (3400'C).

When an electric current flows through the filament, the tungsten coil
is heated to about 25O0'C. This intense heating effect generates light.
The glass bulb is filled with inert gases such as argon and nitrogen to
glass bulb
prevent the tungsten from getting burnt at high temperatures.
filament
-
lead-in wires argon or
nitrogen (gas)
- Link
From what you have Recall what you learnt in Chapter 17 about
< Figure 19.2 learnt so far, have you the relationship between the resistance R,
A filament lamp found the answers to length /, and cross-sectional area 4 of a
Let's Explore (a)? metallic conductor i.e. R = pn.
Chapter 19
 L. Electric kettles, irons. radiators. hotolates and State two examples of household appliances
filament bulbs use the heating effect of electricity. that use the heating effect of electricity, and
2. When an electric current passes through a heating describe how they work.
element, thermal energy is generated.

L9,2 Measuring Electrical Energy

Leatning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
recall and apply the formulae P = VI and E = VIt;
. calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the energy unit
is in kWh.
MoDEL R-218H(W)
SERTAL No 040?0339?
Have you noticed power ratings on electrical appliances? How 230-240 V -50H2
are these power ratings determined? In this section, you will INPIJT 't.21kvv 5.2 A
learn about electrical oower and how it is calculated. 800 (lEc) o 3 o 744-ll
FREQUENCY 2450 MHz 1V)
Electrical power
The Sl unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is equal to one
joule per second. To represent large quantities of power, we use
multiples of watts, such as the
r Power rating on an electrical appliance

o kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W or 103 W;

. megawatt (MW) = 1 000 000 W or 1-06 W.
In Chapter 6, we learnt that the equation for power P is given by

P=+-(1) where p = powef (in W);

W = work done (in J);

of p= E= energy converted (in J);

l_el t = time (in s).

ln Chapter 17, we learnt that the equations for current 1 and potential
difference V are given by

,_Q _
r -- (3) where 1= cufrent (in A);
t
0 = charge (in C);
t = time (in s);
,,-
'- W Y= potential difference (in V);
a W = wotk done (in J).
w=QV_(4)
Substituting (4) into (1), we get
^QV.
t-=
(
-(cl
By substituting equation (3) into (5), we get P = VI
Hence, to calculate the power P of any electrical appliance with a current 1
flowing through it and a potential difference V applied across it, we simply
multiply Vby L
Practical Electricity
 I l/ |
For a resistor with resistance R (Figure 19,3), the rate at which electrical
energy is converted to thermal energy (i.e. the power) can be calculated
using any of these equations:

t
P P=W where Y= voltage (in V);
r Figure 19.3 Power P is dissipated = I2R (since V = IR) 1= cuffeht (in A);
by the resistor as thermal energy. R = resistance (in Q).

Electrical appliances or devices are usually marked to show the amount of

power they consume at their operating voltage. For example, if an electric
. The equation kettle is marked '2000 W,24O V', it means that when an operating voltage
P = 12R is useful of 24O V is applied across the heating element of the kettle, the kettle
for comparing the
converts electrical energy into thermal energy at a rate of 2000 W.
power dissipated by
resistors in series,
since current 1 is the The typical power ratings for some appliances are shown in Table 19.1.
same.
. The equation
v Table 19.1 Typical power ratings of some common appliances
l/2
,= R
ts useTul
for comparing the Electric kettle
power dissipated by
Air conditioner 1000-2000
resistors in parallel,
since potential Electric iron 950
difference V is the
LCD TV L25
same.
Fluorescent lamo 32-40

Electrical ene tr
We can rearrange the equation P = ir to find the electrical energy E used in
time t.
E= Pt
= VIt (since P = VI)
For a resistor of resistance R, the electrical energy converted to thermal
energy can be calculated from any of the following equations:

E= VIt where Y= voltage (in V);

= 12Rt (since V = IR) 1 = current (in A);

1= R = resistance (in O);

=t (since )
t = time (in s).

The Sl unit of energy is the joule (J). To represent large quantities of energy,
we use multiples of joules, such as the
. kilojoule (kJ) = lggg J or 103 J;
. megajoule (MJ) = 1 000 000 J or 106 J,

Chapter 19
 onked Cxample l9.l
An electric iron with a heating element of resistance 60 O is connected
to the 24O V mains. Calculate the
(a) electrical power produced in the heating element;
(b) amount of electrical energy consumed when the iron is used for
20 minutes.

Solution
Given: resistance R = 60 O
voltage V=24OY
(a) Electrical power P = How do technicians
# repair electrically live
_ (24O V)2 lines without getting -
60o electrocuted?
=960W When a technician
approaches a live
(b) To use the iron for 20 minutes, the electrical energy E line, the electric field
consumed is E = surrounding the line
hil , (zo rin
' #;) increases the potential
of his body. To ensure
= t.t5 x 106 J that he is at the same
= 1.15 MJ potential as the line,
the technician has to
make contact with the
line. At the same time,
onked Cxample lg.e he must be insulated
from anything that is
electrical ly connected
Afilament lamp, which is rated at 60 W, 24OV, is connected to a 24OV to the ground. The
power supply. Find the technician wears
(a) current flowing through the lamp; conducting clothing
(b) resistance of the filament; that is electrically
(c) energy produced by the lamp when it is switched on for B hours, connected to the line.
This ensures that he
is always at the same
Solution potential as the line.
Given: power P = 60 W (c) Converting time f of 8 hours into Thus, he will not get
voltage V=24OY seconds gives electrocuted.

(a) ,n,60min, 60s

Current 1 =nP 1-h lmin
60w = 2.88 x 104 s.
240 V Hence, the electrical energy
= 0.25 A E used up when the lamp is
(b) Resistance R switched on for 8 hours is
E=Pxt
of the filament is
= 60 W x (2.88 x 104 s)
n=V
^v2 =L73x106J
(24O = I.73 MJ
_ V)2
60w
=960O
R can also be calculated from R = However, if the value
you calculated in (a) is incorrect, using this formula will result in you
getting the wrong answer for (b).
r A technician

Practical Electricity
 Calculating the cost of electricity consumption
An electricity meter measures a household's electricity consumption
(Figure L9.4).

The cost of electricity consumed is based on the number of

kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electrical energy consumed.
The cost of each kWh depends largely on the price of oil or
natural gas.

1 kwh = the energy consumed by a t kW device in l- h

=1kWx1-h
= l-O0O W x (60 x 60) s
=3.6x106J

Figure 19.4
^ electricitv meter
An
orked €xample 19.3
A 1.5 kW electric coil heats water for 2 hours. Calculate the amount of
electrical energy consumed by the coil in (a) kwh; (b) J.

A common error is to Solution

mistake kWh for the Given: power P = 1.5 kW
amount o'f electrical
powerconsumed. kWh
time t= 2 hours
is actually the amount (a) Energy E(in kWh) = Px t
of electrical energ)/ =1.5kWx2h
consumeq. = 3.0 kWh
(b) EnergY E(in J)
= iu:r; Ji^ "++t' f*;)
orked €xample 19.4
Figure 19.5 shows a utilities bill of a household for one month. How is
the cost of electricity shown in the bill derived?

Water Seqles hy Public Uailiti6 Board

Wat€r Eslimated on 20-0&2011

Walerborre Fe
Sanitary Applian@ Fe
Reluse Removal by 800 Super Wasle Mgl PlL
Refuse
Waler Conswelion fax

Tolal Charges
G@ds & Ssrw@s lax

Tolal Curef,t Chargss Inclusive of GST

Solution
Underthe heading 'Electricity Services', the number of units of electricity
consumed is 149 kWh at a rate of $O.2728 per kWh. Thus, the cost of
electricity is 149 kWh x $O.2728 = $40.65.

Chapter 19
 orked €xample 19.5
lf Singapore Power charges 27 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used, calculate the total
cost of using a 3 kW electric kettle for 20 minutes and a 100 W filament bulb for 5 hours.

Solution
Electrical energy used by electric kettle,
Et t=3kwr#n=1kwh
Power P of the filament bulb = 100 W = 0.1 kW
Electrical energy used by the bulb,
Er=O.tkWx5h=0.5kWh
Total energy used E
= En + En
= 1 kWh + 0.5 kWh
= 1.5 kWh
Hence, the total cost = 1.5 kwh x 27 cents
= 40.5 cents
= $0.41

er P isgiven by P = W = nr. From what you have

# =
learnt so far, have you
2. Electrical energy E is given by E = VIt = Pt. found the answers to
3. The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the unit of electricity usage. Let's Explore (b)?

(a) A 24O V mains power supply delivers a current of 9.0 A through an air
conditioner. Find the power supplied in kilowatts,
(b) The air conditioner described in (a) is used for 1.5 hours each day. Given
that the electricity tariff is $0.27 per kWh, prove that the cost of using
the air conditioner in a month (30 days) is about $26.

II' Try lt Out

Note the number of each type of electrical appliance in your house, the number
of hours these appliances are used each day, and their power usage.
r A typical air conditioner

12. Estimate your household's monthly electrical usage and costs. (Use a
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to organise and compute the data.) How close
is your estimate to your latest electricity bill? ls it an overestimate or an
underestimate?
Using the Internet, find out what factors affect the cost of electricity and how
Visit http://www.ema.
electricity prices are calculated.
gov.sg to find out more
In groups, brainstorm for ideas on how you can reduce your electricity
about how electricity
consumption. Put your ideas into practice and check whether you can lower the
tariffs are determined.
cost of your next electricity bill!
Use keywords such as
Do you know why it is important to conserve energy? Find out on the Internet.
"electricity tariff ".

Practical Electricity
 19.3 Sources of Electrical Enetgy
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
o -
compare the cost, conversion efficiency and environmental effects of using
The cost per kWh of renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
electricity depends on
many factors, such as
tariffs set by different In Singapore, the majority of the electrical energy consumed is produced by
countries, climate burning fossil fuels. Our dependency on other countries for fossil fuels and
and environmental
the negative effects of burning fossil fuels on the environment point to a
conditions, availability of
need for alternative sources of energy. Furthermore, fossil fuels are a non-
resources, and socio-
oolitical situations. renewable source of energy. Figure 19.6 describes some possible options
The cost of producing and how they compare.
electricity varies from
country to country.
Ren able sources of enelgy
Renewable energy is defined as energy from sources that can be replenished
naturally. Some examples are sunlight, wind and running water.
v Figure 19.6 Different sources of electrical energy and their fe

Solar pnwer
Light energy + electrical energy
. Efficiency:
- Higher efficiency when there is
daylight and minimal cloud cover
- Excess energy generated can be
stored or fed back to the power grid
. Cost:
High costs involved in manufacturing
solar panels, but cost of fuel (which is
sunlight) is free
o Environmental impact:
A form of clean energy, but requires
large areas to be cleared for solar
panels to be installed

lVind power
Kinetic energy + electrical energy
r Efficiency:
Efficiency varies, depending on wind
direction and soeed
. Gost:
- Cost of wind power is falling with
improvement in technology
- Wind energy is free, therefore costs
mainly go towards maintenance
. Environmental impact:
A form of clean energy, but the spinning
turbines produce some noise pollution and
also require large open areas
 Non-renewable sources of energy
Non-renewable energy is defined as energy from natural sources that cannot be
replenished at a sustainable rate. Some examples are coal, natural gas and petroleum.

Nuclear power
Nuclear energy + heat energy + electrical energy
. Efficiency:
High efficiency, as a small amount of uranium is
sufficient to generate a large quantity of energy
. Cost:
Compared to the other sources of energy, additional
cost is involved in the disoosal of radioactive waste
o Environmental impact:
Waste from uranium mining can contaminate
groundwater and surface water sources

There are renewable and non-renewable sources of electrical

energy. Renewable sources include solar energy, wind
energy, and hydroelectric energy. Non-renewable sources
include fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
Each source of electrical energy has a different conversion
efficiency, cost per kWh produced and environmental impact.

Which method of producing electricity is the most efficient?

Nuclear power for Singapore? Visit http://video.

To meet future energy demands, Singapore needs to diversify its energy sources. As nationalgeograph ic.
the supply of fossil fuels is gradually depleted, nuclearenergy is one alternative source Com,/ to watch a video
that is being given serious consideration. An advantage of nuclear energy is that a small that describes various
amount of raw material is sufficient to produce a large amount of energy. However, there sources of energy.
are also concerns about whether the safety measures put in place are robust enough to Use keywords such as
prevent radioactive leaks. In your opinion, would nuclear energy be suitable for Singapore, "alternative energy".
and why? Which other energy sources should also be considered for Singapore?

Practical Electricity
 L9.4 Dangers of Electricity

Electrical faults in aooliances or circuits can cause fires and electric shocks.
Electricity can be a hazard when electrical insulation is damaged, when
cables are overheated. and in damo conditions.

Damaged insulation
Figure 19.7 describes how damaged insulation can be dangerous.

WITES

Wires that carry electricity

from the voltage supply to
electrical appliances are
wound together to form
cables.
These cables are enclosed
by insulating materials
such as PVC or rubber.

. The insulating materials can

become worn with time, and expose
the conducting wires inside.
. The exposed conducting wires can
e Figure 19.7 Damaged cause electric shocks if touched.
insulation on an electrical cable

Overheating of cables
Overheated cables can cause fires. Two common causes of overheated
cables are listed below:
1,. Overloaded power sockets
When a power socket is overloaded with many appliances, an unusually
large current flows through the wires.
2. Use of inappropriate wires
The resistance of a conducting wire is inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area. This means that a thin wire has a higher resistance
and generates more heat, compared to a thick wire.
Therefore, when appliances are being wired, manufacturers must make
sure that the wires are of appropriate thickness. Generally, thin wires
are used for appliances that need less power, such as lamps, while thick
wires are used for appliances that need more power, such as kettles.

< Overloading a power socket can

damage plugs and appliances.

Ghapter 19
Damp environments
Many electrical accidents occur in damp environments. For example, a hair dryer
on a wet sink can cause electric shocks if the conducting wires are exposed or
have damaged insulation.

Water in contact with the uninsulated electrical wires provides a conducting path
for current. As the human body can only withstand an alternating current of about
50 mA, a large current will cause burns, uncoordinated contraction of the heart
muscles, or even death. Therefore, electrical appliances should be kept in dry
places and handled with dry hands.

r Leaving a hair dryer on

a wet sink is dangerous.

The dangers of electricity are caused

by damaged insulation, overheating State three good practices when
of cables and damo conditions. using electricity.

Human resistance
The electrical resistance of the human body
is made up of the resistance of dry skin and
the resistance within the body. The resistance
of dry skin is about 100 kO. The resistance
within the body, which is composed mainly
of fluids, is about a few hundred ohms. The
dry skin acts as an insulating layer. However,
when the skin is wet, the resistance of the
skin is lowered. In other words, skin is less
able to act as an insulating layer when it is
wet. This is why it is dangerous to swim during
a thunderstorm.

> Swimming pools are usually closed

during thunderstorms for safety
 19.5 Safety Features in Home Gitcuitries
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe the function of fuses and circuit breakers;
. explain why metal cases should be earthed and double insulation is impot
. define the terms live, neutral and earthi
. describe the wiring in a mains plug, and the safety mechanisms in place;
Legend
. explain why switches, fuses and circuit breakers are fitted to the live wire.

a Live wire
a Neutral wire Various safety features are installed in the circuits in our homes. Figure 19.8
a Earth wire shows a circuit in the home.

underground
Electricity in most homes is supplied by a cable
supply cable
containing two wires:
1. live (L) wire
neutral wire (N) live wire (L) . usually al 24O V
- 2. neutral (N) wire
main circuit in circuit breaker . usually at 0 V
breaker box

The lamps in a house

are connected in
parallel.
This is so that each
lighting circuit lamp receives the mains
voltage of 24O Y,
main switch and should any lamp
fail, the other lamps will
two-way switch be unaffected.

to immersion heater circuit

to air conditioner circuit

power
sockets

symbol for
a circuit
breaker earth wire (E)

The consumer unit Water heaters and air This circuit supplies electricity to all
circuit breaker box conditioners tend to draw the wall sockets in the house.
contains more current from the With the ring arrangement, the current
. a main switch; mains than other household can flow to any socket.
o several circuit appliances. Besides the live and neutral wires
breakers, which Therefore, the circuit breakers running a complete ring around the
lead to the common connected to their circuits house, an earth (E) ring circuit is
circuits in the house. have. higher .urr"ll.l",'ntr... , added for safetv reasons.

r Figure 19.8 Typical home circuitry

Chapter 19
 Safety features that can be found in our homes are listed below:
L Circuit breakers Try lt Out
2. Fuses Try tracing the circuit
3. Switches path in Figure 19.8
4. Earthing starting from the live
5. Three-pin plugs wire at the supply
6. Double insulation cable, through a load,
into the neutral wire,
and back to the supply
rs cable.
circuit breakers are safety devices that can switch off the electrical supply
in a circuit when large currents flow through them. without circuit breakers,
a surge of current can damage home appliances or even start a fire.

Figule 19.9 Circuit breakers in a consumer unit

^
Figure 19.9 shows the circuit breakers in a consumer unit. The circuit
breakers are labelled with various cut-off currents, such as 10 A and
16 A. circuit breakers are connected to live wires, so that should there be
a current surge due to a fault, the circuit breakers will trip and cut off the
current to the appliances. This ensures that the appliances are isolated
from the mains, and the users do not get electric shocks.

circuit breakers can be reset by switching them on again. This should bb

done only after the fault in the circuit has been corrected.

e9
A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuitto prevent excessive
current flow. lt has the same function as a circuit breaker. However, a fuse
must be replaced after it blows, whereas a circuit breaker can be reset after
it trips.

A fuse consists of a short piece of wire (Figure 19.10). The wire is made thin
so that when a large current flows through it, it heats up and melts. when a
fuse blows, a gap is created in the circuit. The circuit is opened, and current r Figure 19.1O
A caftridge fuse contains
stops flowing through the circuit.
a thin metal wire, which
melts when a large
Allfuses have a rated value..This value indicates the maximum currentthat current flows through it.
can flow through a fuse before it blows. In general, fuses with thicker wires
can conduct larger currents before blowing, and therefore have higher rated
values. Typical household fuses are rated at I A,2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A and
13 A. Practical Electricity
 For safety reasons, the following points should be considered when selecting
and installing fuses:
Search the Internet o The fuse of an electrical appliance should have a rated value that is
to learn more about slightly higher than the current the electrical appliance draws under normal
how light bulbs and operating conditions.
fuses work. Use
keywords such as
. The fuse should be connected to the live wire so that the current to the
"demonstrations ", appliance will be cut off immediately after a large current melts the fuse
"fuses" and "light and it will not be at a potential of 24O V.
bulbs". . The mains power supply must be switched off before replacing a fuse.

orked Cxample 19.6

A hot water heater is rated at 2880 W, 24O V. Calculate the operating current,
and suggest a suitable rating for a fuse to protect the heater from overheating.

Solution
Given: power P of heater = 2880 W
voltage V=24OY
Let 1 = operating current. > Water heaters draw more
UsingP=VI, I=nP current than most appliances, and
therefore consume more power.
2880 W Save electricity by only using the
water heater on cold days.
240 V
=1-2A
A suitable fuse will have a fuse rating that is slightly higher than the operating
current of the water heater. Thus, a 13 A fuse will be suitable.

orked €xample 19.7

The following appliances are operating in a kitchen circuit:
o 50 W fruit blender .
800 W microwave oven
o 400 W refrigerator .
1.5 kW electric kettle

Electricity is supplied to the kitchen aL 24O V, and the kitchen circuit is protected by a circuit
breaker with a rating of 20 A. What is the current flowing through the circuit breaker when all the
appliances are operating at the same time? Does the circuit breaker trip?

Solution
Since all the appliances are operating at the same time,
the total power P= 50 W + 400 W + 800 W + 1500 W
= 2750 W
SinceP=W,then I=+
2750 W
240 V
= 11.5 A
As the current is lower than the circuit breaker's rating, the circuit breaker does not trip, and all the
appliances can operate safely.

Chaptel 19
S ches
Switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit. They should
be fitted to the live wire of the appliance.

For example, if an electrical fault causes the metal casing of an appliance to

be at high voltage, a switch on the live wire is able to disconnect the voltage
supplied to the metal casing. Figures t9.t!
and 1-9.12 show how a switch
fitted to the neutral wire does not prevent electric shocks, while a switch
fitted to the live wire does.

O nn electrical @ n. the switch is fitted to the @ tf a person touches

fault results neutral wire, the metal casing the metal casing, a
in the live wire is still connected to the live large current flows
touching the wire when the switch is ooen. through the person
metal casing. The metal casing is at high to the earth the
voltage (24o v). person gets -an
electric shock

240V
live wire (on)
to the mains e o
neutral wire
switch open heater

Flgure 19.11 Incorrect position for a switch the switch should not be fitted to the neutral wire
^ -

O n. the switch is fitted to the live wire, the metal No current flows
casing is disconnected from the live wire when the through the person
switch is open. The metal casing is at low voltage touching the casing.
(almost 0 V).

switch open

240V
live wire (off) fuse
to the mains +
neutral wire

r Figure 19.12 Correct position for a switch the switch should be fitted to the live wire
-

Practical Electriclty
 The live wire (brown) is
connected to a high voltage
and delivers current to the rth
appliance. This is the wire to There are usually three wires in a home circuit the live (L) wire,
which circuit breakers, fuses the neutral (N) wire and the earth (E) wire (Figure 19.13).
-
and switches are fitted.

The neutral wire (blue) completes the circuit by providing a return

path to the supply for the current. lt is usually at zero volt.

The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire.

It is usually connected to the metal casing of appliances.

r, Figure 19,13 The three wires in a home circuit

Figures L9.L4 and 19.15 show how earthing prevents electric shocks
when an electrical fault is present.

it *ut cart in ".. The metal casing is at high voltage

due to the electrical fault.

An electrical fault results lf a person

in the live wire touching touches the
the metal casing. metal casing,
a large current
flows through the
person the
person - gets an
electric shock.

neutral wire
position of live wire
before electrical fault

r, Figure 19.14 The absence of earthing can cause electric shocks.

The flow of the

The large current flows to the ground through
i-t art in ".. the earth wire, which has a much lower
large current
from the live
resistance than the person. Hence, the
wire, through the
oerson does not suffer an electric shock.
An electrical fault metal casing,
results in the live to the earth
wire touching the wire creates a
metal casing. short circuit. The
sudden surge in
current exceeds
switch the rated value
live wire (on) closed of the fuse, so
o"-" **".--o.-'-.o
the fuse is blown
to mains
supply <- and the circuit
is opened. The
neutral electricity supply
to the appliance
is cut off.

r Figure 19.15 Earthing prevents electric shocks.

Chapter 19
Three-pin pl
A fused plug connects an electrical appliance to the mains supply via the
power socket. The fused plug used in Singapore is a three-pin plug (Figures The fuse protects
the electrical circuit
tg.t6 and t9.!7\. live (L) wire or appliance from
(brown) overheating, while
earth (E) wire ----------r earthing protects
(green and yellow) the user from an
electric shock.

neutral (N) wire cartridge fuse

(blue)

cord grip

r Figure 19.16 A fused, three-pin < Figure 19.17 Anatomy of a

mains plug used in Singapore fused, three-pin mains plug

The fused plug is also known as a safety plug. The cartridge fuse inside the
plug protects the appliance when there is an electrical fault. lf excessive
current flows in the appliance, the fuse blows. This breaks the circuit and It is important to
isolates the appliance with the fault, so that overheating does not damage it. be familiar with the
colours for the earth,
live and neutral wires,
Double ulation and to know how to
Some household appliances use two-pin plugs instead of three-pin plugs. connect them in a
For such appliances, there is no earth wire. These appliances use double fused plug.
insulation to protect users from electric shocks,

Double insulation is a safety feature that can replace the earth wire.
Appliances that have double insulation usually use a two-pin plug, as only Activity 19
the live and neutral wires are reouired. How do we wire a
three-pin plug?
Double insulation orovides two levels of insulation:
t. The electric cables are insulated from the internal components of the Let's Exploro!
appliance.
From what you have
2. The internal components are insulated from the external casing.
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Appliances with double insulation typically have non-metallic casings, such Let's Explore (c)?
as olastic,

double insulation
sym0ol

< Double-insulated
appliances carry the
double insulation symbol.

Practical Electricity
 A household electric circuit has the following safety (e) Three-pin plugs that connect appliances to
featu res: the mains socket. A three-pin plug contains
(a) Circuit breakers that a fuse within the case, and it also connects
(i) prevent excessive current flow through the earth wire to the appliance,
the cables; (f) Double insulation that is used in appliances
(ii) detect small leakage current to earth. with two-pin plugs. Double insulation
(b) Fuses that prevent excessive current flow removes the need for the earth wire.
through appliances. A fuse is always connected
to the live wire.
(c) Earth wires that are connected to the metal
casing of appliances. An earth wire provides a
low-resistance conducting path for the current to 1,. State the function of the following
flow to earth should the metal case become live. safety features, and how they should be
(d) Switches that should be fitted to the live wires connected in a circuit:
^f
vr qvpIqr
^^^li^^^n^ rv9J. (a) Circuit breaker
(b) Fuse
(c) Earth wire
2. Why do some appliances use a three-pin
plug, while others use a two-pin plug?

is produced when

are converted to

have different

. Conversion efficiency
can be calculated using
o Cost
. Environmental impact .

related to
tr - lnt electrical
wnere tr
power P by
Y= potential difference
1 = CUrrent D_V
Dangers Safety features t= time
. Damaged insulation o Circuit breakers
o Overheated cables . Fuses
o r cost of energy consumed
Damp conditions Switches
. calculated using
Earthin€
. Three-pin plugs
. Double insulation

Ghapter 19
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) , To produce a heating effect, a wire with high resistivity can be used. i I 1,9.1

,n,, W" can calculate the energy consumed by an appliance by multiplying the power
79'2
'-' r rating of the appliance with the voltage supplied to the appliance. i i
_(:_l_i_l-h_"
*i,.!u 1""?":yf_'__l!:-1Tg!ll:1!"_y:_i-:_!!?"!gd !?_11"9r_.:lif3 u[9t:1_j_ __ _ -19:r-
'i
source or energv that is clean and
19] : \:l-:-li :1-"_'.g"y,l: ?-i-"l:yable 1{?: _**_* ___i -_____ *-j::
(e) : Overheating can occur if the wires of an appliance are too thick. j 1-9.4
,,.
rfl The fuse rating of a fuse in an appliance should be equal to the operating current ; I

\'' of the appliance.

j

,o, ' To earth an appliance is to connect a wire from the external metal casing of the
I 19.5
'o' appliance to a large conductor, such as the ground.
_ !ll_::rl.-:-"ilg_"i1113?:11_11!:
(i) i Switches,
tTli:9.1t11litl:9 i: 9:-*l_ *_ __ ___ __ t_?_
:i
_

fuses and circuit breakers should always be fitted to the live wire. i i 19.5

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions

1. Which of the following can be used to calculate 4. A oerson uses a 3 kW oven for one hour and
electrical oower? a 2 kW air conditioner for six hours. Calculate
A ootential difference + current the total cost if 1 kWh of electrical energy costs
B ootential difference x current 5.0 cents.
C current x resistance A 15 cents
D ootential difference + resistance B 30 cents
C 60 cents
2. A small heater has a rating of 15 V, 4 A. How D 75 cents
much energy does it consume if it is turned on
for two minutes? 5. Which of the following is a safety feature that
A 7.5J protects electrica I appl iances from electrical
B 720) surges?
c 450J A Using a plastic casing with double
D 7200 J insulation
B Connecting an earth wire to the metal
3. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of casing
A power c Connecting a switch on the neutral wire
B energy D Using a fuse with a rating that is slightly
C charge above the current rating of the appliance
D voltage

Practical Electricity
6. Why is the switch for any electrical device always 3. ln Figure 1.9.2O, the live wire, neutral wire, and
fitted to the live wire? earth wire are labelled L, N, and E respectively.
A No current flows in the neutral wire. Complete the diagram to show
B There will be a short circuit if the switch is (a) how the wires should be connected to the
on the earth wire. two power sockets;
C The device can never be switched on if the (b) the position where a 10 A mains fuse
switch is on the neutral wire. should be fitted.
D The device can only be isolated (i.e. made N EL
safe) if the switch is on the live wire.

What happens when a 2 kW,24O V electric heater

f'_l
IE EI
ff
7.
is connected to a mains supply using a plug fitted
witha4Afuse? IE EI
A The fuse in the plug blows.
B The heater works normally.
r, Figure 19.20
C The heater operates at half the power.
D The heater burns out.

Section G: Free.Response Questions

Section B: Structured Questions 7.. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster that
L. Figure 19.18 shows the electrical information on happened in 2OLl was the largest nuclear
the charger of a laptop computer. accident since the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in
1986. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
occurred because the tsunami-struck region
suffered extensive flooding, which disrupted
their electricity supply. This resulted in a loss
of power to the nuclear power plant, and led to
the leakage of radioactive material. People living
within a 30 km radius an area that is larger
-
than the island of Singapore were evacuated
-
from the region to avoid harmful exposure to
nuclear radiation.
r, Figure 19.18
(a) Considering the devastation that the
Chernobyl nuclear disaster caused, why do
(a) Based on the information in Figure 19.18,
you think Japan still uses nuclear energy?
show that the output current of this charger
is 4.74 A.
(b) lf Singapore were to consider using nuclear
energy, list three factors that should be
(b) Calculate the amount of electrical energy
considered and explain why.
(in kWh) consumed in one month (30 days),
if the laptop is connected to the charger
(c) Nuclear energy is a non-renewable energy
source. State three renewable energy
six hours a day.
sources.

2. (a) Name the parts labelled P, Q, R, and S in

2. Fi{ure 1-9.2! shows a 23OV lighting circuit. Each
Figure 19.1-9.
light bulb in the circuit is rated at 80 W, 230 V.

230 V )80w,230v

r Figure 19.19
r Figure 19.21

(b) State the function of the oart labelled S.

Chapter 19
 (a) State the arrangement the light bulbs are in, (d) The rice cooker is switched on for fifteen
and the advantage of this arrangement. minutes per day.
(b) Calculate the combined resistance of the three (i) Calculate the number of kWh
light bulbs shown. consumed bv the rice cooker in one
(c) State the purpose of the fuse and what happens WECK.
to the fuse when the switch is on. (ii) Given that 1 kWh costs $0.28 in
(d) fable L9.2 shows the daily energy usage for Singapore, calculate the cost of using
the circuit. Given that the circuit is switched on the rice cooker for one week.
for one hour each day, suggest what may have
happened to the circuit on days 3, 5, and 6. 4. An electric fan with a power rating of 500 W is
(The number of bulbs connected in the circuit connected to the mains supply. The electric fan
can be varied.) has a metal casing (Figure 19.23).
v Table 19.2

r Figure 19.23

(a) Given that the mains supply is 240 V,

calculate the current that flows through the
electric fan when it is switched on.
3. Figure 1-9.22 shows part of the electrical circuit of (b) The manufacturer of the electric fan is given
a kitchen, where the mains supply is at 230 V. The
the information in Table 19.3 by a wire
lamos in the circuit are identical and each is rated at supplier. Based on the data in the table,
50 W, 230 V. The rice cooker is rated at 2 kW, 230 V. which type of wire should the manufacturer
i;. buy and why?
v Table 19.3

.-i'..'
VE

230 V

neutral rice cooker

' ^
Figure L9.22
(a) Calculate the current flowing through
(i) each lamp;
(ii) fuse X;
(iii) the heating element in the rice cooker. (c) Based on the information given about the
(b) One of the fuses in the circuit is fitted wrongly. electric fan, would you recommend that
(i) ldentify the fuse and draw the circuit with the manufacturer use a two-pin plug or a
the fuse in the right position. three-pin plug for the electric fan? Why?
(ii) In addition to using fuses, electrical
appliances like the rice cooker should be
earthed. In the drawing you made in (i),
add an earth connection to the rice cooker.
(iii) What is the purpose of earthing the rice
cooker?
(c) What do you think the fuse ratings for fuses X
and Y should be?

Practical Electricity
 *n*
an innovative way of using electricity.

In one incident, a man threatened two policemen and lu

at them with a pole. Fortunately, the policemen were
subdue and immobilise him with a Taser X26 stun gun.

A Taser X26 looks like a plastic gun. lt fires

between two steel barbs attached to insulated wires
640 m long and is able to penetrate 5 cm of clothing.
gun then delivers 50000 V of electricity in short bursts,,

This amount of electricity is enough to cause involuntary

muscle contractions that momentarily immobilise the
suspect. The suspect will usually recover once the power
is cut by releasing the trigger. However, shocks applied for
an extended duration may cause the brain to take up to
15 minutes to re-establish control over the bodv.

Stun guns provide the SPF with a non-lethal alternative

to firearms. lt safely and easily immobilises a dangerous
suspect, without resulting in unnecessary deaths and injuries.

1, In groups, discuss the pros and cons of the SPF using

stun guns instead of conventional guns. Decide which
type of guns is more effective in fighting crime. Then,
find a group with an opposing view to debate the topic.
2 The steel barbs of a stun gun are lodged about
20 cm apart on the human body, and a high potential
difference is applied across these barbs to send a
current through the body. Discuss the effects on the
current if the barbs are lodged closer together or
farther aoart. t:.
A solar flare is an explosion observed on the surface of the Sun. lt is the most explosive
event in our solar system. Solar flares are caused by the magnetic interaction of
the Sun's plasma material. Magnetic forces exist on Earth too. What effects does
magnetism have on Earth? You will find the answer and more in this chapter.
 2O.t- Magnets and Magnetic Materials

Disc ety of magnetism

When the ancient Chinese first discovered the lodestone, they noticed it
always aligned itself in the north-south direction when suspended. lt could
therefore be used as a compass. The lodestone does this because it is a
natural magnet.

< A modern-day
navigation compass

hat are magnets?

Magnets are materials that have the properties shown in Figure 20.1.

agnets attraet a netie aterials"

The table below lists examples of magnetic and non-magnetic materials.

tron Wood

Cobalt Plastic
Nickel Brass

Try lt Out
Fill a small pail with water and place a small circular 4. Repeat step 3, but rotate the styrofoam in the
piece of styrofoam on the surface of the water. opposite direction.
Gently put a bar magnet on the floating styrofoam.
Gently rotate the styrofoam by a small angle and What do you observe about the direction of the magnet
observe the direction of the magnet after the after each rotation?
styrofoam stops moving.

Chapter 20
 e n€t$ have t s
o{es, iron filings
Oloserve what happens
when you sprinkle iron
filings onto a bar magnet.
Most of the iron filings are
attracted to the two ends
(poles) of the bar magnet.

The magnetic effects are

the strongest at the poles. r. Most of the iron filings are
attracted to the poles of the magnets.

wooden support (ruler or pencil)

fresly sus em{j* a net e* *s
t rest l* t n vt *$olrt ire ti n.
The end of the bar magnet that
ooints to the North Pole of the Earth
is called the north-seeking pole
(i.e. north pole or N pole) and the
opposite end, which points to the
South Pole of the Earth, is called
the south-seeking pole (i.e. south
pole or S pole). This property allows
magnets to be used as compasses.
^r A suspended magnet always
points in the north-south direction.

i I s re l, unli c olcs attvect.

We call this the law of magnetic poles.

lf we bring the S pole of a bar However, if we bring the N pole of

magnet near the N pole of a a bar magnet near the N pole of a
suspended bar magnet, the N pole suspended bar magnet, the magnets
of the suspended magnet will be will reoel each other. The same is
attracted to the approaching S pole. true if the S poles of two magnets
are brought together.

Figwe 2O.7-
^ cotton thread cotton thread
Propefties of magnets

attractlon repulsion

r Unlike ooles attract. r Like poles repel.

Magnetism
 How is a magnet identified?
Attraction can occur between two magnets, or between a magnet and
Magnetic repulsion an object that is made of an unmagnetised magnetic material. However,
is the only test to
magnetic repulsion can occur only between two magnets (Figure 20.2).
confirm whether an
object is a magnet.

Repulsion Magnet

Repulsion ;-----> Magnet

lvlove the other end

Move one end of
of the object near to
the object near the
pole of a suspended
Attraction ---------> the same pole of the
magnet to see whether
bar magnet.
repulsion occurs.
Unmagnetised
Attraction ------> magnetic
material
Remains Non-magnetic
stationary material e Figiure 20.2 Thought process for
determining whether a materiai is a magnet

From what you have learnt

so far, have you found the
answers to Let's Explore (a)?
?o.l
t. Give three examoles eachof vertical rod
(a) magnetic materials;
(b) non-magnetic materials. -
2. State the properties of
L. Every magnet has two poles magnets.
north pole (N pole) 3. In the set-uo shown in
-south pole (S pole). and Figure 20.3, the ring magnets
2. Like poles repel, unlike are found to float on top of nng
0oles attract. one another. Where are the magnets
3. Repulsion is the only sure poles of the magnets?
test to determine whether a
> Figure 20.3
given material is a magnet.

Levitation magic or science?

- the
Levitation is process by which people or objects are
> A magnet floats due to
repulsion by the magnetic
suspended in the air. This is sometimes seen in magic shows. field of a superconductor.

Some people believe that David Copperfield, a famous

magician, uses superconductors and magnetism in his
levitation acts. A magnet can levitate if it is placed over a
superconducting lead cup, due to magnetic repulsion. What
if a huge superconducting cup is hidden beneath the stage?
Do you think a magiclan wearing magnetic armour can then
fly from one end of the stage to the other?

Chapter 2O
20.2 Magneticlnduction > Figure 2O.4 Paper
clips attracted by
a magnet become
induced magnets that
attract other clips. Why
do they fan apart at the
lower ends?

How does a magnet attract iron?

When a paper clip is brought near a permanent magnet,
it is attracted to the magnet. When this happens, we say
the paper clip has become an induced magnet. In turn, clips at the lower
this induced magnet is able to attract other paper clips end fan apart
(Figure 20.4).

The process of induction does not require physical

contact. For example, in Figure 20.5, the magnet can
induce magnetism in the iron bar by simply being near
it. The N pole of the bar magnet induces an S pole in the
nearer end of the iron bar and an N pole in its farther end.

r Figure 2O.5 Magnetic induction

can happen without physical contact.

orked Cxamplc 2O.l

Figure 20.6 shows a magnet that is about to pick up an iron needle.
The north pole of the magnet is close to the centre of the needle.
What are the poles induced in the needle atX, Y andZ?

Solution
By magnetic induction, Y becomes an S pole, and X and Z
become N ooles. r Figute 2O.6

Note: At point Y on the needle, there are two induced

S poles, as shown in the diagram on the right. The
black arrows in the diagram represent tiny magnets with
arrowheads as N poles and arrow tails as S poles.

Magnetic induction is the In an experiment, a piece of wood is held between

process whereby magnetic the N pole of a magnet and two iron nails
materials become (Figure 20.7).
magnetised when they are (a) Although wood is a non-magnetic material,
near or in contact with a the two nails are still attracted to the magnet
permanent magnet. when the wood is held between the magnet
and the nails. Suggest a reason for this. iron nail
(b) lt is observed that the pointed tips of the
iron nails point away from each other. Why?
r. Figute 2O.7

Magnetism
 N S 20.3 Magnetisation and Demagnetisation

GGf,.]
Figure 20.8 Each resulting piece
^ the cut bar magnet is itself a
of
magnet. Theory of magnetism
lf we take a bar magnet and cut it into three smaller pieces, we will
notice that every piece becomes a magnet itself, with an N pole and an
S pole (Figure 20.8).

lf we continue cutting each piece into even smaller pieces, each

resulting piece will still be a magnet with two poles. We can thus see
the bar magnet as being made up of many such'tiny magnets', or
magnetic domains.
r Figure 20.9 Magnetic domains
in a bar magnet
What are magnetic domains?
Magnets are made of atoms. Physicists believe that the orbiting motion
of electrons around the nucleus of an atom makes the atom an atomic
magnet. A magnetic domain consists of a group of atomic magnets
Visit http://magnet.fsu edu pointing in the same direction (Figure 20.9).
to watch a simulation on
how magnetic domains in a
magnetic material behave What happens during magnetisation?
near a bar magnet. Use words In an unmagnetised material, the magnetic domains are randomly
such as "magnetisation" and aligned. During magnetisation, the magnetic domains become aligned
"magnetic domains". (Figure 20.tO).

The magnetic domains in an

unmagnetised bar point in random
d irections.
There is no net magnetisation because
the domains cancel one another out.

Magnetisation
-
magnetism is induced by
aligning the domains.
The magnetic domains point in the
same direction, producing a net '.t-: ,---:).
a+.), -:.;
magnetisation. magnetised
ised bar
Each arrow is arranged directly behind
the arrow in front of it. Therefore, ------>l---.--t. ' --------)' '-7 N

the N poles are cancelled out by the =-> -{- --------> ,4:" ----'
---------> -------->
adjacent S poles. __> N €t:
-------->
The atomic magnets at both the ends
are 'free'. This oroduces the effect of -> N
N or S ooles at the ends.
The atomic magnets at the ends tend
to fan out due to repulsion between
the like poles. Figure 20.10 Magnetisation causes the magnetic
^
domains to become aligned.

Ghapter 20
 induced poles

How should we store bar magnets?

Magnets will become weaker after some time if they are not
permanenr oar
stored properly. This is because the 'free' poles at the ends of
magnets
the magnet will repel one another, altering the magnetic domains. soft iron
To prevent this, bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron Keepers .( Soft iron keepers
keepers across the ends of the bar magnets. In this way, the poles help permanent bar
of the atomic magnets are in closed loops with no 'free' poles. magnets stay strongly
magnetised.

How do we magn ise and demagnetise magnetic materials?

A magnet can be magnetised by stroking or by the electrical method using a direct
current (Figure 20l-D.

v Figure 2O.11 Methods of magnetisation

The stroking magnet
should be lifted
sufficiently high above
the steel bar between
1. Stroking successive strokes.
rl
@ nn unmagnetised
steel bar is stroked
several times
from one end to @ fne pole produced at
the other, in one the end of the steel
direction, with one bar where the strokes
of the poles of a finish is opposite to
permanent magnet. steel bar the stroking pole used.

2. Electrical rnethod r.rsing a direct current

Methods of determining the poles of the magnet:
1,. Direction of current flowing at the ends
@ Wnen a large direct current flows lf the current at the end flows in
through coils of wire (a solenoid), a r
r a clockwise direction, that end will be
strong magnetic field is produced. :
the south pole.
. an anticlockwise direction, that end will
be the north pole.
2. Right-hand grip rule
@ fne magnetic field aligns o Grip the solenoid using the right hand.
the magnetic domains in . Curl the fingers in the direction of the
the steel bar. current flow in the solenoid.
. The extended thumb will ooint in the
direction of the north oole.

@ ntter a period of right hand

time, the steel bar
will be magnetised.
f,
N(\
clockwise anticlockwise

steel bar
r Determining the magnetic poles

You will learn about the magnetic

effect of a current in Chaoter 21. Magnetism
 A magnet can be demagnetised by heating, hammering or the electrical
method using an alternating current (Figure 20.I2).

" *atln
Strongly heating a magnet and letting it cool in an east-west
orientation will cause the magnet to lose its magnetism. The
atoms of the magnet vibrate vigorously when heated, causing
the magnetic domains to lose their alignment.

, a ertcl
Hammering a magnet placed in the east-west direction alters
the alignment of the magnetic domains, causing the magnet to
lose its magnetism.
r Demagnetising a
magnet by hammering it

" N*ctriea* *t s r*sln an alterriatl*r eurrent

Place a magnet inside Withdraw the magnet

a solenoid in the with the alternating
east-west direction. current still flowing in the
solenoid, until it is some
distance away.

Link
You will learn about Connect the solenoid to an alternating
alternating current in current (a,c.) supply. (An alternating
Chapter 22. current is an electric current that varies
its direction many times per second).

r Figlure 20.12 Methods of demagnetisation

From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)?

agnetising a 1. State the difference between an unmagnetised steel

magnetic material: bar and a magnetised steel bar in terms of their
(a) Stroking the magnetic magnetic domains.
material with a 2. A magnet is placed in a solenoid carrying an alternating
permanent magnet current and withdrawn slowly in the east-west direction
(b) Placing the magnetic until it is far away from the solenoid. Explain what will
material in a solenoid happen to the magnet, in terms of its magnetic domains.
carrytng a large 3. A steel bar can be
direct current magnetised by stroking
2. To demagnetise a magnet, we can it with two magnets as
(a) heat the magnet; shown in Figure 2O.t3.
(b) hammer the magnet; Mark the resulting poles
(c) withdraw the magnet from a of the steel bar on
solenoid through which an Figure 20.13.
alternating current passes. r Figure 20.13

Chapter 20
2O.4 Magnetic Fields
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
draw the magnetic field patterns of interacting magnets;
. describe how to plot the magnetic field lines of a magnet using
a comoass.

hat are magnetic fields?

ln Section 20.2,we learntthat a magnet induces magnetism
in an iron bar placed close to it. This is possible because
magnets produce magnetic fields around them.

A magnetic field is invisible. lt can be visualised as imaginary

magnetic lines of fotce surrounding the magnet. These lines
give the direction and strength of the field. The arrangement
of a group of magnetic lines of force is called a magnetic
field pattern.

The magnetic field pattern of a magnet can be revealed by

. sprinkling iron filings around it (Figure 20.14); r, Fiture 2O.L4 The magnetic field
o plotting it with a compass, as described in Investigation 20.1. pattern of a bar magnet made visible by
iron filings sprinkled around it

The Earth's magnetic field

The Earth behaves as if it has a large imaginary
magnet within it. While the origin of the Earth's
magnetic field is not completely understood,
rotation
scientists believe that it is probably caused ...-----.--\ magnetic North Pole
by electric currents circulating within the core geographic North Pole --*-'------'
of the Earth. These currents are believed to
be caused by convection currents inside the
Earth's molten outer core.

The imaginary magnet within the Earth has the

imaginary 'S' pole at the magnetic north and
the 'N' pole at the magnetic south. In this way,
a freely suspended magnet will have its N pole
seeking the 'S' pole of the imaginary magnet
and its S pole seekin€ the 'N' pole of the
imaginary magnet.

The compass or magnet points to the magnetic

North Pole of the Earth. However, the magnetic
poles and geographic poles of the Earth do not
coincide. In fact, the position of the magnetic
poles changes every few years. Find out more
about the magnetic poles of the Earth and their r The magnetic field of the Eafth is approximately equivalent to
movement, using the Internet. that of an imaginary gigantic bar magnet at the centre of the Earth.

Magnetism
!mvesti ati n
N
&bjeetive
To plot magnetic field lines of a bar magnet with a compass
I
T
Apparatus
Bar magnet, plotting compass, plain paper, pencil

Froeedure
1,. Place the bar magnet at the centre of the paper so that its N pole r Figure 20.15 The
points to the north and its S pole points to the south (Figure 201-5). N pole of the magnet
2. Starting near one pole of the magnet, mark the positions of the ooints to the north.
ends, S and N, of the compass needle with pencil dots X and Y
respectively. Move the compass so that the S end is at Y and mark plotting compass
the new position of the N end with a third dot 7 (Figure 20.1-6).
3. Repeat the process of marking the dots until you reach the other
pole. Join the dots and this will give a single magnetic field line.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3, starting at different points nearthe N pole
until several field lines have been drawn.

Pree autisns
7. Check that the compass needle is free to rotate about the pivot at
its centre.
2. Ensure that there is no strong magnetic field (other than the Earth's r Figure 20.16 The
poles of the plotting
magnetic field) and no electric current near the apparatus
compass are marked
by pencil dots.
Eiscusslom
The magnetic field plot obtained
m ic field line

should be similar to the one shown in l

Figure 20.tT. Oi"t* N"t.
The direction of the
magnetic field at any
The north pole of a magnet placed point is given by the
in the magnetic field will experience tangent drawn to the line
a magnetic force in the direction of of force at that point.
these field lines.

> Figure 2O.L7 Magnetic field

lines around a bar magnet

The following principles apply when drawing

magnetic field lines:
L Magnetic field lines are directed outward
from the N pole and towards the S pole.
2. Magnetic field lines do not cross or
intersect one another.
3, To represent strong magnetic fields, the r The direction of the
magnetic field lines
field lines are drawn closer together, Field is indicated by the
lines drawn farther apart represent a direction of the plotting
weaker magnetic field. compass needles.

Experiment 17
Will the magnetic field pattern be symmetrical if
the bar magnet is placed in the E-W direction?

Chapter 20
 Magnetic field lines between magnets
The magnetic field patterns between tike and unlike poles are shown in
Figures 2O.t8 and 20.19.

1,. Two unlike poles (N pole and S pole)

a Figule 20.18(b) Magnetic field pattern between unlike

poles revealed by iron filings

the neutral

ln Figure 20.L9(a), pointX is called a neutral point because the fields

from
both magnets cancel each other out at that point. Therefore, the magnets Quick Gheck
produce no magnetic effect at X, as indicated by the absence
of magnetic Sketch the magnetic
field lines at that point. field pattern between
the S poles of two bar
Figure 2O.2O shows the magnetic field patterns of two pairs of parallel magnets.
Dar magnets.

.3
S

i
.\

Magnetism
 Magnetic shielding
Magnetic fields may affect the proper functioning of equipment like magnetic
resonance imaging (MRl) equipment and computer hard drives. To prevent
the surrounding magnetic fields from reaching the sensitive areas of these
equipment, we use magnetic shielding (Figure 20.2L).

In magnetic shielding, thin sheets of soft magnetic materials like iron or

MuMetal (a nickel-iron alloy) are used to divert the magnetic fields that are
present. They are able to do this because magnetic field lines tend to pass
within them.

Magnetic field lines coming out of the The field lines, after passing through the soft
N pole 'prefer' to pass within the soft iron, are 'forced' to come out and enter the
iron sheet rather than through air. S pole of the magnet to form closed loops.

Equipment placed within the

container will experience no
closed hollow magnetic field.

cross-secflon
of iron sheet
(b) Magnetic shielding using a hollow iron
container. The region within the iron
The region on this side of the soft iron container has no magnetic field.
sheet is free from the magnetic field.

(a) Magnetic shielding using an iron sheet

r Figure 20.2L Magnetic shielding

From what you have

learnt so far, have you
t. The magnetic field around a magnet can be plotted with the help of a
compass. The direction of the magnetic field at a point is given by the
found the answers to
direction of the compass needle at that point.
Let's Explore (c)? 2. Magnetic materials such as iron can be used to provide shielding from
surrounding magnetic fields.

(a) Draw, on Figure 20.22, the magnetic field lines between the
S poles of the two magnets.
(b) The circle in Figure 20.22 compass
represents a compass placed at
that position. Draw an arrow in the
circle to show the direction that
20 the compass needle points in'
chapter t Figwe 2O.22
 Try the following activity with a classmate. You will 4. Replace the ice cream stick with an aluminium
need pieces of cardboard, magnets, paper clips, a strip. What do you think will happen to the
wooden strip (an ice cream stick), an aluminium strip paper clips?
and an iron strio. 5. Now replace the aluminium strip with the
1-. Using the pieces of cardboard, construct a iron strip (a magnetic material). The paper
'cardboard sandwich' with a thin slot that allows clips directly below the strip will fall off. This
the insertion of various strips. demonstrates that the strip of iron shields the
2. Place the magnets on top of the cardboard paper clips from the magnet's magnetic field.
sandwich. At the bottom of the cardboard
sandwich, allow some paper clips to be attracted
to the magnets.
3. Insert the wooden strip (an ice cream stick) into
the slot. Note that nothing happens to the
paper clips.

\
$
r Insertion of a non-magnetic material a Insefting an iron strip between the magnets
has no effect on the paper clips. and paper clips causes the clips to fall.

2O.5 Temporary and Permanent Magnets

Learning Outcome You should be able to:
o -
distinguish between temporary magnets (e.9. iron) and permanent magnets
(e.9. steel) in terms of their properties and uses.

Soft and hard magnetic materials

Both iron and steel are magnetic materials. However, iron and steel have
different magnetic properties. This can be observed in lnvestigation 20.2.

!nvesti atlom
Objeetive
To compare the magnetic properties of iron and steel

6rparatus
Bar magnet, iron and steel bars of equal dimensions (20 cm in iron paper clips

Froe edure
1. Let the N pole of the bar magnet attract one end of the iron bar. Dip the other end of the iron
bar into a tray of paper clips. Record the maximum number of paper clips that are attracted to it.
2. Pull the magnet away from the iron bar. Observe what happens to the paper clips. Record the
number of paper clips still attracted to the iron bar.
3. Now repeat steps 1 and 2 using the steel bar in place of the iron bar.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 and observe whether there are consistent differences in the observations
between the iron and steel bars.

Magnetism
 $cfv;?tiesi an csutts

Many paper clips Fewer paper clips

were attracted to the were attracted to the lron is a stronger
iron bar. steel bar. induced magnet
than steel.

I
ed away t lifted away
All the paper clips Some paper clips
lron loses its
dropped off when the were still attracted
magnetism
magnet was lifted to the steel bar
easily, but steel
from the iron bar. when the magnet
does not.
was lifted away.

F€
on*!usion
The different magnetic properties of iron and steel are summarised in the table below:

It is easily magnetised to become a stronger r lt is difficult to magnetise. Hence, it becomes a

induced magnet. weaker induced magnet.
It loses its magnetism easily. o lt does not lose its magnetism easily.

lron is a soft magnetic material, whereas steel is a hard magnetic material.

Table 20.1 comoares these two tvpes of materials.

v Table 20.1 Comparison between soft and hard magnetic materials

Easily magnetised and Difficult to magnetise

Properties
demagnetised and demagnetise

Steel, alnico,
Example(s) tron
neodymium

Used to make Temporary magnets Permanent magnets

Magnets are used in many devices. Permanent magnets are used when a
constant magnetic field is needed, whereas temporary magnets are used
when a changing magnetic field is needed. The function of some devices,
such as the loudspeaker and moving-coil ammeter, depend on the interaction
of the magnetic fields of permanent and temporary magnets.

Some uses of permanent and temporary magnets are shown in Figure 20.23
on the next page.
Chapter 20
v Figure 20.23 Uses of magnets

e rxetie esr eatches

Magnetic strips made of permanent magnets
are fitted to the door of a refrigerator. This
ensures that the refrigerator is airtight when
the door is shut against the steel frame.

etivatisri *f re* s it* es

A reed switch consists of a oair of soft iron When a magnet is placed near the reeds, the
or nickel-iron alloy strips (known as reeds) reeds are temporarily magnetised and attract
sealed inside a glass tube. There is a each other, closing the switch.
small gap between the reeds.
When the magnet is removed, the reeds
are demagnetised and spring back to their
original positions, thus opening
the switch.

terminal B terminal A

The reed switch can be installed

(a) as a safety switch that automatically opens when the door is opened. For example, a washing
machine switches off immediately when its door is opened while the tub is spinning.
(b) to inform users when doors are properly shut. For example, some deep freezers have indicator
lamps that light up when the door is shut.

reed switch
opened
reed switch
|a^i^^+
I lldEl
-tJ
lgt
^ closed
-

door closed

When the door is closed, the magnet causes When the door is opened, the contact points
the contact points to be magnetised as of both reeds are separated from each other.
unlike poles. The contact points attract each This opens the switch.
other and the circuit is closed.

iee tr* agnets

Electromagnets are magnets that form when a current flows
through a coil. This magnetic field can induce magnetism in a
soft magnetic material to produce a temporary magnet.

Cranes that help separate magnetic materials from

non-magnetic materials in scrapyards use electromagnets.

An electromagnet is a type of temporary magnet. Placing a

soft magnetic material within an electromagnet produces
a stronger temporary magnet. You will learn more about
this in Chapter 21.
Magnetism
 20.s
1-. Temporary magnets are made of soft L. Figure 20.24 shows an experiment in which magnets
magnetic materials. A soft magnetic are clamoed to the ends of three metal bars. Each
material can be easily magnetised metal bar is made of a different metal brass, iron
and demagnetised.
- up
or steel. The number of iron tacks picked by each
2. Permanent magnets are made of metal bar is shown in the figure. ldentify metals 1, 2
hard magnetic materials. A hard and 3, and explain your answer.
magnetic material is harder to
magnetise. After being magnetised,
clamp
it does not lose its magnetism easily.
3. Temporary magnets are used
in cranes to separate magnetic
materials in scrapyards. metal metal 2
4. Permanent magnets are used in
magnetic door catches and to rron
activate reed switches. tacks
t Fiture 20.24
2. ldentify and name three appliances or devices in your
house that use permanent magnets.

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

,-r
(c) All materials can be induced to become magnets. When materials are induced to :

i 20.2
' become magnets, their magnetic domains pbint in the same direction. :
: 20.3

A direct current flowing through a solenoid is used to induce magnetism in an ' ,

(d) iron bar, whereas an alternating current flowingthrough a solenoid is used to I zv.5
demagnetise a magnet.
"**-I
j
magnetic field lines of a magnet point away from its south pole and towards
(e) i The 20.4
its north pole.
1

I Permanent magnets are made of hard magnetic materials such as steel and
(f) j neodymium, whereas temporary magnets are made of soft magnetic materials 20.5
such as iron.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 20
 Magnetisation through
. strokinEl (hard magnetic
material only);
o electrical method using
direct current.

rel

. Magnetic door catches Electromagnets

o Activation of reed switches

Magnetism
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 5. Which diagram shows the most effective method
of demagnetising a permanent magnet using a
1,. Electromagnets are commonly used in solenoid?
scrapyards to pick up metals. Which metals
will be picked up?
A Aluminium and brass
B Brass and copper
C Copper and iron
D lron and steel
2. Which question should you ask to determine magnet left in place magnet withdrawn
before switching off
whether a material is magnetic or non-magnetic?
A ls it a metal or a non-metal?
B ls it a conductor or an insulator?
C Can it be given an electric charge?
D Does it affect the direction in which a
compass needle points?

3. An iron bar is placed near a magnet as shown magnet left in place magnet withdrawn
before switching off
below.

6. The figure below shows part of a magnetic

relay. M is the magnet located inside the coil.
L is the armature that is attracted to M when
a current flows through the coil. S is the stud
that cushions the impact of L on M during
magnet attraction. lt prevents L and M from being
damaged during collision.
iron bar

Which diagram correctly shows the induced

magnetism in the iron bar?

Which of the following gives the best combination

4. A small compass is placed near the centre of of materials for M, L and S respectively?
a bar magnet. A lron. iron. iron
B lron. iron. rubber
compass C lron, copper, rubber
D Copper, copper, copper

In which direction will the compass needle point?

ABCD

@@@@
Chapter 20
Section B: Structured Questions (ii) Name the effect the iron sheet has on
the magnet. State one application of
L. (a) Distinguish between magnetic and such an effect.
non-magnetic materials.
(b) In Figure 20.25, draw the magnetic field
lines between the poles of the magnets.
Section G: Free-Response Questions
t. (a) Describe the difference when a north pole is
brought near the south pole of a bar magnet
and when the north pole is brought near the

(v (b)
north pole of a bar magnet.

f-._-l
hA^N.l
E-l (i)
r, Figure 20.28

A soft iron bar placed near a bar

( ii) ( iii)
magnet will be induced to become
r, Figure 20.25 a magnet. Draw the magnetic field
oattern of the soft iron bar shown in
2. Figure 20.26 shows a rod of unmagnetised steel Figure 20.28. Indicate the poles of
olaced inside a solenoid. the induced magnet and the direction
of the field lines.
N N

I (ii) With the aid of a diagram, outline

T how you can check your answer
in (i) with an experiment using a
compass plotting compass.
neeote (c) Distinguish between temporary magnets and
r Figure 20.26 permanent magnets.

(a) Draw the direction in which the compass *2. (a) A solenoid is used to magnetise a metal
needle will be deflected when the switch
rod. Suggest two ways by which the strength
is closed.
of the magnet produced can be increased.
(b) Describe the motion of the compass needle (b) With the aid of a circuit diagram, describe
when the switch is ooened some time later.
how you would magnetise a steel spoon
(c) Describe how the experimental set-up in
such that the N pole is at the handle. The
Figure 20.26 can be used to distinguish
materials and apparatus available to you
a steel rod from an iron rod. List any are listed below:
addltional materials that will be used.
(d) 1,. 9 V battery
Suggest two methods that can be used 2. Solenoid
to demagnetise a bar magnet. 3. IO,2 O and 3 f) resistors
Note that the maximum safe current is
3. You are given a bar magnet that is 45 mm
4.5 A and that the solenoid has negligible
long and 15 mm wide. resistance.
(a) Draw a diagram (to scale) of the magnet
and the expected magnetic field pattern
produced by it.
(b) (i) A sheet of soft iron is folded around
the magnet, as shown in Figure 20.27.
Sketch the new expected magnetic
field oattern,

< Figure 2O.27

Magnetism
 i-t

A rail gun is a type of gun that launches projectiles using

electricity instead of chemical propellants. Most modern-day
military projectiles use some form of chemical propellant --
bullets use gunpowder, and missiles and rockets use solid,,,:
propellants.

In a rail gun, two rails provide a current that flows through

magnetrc
the projectile's casing. The current in the projectile's casing,l: field
interacts with the magnetic field produced by the rails and
this results in a large forward force. The magnitude of the
force generated allows the projectiles of a rail gun to be,
fired much more quickly than traditional projectiles that use ,

propellants. (You will learn how current-carrying conductors

experience a force in a magnetic field in Chapter 21.)

Rail-gun projectiles rely on their raw speed to cause damage,;r

and therefore do not need exolosives to be attached to
them. This reduces the weisht of the ammunition and allows
more ammunition to be carried in tanks or vessels.

Louis Octave Fauchon-Villeolee invented an electric cannon

that worked on the same principles. Today, the U.S. Navy
is researching the possibility of deploying such weapons.
The only problem, it seems, is the huge amount of electrical
energy needed to launch the projectiles. The energy needed
is of the order of tens of megajoules, which is hard to
oroduce on shios.

-.!q

1-. While researching the rail-gun technology for military

purposes, the U.S. Navy gave the project the motto 't
1,
" Velocitas Eradico," which is Latin for "Speed Destroys".
Based on the concepts you have learnt in Chapter 6, )
why do you think this motto was chosen for the project?
z Besides rail-gun technology for military use, magnets
are also used in the medical field. In groups, find out
some common medical uses of magnets.
 27-.L Magnetic Effect of a Current
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. draw the pattern of -the magnetic field caused by currents in straight wires and
solenoids;
o state the effect of changing the magnitude or direction of a current on the
magnetic field;
. describe how the magnetic effect of a current is applied in a circuit breaker.

ln t82O, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish professor, discovered

the magnetic effect of an electric current by chance. During a class
demonstration, he noticed that when a current was flowing through a wire,
it caused the needle of a compass nearby to be deflected. This indicated
the presence of a magnetic field. Oersted's observation eventually led to
the discovery of electromagnetism the relationship between electricity
and magnetism. -
Visit http://magnet.fsu.
edu. Search the website
for a simulation on the
magnetic effect of a
Oersted's expeilment
current. Use keylvords Figure 21.1 shows the result of Oersted's experiment. Note that wire XY
such as "Oersted" and was placed in the north-south direction. Oersted's experiment showed that
"current". a magnetic field was present when a current flowed through wire XY.

compass B compass B
(below wire) (below wire)

compass A compass A
(above wire) (above wire)

No current flowed through XY. The needles Current flowed through XY. The needle of compass
of both compasses pointed to the north. A (placed above the wire) pointed to the east.
The needle of compass B (placed below the wire)
oointed to the west.

(a) Open circuit (b) Closed circuit

r Figure 2L.l The positions of the needles of compasses A and B in Oersted's experiment

Chapter 21
 Magnetic field patterns

lnvestigation 2t.t describes an experiment that

the magnetic field pattern around a straight current-carrying wire.

Investigation Pl.l
Objective
To plot magnetic field lines around a straight
cardboard
current-carrying wire with a compass

Apparatus
Straight wire, plotting compass, cardboard, pencil,
e.m.f. source
r Figure 21 .2 A wire threaded through a
cardboard sheet
Procedure
t. Thread a wire through a small hole in a sheet of
cardboard. The wire should be perpendicular to
the cardboard sheet (Figure 27.2). Connect the
wire to an e.m.f. source such that the current cardboard
flows up the wire,
2. Place a comoass on the cardboard sheet.
3. On the cardboard sheet, mark the positions of
the S and N ends of the compass needle with r, Figure 21.3 The positions of the S and N ends of
pencil dots X and Y respectively. the compass needle are marked with pencil dots.
4. Move the compass so that the S end of the
needle is now at Y (Figure 21.3).
5. Mark the new position of the N end of the needle current 1
with a third dot Z.
magnetic
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, placing the compass at field line
different distances from the wire until several plotting compass
field lines are drawn.

Observation and Discussion

. The magnetic field plot obtained consisted of straight wire
concentric circles (Figure 21.4).
. The circles nearer the wire were closer to one r Fiture 2L.4 The magnetic field
pattern of a straight wire
another. This implies that the magnetic field was
stronger at regions nearer the wire.

We can determine the direction of the magnetic field around the wire using
the right-hand grip rule (Figure 21.5).
Recall what you have
learnt about the
@ Crip the wire with your @ ffre direction in which right-hand grip rule in
right hand such that your fingers curl Chapter 20.
your thumb points in the indicates whether
direction of current flow. the magnetic field
is clockwise or
> Figure 21.5 The anticlockwise. Using the right-hand
right-hand grip rule grip rule, determine the
direction of the magnetic
field in Figure 21.4 when
the current is reversed.

Electromagnetism
 The factors that affect the direction and strength of a magnetic field around
a current-carrying straight wire are shown in Figures 21.6 and 21.7.

(a) Dilection of current reversed

represents current represents current
flowing out of the flowing into the
plane of the paper plane of the paper
towards you away from you

\I

magnetic field
is clockwise
wtre wrre
r Figure 21.6 When the direction of the current is reversed,
the direction of the magnetic field is reversed.

(b) Magnitude of current increased

When drawing the

magnetic field around a
straight current-carrying
wire, remember that
the magnetic field
lines should be farther wire carrying current 4 wire carrying current 1,
apart with increasing
distance from the wire. r Figure 21.7 When the current is increased from I to 1,, the
strength of the magnetic field increases.

Note that the strength of the magnetic field around the wire is not uniform.
lt depends on the distance from the wire. The magnetic field is stronger
closer to the wire. This is represented by drawing the magnetic field lines
closer together near the wire.

Figure 21.8 shows the magnetic field pattern of a flat coil. The closer
magnetic field lines at the centre of the flat coil mean that the magnetic
field in the centre is stronger.
r Figure 21.8
The magnetic field
pattern of a flat coil

Chapter 21
Figure 21.9 shows the magnetic field pattern of a solenoid. You can use the
_-______-_>_
right-hand grip rule to
deduce which end of
a solenoid the north
pole is.
thumb points to N pole

(\s
fingers indicate current direction

r Figfure 27..9 Diagram of the magnetic

L. Using the right-hand
field lines of a solenoid
grip rule, determine
the N pole of the
From Figure 2I.9, we observe the following: solenoid in Figure
.The magnetic field paitern of a solenoid resembles that of a bar magnet. 21.9.
. Thus, the solenoid acts like a bar magnet. lt has two poles and can be 2. lf the direction of
used as an electromagnet. current flow in
o The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are closer together than the Figure 21.9 were
reversed, which
field lines outside. This means that the magnetic field inside the solenoid
end of the solenoid
is stronger. The magnetic field inside the solenoid can be taken to would the N pole be?
be uniform.

In addition, if a soft iron core is placed within the solenoid, it will concentrate
the magnetic field lines and increase the magnetic field strength of the
solenoid.

1,. Set up an electromagnet using a long iron nail, a length

of insulated copper wire, batteries, a switch, connecting
wires and crocodile clios.
Test how the number of turns of copper wire around
the iron nail affects the number of safety pins the
electromagnet is able to attract.
Note that the copper wires can get very hot when the
circuit is closed!
Place a compass near one end of the electromagnet.
What pole does the compass needle point to? What
happens if you reverse the terminals of the battery? r Creating an electromagnet

Electromagnetism
 Circuit breakers an application of electromagnetism
-
A circuit breaker (Figure 21.70) is a safety device that switches off the
electrical supply when there is excessive current flow. Figure 2t.tt shows
how an electromagnet inside the circuit breaker enables it to work.

*.- (a) Under normal conditions

When the switch is in the 'on'
position, current flows from T,
to T2 through the solenoid and
interrupt safety bar stationary contact.
point with spring

When the current is below the

limit (e.9. less than 20 A), the
magnetic field of the solenoid is
r Figure 21.10
not strong enough to attract the
A circuit breaker soft iron latch.

The safety bar stays in position

stationary contact and the interrupt point remains
closed. Current flows normally
through the circuit.

A short circuit or overloading

(b) After a surge in current can cause a surge in current
(e.9. more than 20 A).

safety bar pushed

interrupt point opens outwards by spring
The larger current causes the
solenoid to become a strong
electromagnet that can attract the
soft iron latch.
Link This releases the spring, which
You learnt about pushes the safety bar outwards
the function of such that the switch is in the 'off'
circuit breakers position and the interrupt point
soft iron latch
in Chapter 19. is open. There is a break in the
attracted by
circuit and current no longer flows
through it.

After the fault has been identified and repaired, we can reset the circuit
How do we investigate the breaker by pushing the switch to the 'on' position. This closes the interrupt
effect of current size on point and sets the circuit breaker back to default mode, as shown in
electrom agnetic strength? Figure 21J,1(a).

Floating ttains
The magnetic levitation, or Maglev, train floats above train tracks. The advantages of
the Maglev train include higher efficiency (less energy is used to overcome friction), and
less air and noise pollution. A technology used for the Maglev train is electrodynamic
suspension (EDS). This technology uses superconductors as repelling electromagnets to
propel the train forward. The current in a conducting coil on the train flows in a direction
opposite to that in a coil on the track, resulting in repulsion. This repulsion raises the train
such that it is no longer in contact with the tracks. The Japanese Shinkansen train, one of
the fastest trains in the world, uses the EDS system. Should Singapore consider building
Maglev trains to replace Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) trains? What do you think, and why?

Chapter 21
 From what you have learnt so far, have you
1,. A straight current-carrying wire produces
found the answers to Let's Explore (a)?
circular magnetic field lines around it. The
magnetic field is stronger at regions nearer
the wire.
2. A current-carrying solenoid has a magnetic
field pattern similar to that of a bar magnet.
3. The magnetic field strength of a current-
carrying conductor can be increased by 1,. Figure 21.12 shows a current flowing in a long
increasing the magnitude of the current or straight wire. ln the figure, draw the pattern
by increasing the number of turns (if the and direction of the magnetic field produced.
conductor is a solenoid).
4. Reversing the direction of the current in a #
conductor will reverse the direction of its
magnetic field. w
The right-hand grip rule can be used to
determine the direction of the current or
magnetic field of a current-carrying straight
wire or solenoid: current 1

t Fitwe 2L.L2
Thumb Direction of
indicates magnetic field 2. (a) Draw the magnetic field lines around a
or the N pole current-carrying solenoid.
(b) Name three ways to increase the
Fingers Direction of Direction of magnetic field strength of a solenoid.
indicate ... magnetic field cu rrent 3. What would happen if the iron core of the
solenoid in a circuit breaker were replaced
6. Electromagnetism is used in circuit breakers. with a steel one? Whv?

27-.2 The Motor Effect

Force due to Magnetic Fields
-
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe experiments that demonstrate
- the force acting on a current-carrying conductor and on a beam of charged
particles in a magnetic field;
- the effect of reversing the direction of the current or magnetic field on the force.
. deduce the relative directions of force, magnetic field and current using Fleming's
left-hand rule;
. explain the magnetic field patterns between parallel current-carrying conductors
and relate these oatterns to the forces that exist between the conductors.

Force on a cuffent-caffying conductol

In the previous section, we learnt that a current-carrying wire produces a
magnetic field around it. What happens if the current-carrying conductor is
placed in another magnetic field?

lnvestigation 21.2 describes an experiment to demonstrate the motor effect.

Electromagnetism
 CImvestigati m L

0bjective
To demonstrate that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor when it is placed in
a
magnetic field (i.e. the motor effect)

Apparatus
Stiff wire, strong permanent U-shaped magnet, 9 V dry cell, switch, connecting
wires
Froeedure
1,. Bend a stiff wire into the shape of a swing ABCD (Figure 2r.13).
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 21.!3. The wire 9 V dry cell
swing is connected to a dry ceil and a switch by copper
3. Close the switch. Observe the direction in which the
wires. r
wtre swtngs. strong magnet
4' Reverse the porarity of the dry ceil to reverse the direction
of the current and repeat step 3. In which direction does the
swing move now?
5. Invert the magnet so that the N pore is now above the wire
section BC. Repeat step 3.

Observation
1,. When current flowed in the direction A-->B+C_+p, the wire
swung outwards, away from the magnet. A
2. When the direction of the current was reversed, the
in the wire
opposite direction, i.e. it swung inwards, towards th a
3. When the magnetic field was reversed, the wire swu
again.

In all three scenarios, we observe that the wire moved when

current flowed through it.
This shows that a force acts on a current-carrying wire when it placed
is in a mag'netic field.

direction of:
* magnetic field From Investigation 21.2, the following conclusions can be made:
current
-* force

< Force, current

and magnetic field
are at right angles.

we can deduce the direction of the force acting on a current- carryingconductor

force (thumb)
in a magnetic fierd using Freming's reft-hand rure (Figure 2r.!4).

magnetic field
(forefinge0 @ eoint your thumb, forefinger and second finger at right angres
to
one another.

@ eoint your forefinger in the direction of the magnetic field (N-to-s

direction) and your second finger in the direction of the cuirenr.
current
(second finger)

t Figute 21,.L4
Fleming's left-hand rule

Chapter 21
 orked €xample ?l.l
Figure 21,.L5 shows a wire placed between two
magnetic poles. State what happens when the
current in the wire flows from
(a) A to B;
(b) B to A.
r Figute 21.15
Solution
(a) When a current-carrying wire is placed in
a magnetic field, a force acts on it. Using
Fleming's left-hand rule, we find that the force
acts vertically downwards on the wire.
(b) Using Fleming's left-hand rule, we find that the
force acts vertically upwards on the wire.
A

r The force acts vertically downwards

when current flows from A to B.

To explain the motor effect, we must examine what happens when the
magnetic field due to the current in a wire is combined with that of a magnet
(Figure 2t.t5).
S
wire inserted
between two 'direction of force
magnetic poles
AA
itil etiii F1
(weaker
magnetic field)

(a) Magnetic field due (b) Magnetic field between (c) Combined magnetic field of
to current in wire two magnetic poles wire and magnetic poles

;,:i$-,1.':"ll"Jl;t#:il"i?:Tr;newhenacurrent-carrying

From Figure 2!.I6(c), we can see that at point A, the magnetic fields
produced by the current-carrying wire and by the magnetic poles act in the
same direction, reinforcing each other. Thus, the magnetic field at point A
is stronger. At point B, since the magnetic field of the current-carrying wire
is in the opposite direction to that due to the magnetic poles, the combined
magnetic field is weaker.

fhe difference between the magnetic field strength at A and at B results in

a net force acting on the wire. The force acts towards the weaker field.

Electromagnetism
 rces between two parallel current-caryin$
Visit http://www. magnet.
conductors
fsu.edu to understand When we place two current-carrying conductors parallel to each other,
the repulsive forces the magnetic fields of both wires combine. The combined magnetic field
between current-carrying results in forces acting on each conductor.
conductors. Use keywords
such as "parallel wires".
Figure 2Lt7 shows the forces that act on two parallel strips of aluminium
foil carrying currents in opposite directions.

Explanation: To understand the repulsion of the aluminium foil strips, consider the
cross-section (top view) of a pair of parallel current-carrying wires.

current 1

current 1 aluminium foil

strips repelled
by each other

currents in opposite directions combined magnetic field gives

rise to repulsive forces being
exerted on the wires

r Figure 21,.L7 Parallel aluminium foil strips carrying current in opposite directions repel each other.

In the case of parallel

current-carrying
conductors, each
conductor orovides the
external magnetic field
Figure 2t.tB shows the forces that act on two parallel strips of aluminium
for the other conductor. foil carrying currents in the same direction.

aluminium foil
strips attracted
to each other
current 1 current 1
currents in the same directions combined magnetic field gives
rise to attractive forces being
exerted on the wires

r Figure 2L.L8 Parallel aluminium foil strips carrying currents in the same direction attract each other.

Chapter 21
Force on a beam of char d pafticles in a
magnetic field
ln Chapter t7 , we learnt that current consists of moving charges. A current-
carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field.
Since a beam of charged particles is essentially a line of charged particles, Recall from Chapter 17
we can examine the effects of a magnetic field on a beam of charged that in this book, the
particles by examining the effect of a magnetic field on a single moving le(m current refers to
conventional current,
charge.
i.e. the 'movement'
of positive charges,
unless otherwise
Figure 21.19 shows the force acting on a positively-charged particle moving stated.
through a magnetic field.

magnetic field into the plane of the

@ Positively-charged
paper (away from you)

XXX X
@ uslng Fleming's force
X X,XX X left-hand rule, we
can deduce that the
4
I
I

XXXXX positive charge is

deflected uowards
l+ current
magnetic field
XXXXX in a circular oath.

r Figure 21.19 Deflection of a positively-charged pafticle in a magnetic field

Figure 2t.2O shows what would happen to the force if the positive charge in
Figure 2t.tg were replaced with a negative charge (e.9. an electron).

@ Negatively-charged
particle tr
intoama X X X X X
XXXXX in a circular path. force
negatively-ch
particle ..\ Note that the direction of the current
is opposite to the motion of the
XXXXX negative charge.

r Figure 21.20 Deflection of a negatively-charged pafticle in the same magnetic field

Electromagnetism
 Other than the charge of the particles, what do you think affects the direction
When using Fleming's
of the force acting on the particles? Figure 2I.2I shows what happens to
left-hand rule,
we should apply
the force acting on the positively-charged particle (in Figure 21.19) if the
the direction of magnetic field is reversed.
conventional current.
The direction of
electron flow (a Positively-charged Using Fleming's magnetic field
beam of negative particle travelling into left-hand rule,
charges) is opposite a magnetic field we can deduce i --> current

to the direction of that the positive

conventional current charge is deflected force
(a beam of positive downwards in a
charges). circular path.

oo oo
oo o o- magnetic field out of
the plane of the paper
positively-charged
particle
o..' oo (towards you)

What is the effect of ooo o

a magnetic field on a r Fiture 2L.2L The positively-charged particle is deflected downwards when the
stationary charge? magnetic field is reversed.

From what you have 7,. Figure 2L.22 shows a current-carrying wire placed
learnt so far, have you between the poles of a magnet.
found the answers to wtre
Let's Explore (b)?

When placed in a magnetic field, a

current-carrying conductor or a beam t Figure 2L.22
of charged particles experiences a (a) On the diagram, mark the direction of the
force. This force is reversed when the force acting on the wire AB.
direction of the current or magnetic (b) What happens to the motion of the wire AB
field is reversed. if the poles of the magnets are reversed?
2. The direction of the force can be 2. Consider two parallel wires with currents flowing
determined using Fleming's left-hand in the same direction.
rule. The force, current and magnetic (a) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on
field are at right angles to one another. each wire.
3. Two parallel current-carrying conductors (b) What change(s) can be made to increase the
. repel if their currents flow in magnitude of each force?
opposite directions; (c) Predict what will be observed if two current-
. attract if their currents flow in the carrying wires are placed perpendicular to
same direction. each other. Explain vour answer.

Chapter 21
27..3 Turning Effect on a Current-carrying Coil
in a Magnetic Field
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect,
and how this turning effect can be increased;
o discuss how this turning effect is used in a simple electric motor;
. describe how a split-ring commutator works in a two-pole, single-coil motor, and
the effect of winding the coil around a soft iron core.

ln Section 21.2, we learnt that a straight current-carrying wire placed

between the poles of a magnet experiences a force. Figure 2t.23 shows
what happens if the straight current-carrying wire is replaced with a current-
carrying wire coil.
P
I

@ R stitt wire coil ABCD is placed

between the poles of a strong
magnet. A current is passed
through the coil.

@ ffre coil experiences a turning

effect about the axis PQ.

r Figure 21,.23 A current-carrying wire coil placed between two magnetic poles

What causes the turning effect of coil ABCD in the set-up in Figure 21.23?
To understand this turning effect, we consider the top view of the cross-
section of the set-up in Figure 21.23, shown in Figure 2L24.

The two forces produce a turning effect.

Note: Fleming's left-hand rule was used

to deduce the directions of the forces
on wire sections AB (current out of the
page) and CD (current into the page).

r FiSure 21,.24f op view of cross-section of set-up in Figure 21.23

Electromagnetism
 The d.c. motor
An important application of the turning effect on a current-carrying coil in
a magnetic field is the direct current (d.c.) motot. A d.c. motor is used
to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. lt is commonly used
in battery-operated toys, DVD players and hard disk drives. Figure 21'.25
shows how a d.c. motor works.

rectangular coil
permanenr
m2dntrt

split-ring
commutator

switch

.:,lri:' -' 1;1 11.;9,. f t r:

t. A rectangular wire coil ABCD is mounted
on an axle (represented by the dotted line
PQ) that allows it to rotate about PQ.
2. The coil and the axle are positioned in
between the poles of a permanent magnet.
3. The ends of coil ABCD are connected to a
split-ring commutatot XY. The commutator
rotates with the coil.
r Figure 2L.25 lt is common to find
4. Two carbon brushes press lightly against
d.c. motors in small appliances.
the commutator.

Using Fleming's left-hand rule, we know that a

downward force acts on wire section AB, and an
upward force on wire section CD. The coil thus
rotates anticlockwise about P0 until it reaches a
vertical oosition.
In practice, a rheostat is
added to the d.c. motor clrcuit.
The resistance of the rheostat
is set to maximum before the
switch is closed. This is to
prevent overheating due to
an excessively large current
flowing in the low-resistance
coil ABCD. When the coi
rotates, the resistance ofthe
rheostat is slowly decreased
to increase the current. The
larger current enables the coil
ABCD to rotate faster.
 rectangular coil
rectangular coil
permanenr permanenl
magnet magnet

split-ring
commutator commutator

switch

When the coil is in the vertical position, The direction of the currents flowing
the current is cut off because the split through wire sections AB and CD is now
ring commutator XY is not in contact with reversed. An uoward force now acts on
the carbon brushes. AB, and a downward force acts on CD.
The momentum of the coil, however, Hence, the coil continues to rotate in
carries it past the vertical position. the anticlockwise direction.

ln a d.c. motor, the function of the split-ring commutator is to reverse

the direction of the current in the coil every half a revolution. This occurs
whenever the commutator changes contact from one brush to the other.
This ensures that the coil will alwavs turn in one direction.

Practical d.c. motors, like

^ one shown above, have
the
hundreds of turns of wire with
a soft iron core at the centre.

L. The d.c. motor works on the principle that a current-carrying coil in a

From what you have
magnetic fleld experiences a turning effect.
learnt so far, have you
2. The function of the split-ring commutator is to reverse the direction of
found the answers to
current in the coil when the coil passes the vertical position, so thatthe
Let's Explore (c)?
coil continues to turn in the same direction.
3. The turning effect on a current-carrying coil can be increased by
(a) increasing the current in the coil;
(b) having more turns in the coil;
(c) inserting a soft iron core into the coil.

L. The coil in a particular d.c. motor rotates in an anticlockwise direction. Activity 20

What change(s) must be made in order for the coil to rotate in a How do we make a
clockwise direction? simole d.c. motor?
Explain the purpose of the rheostat in the d.c. motor.
State the energy conversion that takes place in the d.c.
 Aetivity I Create your own d.c, motor Activity 2 Magnetic field explotation
Search the Internet for videos on how to create a Visit http://phet.colorado.edu to run a simulation
simole d.c. motor. on magnets and electromagnets. Use keywords
such as "magnets" and "electromagnets".
1,. (a) In groups of three, design and make your
own d.c. motor, You may get the materials Click 'Run Now' to launch the applet. We will
you need from your own home or from a explore the magnetic field of the electromagnet.
nearby hardware store. 1,. In what way is the electromagnet (connected
(b) Try designing and making some simple to a d.c. supply) similar to a bar magnet?
toys, using what you have learnt about 2. Exolore the different controls in the
d.c. motors. applet to find out how the strength of the
2. (a) Record a video of the process of creating electromagnet can be changed. Write down
the d.c. motor. Make the video clear and your observations.
simple, so that the audience will be able 3. lf an alternating current (a.c,) is used
to make their own d.c. motor by watching instead of the d.c. supply, describe the flow
your video. of the electrons in the solenoid, and state
(b) Share your video with the class. how the direction of the compass changes.
. Explain how the d.c. motor works. (You Provide an explanation for vour observation.
may draw a diagram to help you in this.)
. Explain what you can do to make the
d.c. motor turn faster.

involves the interaction of

applied
Circuit tn
0reaKers
interact to produce a

whose field patterns whose direction can Fleming's

can be deduced with be deduced with left-hand rule
examptes

The right-hand Field strength can A straight current-carrying wire in an

gflp rule be lncreased by external magnetic field is deflected.
increasing the
magnitude of the
current Two parallel current-carrying wires
Field direction . attract if the currents flow in the same direction:
can 0e reverseo . repel if the currents flow in opposite directions.
by reversing the
direction of the
cu rrent A current-carrying coil in an external applied it o.c.
magnetic field experiences a turning effect. motors
Chapter 21
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevant
section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

The magnetic field lines around a current-carrying straight wire resemble those of
(a) a bar magnet, while the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying solenoid are 27.1
concentric circles.

fh}Thestrengthanddirectionofthemagneticfie|dproducedbyacurrent-carrying
l'/ 2L.t
'"' I condrrctor
conductor ere by the maonitucle
are affected hv and direction of the crrrrent
magnitude ancl current resoectivelv-
respectively. j

A circle with a dot at its centre is used to represent current flowing away from you, r
(c)
while a circle with a cross at its centre repres*ents_c-lilgj_l_ll9yl-qj9]-1i-d,il_"y.:__.
t"

(d)
In a circuit breaker. a oermanent magnet is used to break the circuit when there is ;
2r.t
excessive cu rrent flow.

The force on a current-carrying conductor or on a beam of charged particles is

(e) 21.2
reversed when the current or field direction is reversed.

(f)
We use the right-hand grip rule to deduce the relative directions of force, field i
2r.2
and current.

Parallel conductors reoel and attract when the currents in them are in the same
2r.2

,L\ The direction of the +.,^^

(n,
force on a beam of charged particles in a magnetic field is i
2L.2
'"' ; ;^A^^^^A^^+
independent ^f+h^
of the type of charge +h^+
^+ ^a^,^^ that +h^
the particles
^^,+i^r^^ carry.
carry.
^^rr,, I

: rrrr-- -^r:^-^
r When- a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, two regions with i
..,:rL
l

(i).differentmagneticfie|dstrengthSareproduced,resu|tinginanetforcethatacts 21.2
ll
*-: -o! ll-"-'9i9Y:l:': - - -i-
:I

,!\
ttl
The turning effect of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field is applied in the I l
zr.5
d.c. motor.

, The function of a split-ring commutator in a d.c. motor is to reverse the direction .

(k) , of the current in the coil once every revolution, and thus reverse the direction in 21.3
which the coil turns.
.:'

r^ The turning effect of the current-carrying coil in a d.c. motor can only be increased
r'' by increasing the number of turns in the coil.
i 21.3

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Electlomagnetism
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 4. The two parallel wires in the diagram below are
carrying equal currents in the same direction.
1. The diagram below shows a current-carrying
wire passing through the centre of a sheet of
cardboard. How do the strengths of the magnetic
field at points X, Y, andZ compare? II

Which of the following diagrams shows the forces

a
XYZ
a 4..
acting on the wires due to the magnetic effect of
these currents?
I
I

A Different at X, Y, and Z
-->
B Equal at X and Z, but stronger at Y F
C Equal at X and Z, but weaker at Y
D Stronger at X than Y, and stronger at Y lnanZ

2. In the diagram shown, a current-carrying wire is

placed between two magnetic poles. In which
direction does the wire move?

current flowing
tn wtre
The diagram shows a beam of electrons entering a
magnetic field.

X
magnetic field
electron beam into page
XXX X
3. The diagram below shows a current-carrying
coil placed within a magnetic field. The coil X
experiences forces that make it move. How does
the coil move? What is the initial direction of the deflection
of the electrons as the beam passes through
the field?
A Into the page
B Out of the page
C Towards the bottom ofthe page
magnetic field
D Towards the top of the page
6. In a simple d.c. motor, the direction of current in
X
the motor coil is reversed every half-revolution to
A From X to Y keep the coil turning in the same direction. Which
B Out of the paper oart of the motor enables this?
c Along the magnetic field A Brushes
D About the axis XY B Coil
C Split-ringcommutator
D Permanent magnets

Chapter 21
Section B: Structured Question x2. Figure 2!.27 shows a simple d.c. motor with
input terminals T, and T'
L. (a) Using suitable diagrams, describe the
pattern of the magnetic field due to the
current in a
(i) long straight wire;
(ii) solenoid.
(b) State a factor that affects the strength
of the magnetic field of a current-carrying
conductor, and describe how it affects the
magnetic field strength.
(c) State a factor that affects the direction
of the magnetic field of a current-carrying
conductor, and describe how it affects the
magnetic field direction.
t Fiture 2L.27

In order for the d.c. motor to work, it must be

Section C: Free-Response Questions connected to a power supply.
L. (a) What is Fleming's left-hand rule used for? (a) Complete the diagram to show the d.c.
(b) On Figure 2L.26,label the following parts: motor connected in an electric circuit. The
(i) Split-ringcommutator electric circuit should include
(ii) Carbon brushes (i) a power supply of fixed voltage;
(ii) an ammeter to measure the
motor current;
(iii) a switch;
(iv) a rheostat to vary the current.
(b) Mark the positive and negative terminals of
(aXi) and (ii).
(c) (i) What is the setting of the rheostat
that will result in the smallest
oossible value of the motor's initial
current? Explain your answer.
(ii) Suggest a possible reason for
t Figute 21-.26 including a rheostat in the circuit.
Explain your answer.
(c) What are the functions of the parts in (bXi)
and (ii)?
(d) Using Fleming's left-hand rule, state
whether the rectangular coil will rotate
clockwise or anticlockwise. Draw the forces Worksheet 21
that cause the rotation on the diagram.
(e) How would you change the direction of
rotation of the coil?

Electromagnetism
 The shrill sound of the fire alarm bell interrupts your teacher
midway through class. lt's a fire drill!

The electric bell is used in everyday devices, like the fire alarm
and doorbell. Did you know that at the core of the electric bell
is an electromagnet? Read the steps below to find out how an
electromagnet enables an electric bell to function.

bell button spflngy @ To sound the bell,

metal strip the bell button
is pushed. The
soft iron circuit is closed
armature and current flows
contact through the circuit.
SCTEW
@ The electromagnet spnngy
electromagnet becomes magnetised, metal strip
nammer and attracts the soft
gong
iron armature. soft iron
armature

contact
screw
bell button springy @ The hammer strikes
metal strip the gong, producing
hammer
a souno. gong
soft iron
armature The contact at S is - @ The springy metal strip
broken. This breaks f> putls back the soft iron
contact
the circuit, and , i armature such that it is
screw
hence the current once again touching the
stops flowing. The . contact screw. The circuit is
electromagnet loses closed. The electromagnet
its magnetism, ' is magnetised again.

The cycle is repeated and

In the electric bell, the core of the electromagnet is made the bell rings continuously
of soft iron, while the springy metal strip is made of steel. as long as the bell button
Based on what you have learnt in Chapter 20 and 21-, is pushed down.
explain why different materials are used to make these two
items.
2. Explain the advantage of using soft iron instead of steel to
make the armature.
5. A single-stroke electric bell rings only once when the circuit
is closed. How would you modify the circuit in the diagram
above, so that the hammer strikes the gong once instead of
continuously?

Chapter 21
The invention of the electric guitar changed the history of music. As musicians
experimented with this versatile instrument, they created new genres of music, such
as rock'n' roll, funk and heavy metal. This was possible because electric guitars are
able to produce a great variety of sounds. How do electric guitars do this? What does
electromagnetic induction have to do with the electric guitar? You will find out in this
chaoter.
 22,7. Electromagnetic Induction
From bookbinder to
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
Fullerian Professor . -
deduce from experiments that an e.m.f. can be induced by a changing
Michael Faraday, one
magnetic field;
of the most prominent . state that the direction of the lnduced e.m.f. opposes the change that produces it;
scientists of the . list the factors that alter the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
nineteenth century,
started his career as a
bookbinder! lt was during
In the previous chapter, we learnt that a current flowing through a conductor
his time as a bookbinder
produces a magnetic field around it. In 1831, an English scientist named
that he started reading
Michael Faraday discovered that the converse is true
science books and
developing a strong
- a changing
magnetic field produces an induced current. This effect is known as
interest in science. electromagnetic induction.

He caught the attention

of Sir Humphry Davy, a
famous scientist, with
his diligence and interest
in science, and was
appointed as the latter's
Farcday's solenoid experiment
Figure 22.1shows the apparatus that Faraday used to test whether a moving
chemical assistant at the
Royal Institution of Great magnet could induce a current.
Britain. Through hard
solenoid (a cylindrical coil of wire)
work and determination,
Faraday worked his
way up to become the
laboratory director, and in permanent
1833 he was made the m 2dn At
first Fullerian Professor galvanometer
of Chemistry at the
lnstitution.

He made groundbreaking r, Figure 22.1- Faraday's solenoid experiment

discoveries in the fields
of electrochemistry and These were Faraday's observations:
electromagnetism, and is
known by historians to be
. When a magnet was inserted into a solenoid, the galvanometer needle
the best experimentalist in was deflected in one direction.
the history of science. His . When the magnet was withdrawn from the solenoid, the galvanometer
discoveries and inventions needle was deflected in the other direction.
power our world today. . When the magnet was stationary in the solenoid, the galvanometer
needle was not deflected.

From his observations, Faraday concluded that a relative movement between

the solenoid and the magnet induced an electromotive force (e.m.f.) in the
circuit, which drove an induced current detected by the galvanometer.

Faraday also found that the magnitude of this induced e.m.f. could be
increased by increasing the
1-. number of turns in the solenoid;
2. strength of the magnet;
r Michael Faraday 3. speed at which the magnet moves with respect to the solenoid.
(7791.-1.867)

Chapter 22
The la of electromagnetic induction
There are two laws of electromagnetic induction.
Magnetic flux is a
measure of the quantity
of magnetic field linking
a conductor.

We can carry out lnvestigation 22.1Io demonstrate the laws of

electromagnetic induction.

Investigation ee.l
0bjective
To demonstrate the laws of electromagnetic induction

Proceda;re
1. Connect the ends of a solenoid to a sensitive centre-zero galvanometer
centre-zero galvanometer with connecting wires.
2. Move the S pole of a permanent bar magnet into the
solenoid, and note any deflection on the galvanometer
(Figure 22.2).
3. Once the bar magnet is inside the solenoid, hold it
stationary and note any deflection on the galvanometer.
4. Next, move the S pole of the magnet out of the
solenoid, and note any deflection on the galvanometer.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4, using the N pole of the same tabletop bar magnet
bar magnet. tFigwe 22.2
Observation and Discussion
Tables 22.1- and 22.2 summarise the observations and discussion of Investigation 22.!.
v Table 22.L S pole of bar magnet moved into and out of the solenoid

(a) S pole of magnet moved towards the solenoid When the S pole of the bar magnet was moved
towards the solenoid, the galvanometer needle
s was deflected momentarily to one side.
This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil
<_- and a current flowed through the galvanometer.
The induced current oroduced an S oole at the
\ end of the solenoid to repel the S pole of the bar
magnet moving towards it.
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily
to one side.

Electromagnetic Induction
 (b) S pole of magnet held stationary in the solenoid . No current was induced in the circuit.

The galvanometer needle was not deflected.

(c) S pole of magnet drawn out of the solenoid When the S pole of the bar magnet was moved
away from the solenoid, the galvanometer needle
was deflected momentarily to the other side.
-------i> This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil
and a current flowed through the galvanometer.
The induced current produced an N pole at the
end of the solenoid to attract the S oole of the bar
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily magnet moving away from it.
to the other side.

v Table 22.2 N pole of bar magnet moving into and out of the solenoid

(a) N pole of magnet moved towards the solenoid i. When the N pole of the bar magnet was moved
towards the solenoid, the galvanometer needle
was deflected momentarily to one side.
This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil
and a current flowed through the galvanometer.
The induced current oroduced an N oole at the
end of the solenoid to repel the N pole of the bar
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily magnet moving towards it.
to one side.
(b) N pole of magnet held stationary in the solenoid . No current was induced in the circuit.

The galvanometer needle was not deflected.

(c) N pole of magnet drawn out of the solenoid When the N pole of the bar magnet was moved
away from the solenoid, the galvanometer needle
s was deflected momentarily to the other side.
This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil
and a current flowed through the galvanometer.
The induced current produced an S pole at the
end of the solenoid to attract the N pole of the bar
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily magnet moving away from it.
to the other side.

{.! ery
1. The motion of a magnet relative to the solenoid is necessary for an e.m.f. to be generated in the
circuit. fhe magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is described by Faraday's Law.
2. fhe direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current
always opposes the motion that produces it. The direction of the induced e.m,f. is described bv
Lenz's Law.

Chapter 22
 oPkcd €xample ?Z.l
ln Figure 22.3, a short bar magnet passes through a long
solenoid. A galvanometer is connected across the solenoid.
Assume that the magnet moves at a steady speed.
(a) Sketch a graph of the galvanometer needle deflection 0
against time t, starting from the instant shown in Figure 22.3 NS
to the time the magnet emerges from the solenoid.
(b) Using the principles of electromagnetic induction, explain the t Figwe 22.3
shape of the graph you sketched in (a).

Solution
a As the N pole of the bar magnet enters the solenoid, there is a change in the number of
magnetic field lines linkingthe solenoid (i.e. magnetic flux in the solenoid changes).
a By Faraday's Law, the change of the magnetic flux in the solenoid results in an induced
e.m.f. in the circuit. This e.m.f. drives an induced current through the closed circuit. The
induced current produces a galvanometer needle deflection 0.
By Lenz's Law, the induced current creates an N pole at the right end of the solenoid to
oppose the incoming N pole. Thus, the galvanometer needle is deflected momentarily to
one side.

. At the instant when the bar @. As the S pole of the bar magnet exits the
magnet travels past the mid- solenoid, there is again a change in the
length point of the solenoid, magnetic flux in the solenoid.
there is no change in the a By Faraday's Law, this produces an induced
magnetic flux in the solenoid.
e.m,f. and hence an induced current.
o There is no induced e.m.f.,
a By Lenz's Law, the induced current creates
and hence no induced current
an N pole at the left end of the solenoid
to cause the galvanometer
to oppose the outgoing S pole. Thus, the
needle to be deflected.
galvanometer needle is deflected momentarily
to the other side.

An e.m.f. is induced in a conductor only when there is a change in magnetic flux. From what you have learnt
lf the conductor is at rest in a constant magnetic field, or moving in the same so far, have you found the
direction as the magnetic field lines are pointing, no e.m.f. is induced. answers to Let's Explore (a)?

Electromagnetic Induction
 Pe.l
t. Electromagnetic induction is the process through A bar magnet is pushed towards one end of
which an induced e.m.f. is oroduced in a solenoid, as shown in Figure 22.4.
a conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
2. Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction
states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux in the circuit. <-
3. Lenz's Law states that the direction of the
induced e.m.f., and hence the induced current in
a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic A a Figure 22.4
effect opposes the motion or change producing it.
4. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. can be (a) Explain what happens to the
increased by increasing the galvanometer needle.
(a) number of turns in the solenoid; (b) How would you increase the angle of
(b) strength of the magnet; deflection of the galvanometer needle?
(c) speed at which the magnet moves with (c) Which oole is induced at end A of the
resoect to the solenoid. solenoid? Explain your answer.

22.2 Alternating Current Generators

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe how a simple alternating current generator works, and sketch its output
voltage against time graph;
. describe the use of slip rings.

One important use of electromagnetic induction is in the generation of

electricity. The altelnating current (a.c.) generator transforms mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

The simple a.c. nerator

Figure 22.5 shows how a simple a.c. generator works. Note that the direction
of the induced current flowing in the coil can be found using Fleming's
right-hand rule,

A rectangular By turning the handle, As the coil rotates in the magnetic

coil of wire ABCD the coil rotates between field, the change in magnetic flux
(the armature) is the poles of two creates an induced e.m.f., and
mounted on an axle. permanent magnets. hence an induced current in the coil.

The slip rings are

always in contact with
the carbon brushes as
the axle rotates. The slip rings
slip rings ensure that
the induced current in electrical load
the coil is transferred to
the external circuit.
The induced current powers the electrical load connected
to the external circuit, so the lamp lights up.

Chapter 22
r Figure 22.5 A simple a.c. generator
 differs. Figure 22.6 shows how the mag
changes as the coil rotates. Note ttrai
alternating current (hence the name arternating
currentgenerator).

/;\
@ @ o
/t\
D,,C C iD

E.m.'f ./Y

Time/s

one revolution

@ Wfren the plane of the coil is parallel

to @ Rfter the coil rotates half a cycle, it is parailel
the magnetic field, the arms AD and BC to the
magnetic field again. The magnitude of the
cut across the magnetic field lines at the induced
e.m.f. is maximum. Note that since the arms
greatest rate. Since the rate of change AD and
of CB are moving in directions opposite to
magnetic flux is maximum, the magnitude those in step
1, the direction of the induced e.m.f. is opposlte
of the induced e.m.f. is maximum, to
that in step 1.
@ Wtren the plane of the coil is
@ ffre arms AD and BC of the coil do not cut across
perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the the magnetic field lines. The magnitude of the
arms AD and BC do not cut across the
induced e.m.f. is zero.
magnetic field lines. Since the rate of
change of the magnetic flux is zero, the
magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is zero. @ fne coil has rotated one complete cycle. lt is parallel
to the magnetic field again, and hence the
maximum
induced e.m.f. is produced.
Figure 22.6 fhe induced e.m.f. varies
with the position of the coil.

OffiG Fleming's risht-hand rure, whire for d.c. motors

ilJ;.";:::?#:"j:',1;."" (chapter 21), we use

Fleming's left-hand rule

force (thumb) force (thumb)
magnetic field
(forefinger) magnetic field
(forefinger)
induced current
(second finger)
current (second finger)
o Applies to a.c. generators
. When the directions of the magnetic
field and the
o
a
Applies to d.c. motors
When the directions of the magnetic
force are known, Fleming's right_hand rute field and the
direction of the induceq current. lives ttre current are known, Fleming's left_hand rule gives
the direction of resultant force.
Electromagnetic Induction
 We can increase the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. of an a.c.
Visit http://micro. magnet.fsu.edu,/ generator by
to try out an applet that allows
you to study how the frequency
L increasing the number of turns in the coil (Figure 22.7);
of rotation of a coil affects the 2. using stronger permanent magnets;
output voltage of a simple a.c. 3. increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil (Figure 22.8);
generator. Use keywords such as 4. winding the coil around a soft iron core to strengthen the
"ac generator" and "frequency". magnetic flux linking the coil.

E.m.f ./V E.m.f ./V

final output voltage

Time/s Time,/s

initial output voltage

r Figure 22.7 Doubling the number of turns of r Figure 22.8 Doubling the frequency f doubles
the coil doubles the maximum output voltage. the maximum output voltage.

onked Cxampl€ ae.e

(a) Explain why rotating a coil between two magnets generates an induced e.m.f.
(b) On the same axes, sketch the graphs of induced e.m.f. against time for a time interval of
0.6 s for the coil when it rotates
. 5.0 times per second, and the induced e.m.f. generated has a maximum value of 40 mV;
. 2.5 times per second. Note that the maximum value of the e.m.f. changes when the frequency
of rotation changes.
Assume that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field at t = 0 s.

Solution
(a) When the coil rotates, it cuts across the magnetic field lines, and there is a change in the
magnetic flux in the coil. By Faraday's Law, this change induces an e.m.f. in the coil.
(b) f{=
lnduced e.mf . e/mv curve for Period T"= = 0.2 s
\= 5.O Hz
,#F
curve for fr= 2.5 Hz
Period I, -t f2 - I , =0.4s
2.5s-1
The maximum value of the induced
Time t/s e.m.f. (i.e. the amplitude of the graph)
is halved when the frequency of
rotation is halved.

The practical design of an a.c. nerator

In a simple a.c. generator, it is the coil that rotates between fixed magnets.
However, we can also have an a.c. generator in which magnets rotate
with respect to fixed coils. This type of a.c. generator is called a fixed
coil generator. An example of a fixed coil generator is the bicycle dynamo
(Figure 22.9).
Chaptet 22
 rotating wheel in
A magnet is attached contact with the
to an axle and a of a bicycle wheel
wheel. As the wheel
rotates, the magnet
rotates too.

The magnetic field

rotates with respect
to a fixed coil. This
changes the magnetic
flux in the coil. An
induced e.m.f. is
generated, and this
in turn creates an
induced current.

The induced current

is channelled directly
to the external circuit
through the output output terminals
terminals. Slip rings
and carbon brushes r Figure 22.9 A bicycle dynamo is a small a.c. generator
that uses the fixed coil design. As the cyclist pedals, the
are not needed.
dynamo generates electricity that powers the headlamp.

In practical applications, a fixed coil a.c. generator is favoured for the following
reasons:
t. lt does not require carbon brushes, which wear out easily and need to be
replaced frequently.
2. lt is less likely to break down from overheating. This is because it does not use
slip rings and carbon brushes. An eroded connection between slip rings and
carbon brushes has increased resistance, which can generate large quantities
of heat.
3. lt is more compact.

Power generation in Singapore

Power stations in Singapore are located at Senoko, Tuas and
Jurong lsland. They generate electricity using fixed coil a.c.
generators. Several magnets (i.e. a rotor) rotate around several
fixed coils that are wound around iron cores (i.e. a stator). This
rotation generates induced e.m.f. and current in the stator. The
induced current is fed into electric cables.

How are the rotors in a.c. generators rotated? They are

connected to turbines, which are driven by energy sources.
Do you know what energy sources are used to generate
electricity in Singapore? Do you think Singapore's choice of
energy sources is sustainable? Why?

) An example of a stator to generate

- and rotated
electricity, a rotor is placed
in the cylindrical space within the stator.
Electromagnetic Induction
 e?.e
1-. An a.c. generator is a device that uses 1-. Name the components of an a.c. generator
electromagnetic induction to convert that allow the transfer of the induced
mechanical energy into electrical energy. alternating current to an external circuit.
2. The slip rings in an a.c. generator ensure that 2. Sketch a graph of output voltage against
the current generated is transferred to an time of an a.c. generator for two complete
external circuit. rotations of the coil.
3. The induced e.m.f produced by an a.c.
generator increases when
(a) the number of turns of the coil is
increased;
(b) the frequency of rotation is increased;
(c) the strength of the magnetic field is
increased;
(d) a soft iron core is placed in the coil.

How does an electric guitar work?

Unlike the acoustic guitar, the electric guitar has
no hollow body to amplify the sounds made by the
vibrating guitar strings. Instead, it has electric pickups,
which sense the vibration in the strings. These
electric pickups convert the vibration into electrical
signals. These signals are then sent to amplifiers and
speakers, which in turn convert the signals to sound.
So how do electric pickups work?

Electric pickups use electromagnetic induction.

A pickup consists of permanent magnets placed inside
coils of fine wire. lt is placed under the steel strings of r Pickups are found under the guitar strings.
the electric guitar.

magnetic flux linking the coil.

an induced magnet. an induced current in the coil.
The induced current is fed to
the amplifier.

guitar string

to amplifier
permanent magnet
< Side view of an electric guitar pickup

By varying the
o size, shape and strength of the permanent magnets;
. number of turns in the coils;
. position of the pickups on the guitar body;
. distance between the pickups and the guitar strings;
we can design electric guitars that produce sounds of different quality.

An electric pickup is a type of transducer. Find out what a transducer is,

and identify devices mentioned in this chapter that are also transducers.

Chaptet 22
 22.3 Transformers
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
. -
describe the structure of a simple transformer and explain how it works;
. solve problems by apptying the formutae
.
f, = ff ".0 %1.;
describe the energy loss in cables and explain the advantages of high voltage
power transmission.

ln 1831, Faraday discovered that when two coils of wire were wrapped
around a soft iron ring (Figure 22.1O), the magnetic field produced by one
coil could induce a current in the other.

compass

r, Figure 22.LO Faraday's iron ring experiment

A compass was placed above wire PQ to detect any changes in the magnetic Link
field there. lf the needle of the compass was deflected, it meantthere was
We learnt in Chapter 21
a magnetic field present. This indicated that there was a current flowing in that a current-carrying
the wire PQ. Figure 22.71summarises the results of Faraday's experiment. conductor produces a
magnetic field.

At the moment
switch S
was closed The number of
magnetic field
+ lines linking
Current coil B increased This change in The compass
started The vary- from zero magnetic flux needle was
flowing in ing current to maximum. produced an deflected
induced e.m.f. A magnetic
coil A. in coil A momentarily in one
created in coil B, which field was
direction when the
a varyrng orove an tnouceo
.--> produced
switch was closed,
Current magnetic The number of current through about wire
and momentarily in
PQ.
stopped flux in the magnetic field the closed the other direction
flowing in iron ring. lines linking circuit (and thus when the switch
coil A. coil B decreased through wire PQ). was openeo.
from maximum
f to zero.
At the moment
switch S
was opened
r Figure 22.LL lhe results of Faraday's iron ring experiment
Using Faraday's Law
of electromagnetic
Faraday's findings led to the construction of transformers, a widely used
induction, explain why
device in electricity transmission. In the following sections, we will learn the compass needle did
what transformers are and how thev work. not remain deflected.

Electromagnetic Induction
 hat is a transformer?
The mains supply voltage we receive in our homes in Singapore is 240 V.
However, different electrical appliances operate at different voltages. For
example, a typical mobile phone only needs about 5 V. To convert the mains
supply voltage to a suitable voltage for different appliances, transformers
are used.

Transformers are used in

t. electrical power transmission from power stations to households
and industries;
2. regulating voltages for the proper operation of electrical appliances.

Structure and opelation of a transformer

The structure and workings of a transformer (Figure 22.1-2) are based on
Faraday's findings in the iron ring experiment.

Two coils, the primary coil and The laminated soft iron core comprises thin sheets
the secondary coil, are wound of soft iron. These sheets are insulated from one
around a laminated soft iron core. another by coats of lacquer.
Each coil has a certain number Soft iron is used because it is easily magnetised
of turns. and demagnetised. This ensures better magnetic flux
linkage between the two coils.
The lamination reduces heat loss.

laminated soft iron core

pflmary
@ v,4 coil of N,

@ The primary coil is @ A varying magnetic @ nn e.m.f. V. is induced in the secondary

connected to an field is set up in coil. This voltage is called the output
alternating voltage * the laminated soft voltage. Since the circuit is closed, a
the input voltage V".- tron core. current is also induced in the coil.

r Figure 22.L2 A transformer

Ghapter 22
Electrical energy is transferred from the primary coil to the secondary coil
in a transformer. The voltages and the number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils are related by this formula: To have a continuous
supply of output
= where Vs = Secondary (output) voltage (in V); voltage V., the input
Yp = primary (input) voltage (in V); voltage V, must be
alternating. lf a direct
turns ratio N. = number of turns in secondary coil;
input voltage is used,
N, = number of turns in primary coil.
the output voltage will
not be continuous.
In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater
than that in the primary coil. This results in an output voltage that is higher
than the input voltage.
Can the turns ratio for
In a step-down transformer, the converse is true. The number of turns in a step-up transformer
the secondary coil is less than that in the primary coil, so that the output be smaller than 1?
voltage produced is lower than the input voltage. whv?

P er transmission in a transformer
In an ideal transformer; there is no power loss (i.e, the efficiency is 100%). You learnt the equation
The power supplied to the primary coil is fully transferred to the secondary P = VI in Chaoter 19.
coil. Hence, from the Principle of Conservation of Energy,

power in the primary coil = poWef in the secondary coil

VrIr= VrI, where Vs = Secofldary (output) voltage (in V);
V"= primary (input) voltage (in V);
1s = cuffeflt in secondary coil (in A);
Ip = cUrfeflt in primary coil (in A).

vr_ /v^
From the eguations = and VrI, = Vr1.,
f /V^

we can obtain the equation 5vP= +/vp= +/s

Therefore, V. = v' and I' =(ff1"
ffi)
We can see that for a s transformer:

1,. V^

2 I^

The converse is true for a s transformer (Table 22.3).

v Table 22.3 Comparing step-up and step-down transformers

> < r' A transformer

/v^ N^ /V^ /V^
- the
and laminated soft
coils
iron core
V^> can be seen. The design of
V^ V^<V^
this transformer differs from
the one shown in Figure
I^<I^ I^>I^ 22.L2. What other designs
are there, and why?

Electromagnetic Induction
 In reality, transformers are not ideal. There is power loss, and therefore
the efficiency 4 is less than tOO%o. The efficiency of a transformer can be
Some causes of power calculated using the following equation:
loss in a transformer are
o heat loss due to the output power
x
Efficiency 4 = IOOo/o
resistance of the coils; input power
. leakage of magnetic
flux between the
primary and secondary
coils;
orked €xampl€ 2e.3
. heat loss due to eddy The circuit shown in Figure 22.L3
currents induced in the is set uo.
rron core;
. hysteresis loss caused
(a) Explain briefly how a
by the flipping of transformer works.
magnetic dipoles in (b) Assuming the transformer in
the iron core due to Figure 22.73 is 100% efficient,
the a.c. complete the table below. t Figure 22.L3

Find out what eddy

currents, hysteresis and
magnetic dipoles are
on the Internet.
(c) ls the transformer a step-up or step-down transformer?
(d) The transformer used in the experiment is actually non-ideal.
It is found that when the primary current is 2 mA, the secondary
current is 30 mA instead of 40 mA. Assuming that the secondary
voltage V. is the same as that calculated in (b), calculate the
Visit http://www.bbc. efficiency of this practical transformer.
co.uk,/schools/ to try
out an applet that allows
you to study how the Solution
number of turns in the (a) The operation of a transformer is based on electromagnetic
coils of a transformer induction. An alternating current in the primary coil induces
affects the output a varying magnetic field in the soft iron core. This varying magnetic
voltage. Use keywords
field creates an alternating induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil,
such as "transformers"
and "vnlfadoq" which generates an induced current.
(b) At 100% efficiency,
input power of primary coil = output power of secondary coil
V^I^=V^I^
ff55

u.- -i-
V^I^ 24OVx2mA
40 mA
= !2V

r=+=aq%T@=loooturns
(c) Since the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than
the number of turns in the primary coil (N, = 5O . N, = 1000),
the transformer is a step-down transformer.
(d) By definition,
output power in secondary coil
efficiency = x 100%
input power in primary coil
t2Y x 30 mA x tOOo/o = 75%o
=
#x 1oo% =
24OVx2mA

Chapter 22
Transformers and the transmission of electricity
One of the problems in the transmission and distribution of electricity from
power stations to households and industries is the loss of power due to
Joule heating (P = I2R) in the cables. This loss should be minimised for contribute to the power
loss due to Joule
efficiency and economy.
heating. However, since
the output voltage
Possible solutions: affects the output
. Use very thick cables, so that the resistance R is low. In this way, the current, we can adjust
power lost as heat in the cables is reduced. However, thicker cables the output voltage (by
increase the cable and construction costs. adjusting the number of
. Reduce the magnitude of the current 1 flowing in the cables. This can turns on the secondary
coil of a transformer)
be done with a step-up transformer. When the transmission voltage V is
to adjust the output
stepped up, the current 1in the cables is stepped down. current.

cable of resistance R

households
industries

r Fiture 22.L4 Power transmission

Suppose the electrical power output {", of a

power station is to be transmitted at a voltage yby
transmission cables of total resistance R (Figure
22.!4). The current 1 in the transmission cables is
D
7- 'out
I
--
V
Hence, the power lost as thermal energy, 1o"., is
tP \2
P^"" = 7zp
= 1___eurf
\vt
R

Thus, the greater the value of V, the lower the

power loss.

As electricity is transmitted more efficiently at high

voltages, electricity produced in power stations has
its voltage stepped up by step-up transformers.
The high-voltage electricity is then transmitted to
households and industries through transmission
cables. Step-down transformers then reduce the
voltage to suitable values, so that households and
industries can use the electricity safely.

r Stetrdown transformers helo distribute

electricity to households and industries.

Electromagnetic Induction
 onked Cxample ??.4
A power station with an output power of 100 kW at 20 000 V
is connected by cables to a factory.
(a) lf the resistance of the cables is 5.0 O, calculate the
(i) current flowing in the cables;
(ii) power loss in the cables.
(b) Account for the power loss,
Solution
Given: output power {", = 100 x 103 W
voltage v = 20 000 v
resistance R of cables = 5.0 f)
(a) (i) Since {", = V1, where 1 is the current in the cables,
POUI 1O0x1O3W-<n
I_
-
20 000 v
(ii) Power loss in the cables
lo"" = IrR = (5 A)2 x 5.0 O = 125 W
(b) Power is lost as thermal energy. This is due to Joule rOverhead transmission cables supoofted
heating, caused by the resistance of the cables and the by electricity pylons. In Singapore, most
current flowing through the cables. transmission cables are underground. Why?

From what you have is a device that changes a high alternating voltage (at low
learnt so far, have you current) to a low alternating voltage (at high current), or vice versa. The
found the answers to t'
Let's Explore (b) and (c)? following equation can be used to calculate the voltages: +"p= /V.
2. A transformer is an application of electromagnetic induction. lt consists of
two coils wound around a soft iron core.
3. For an ideal (!OO%o efficient) transformer, VrIr= V"lr.
4. Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce power loss.

ee.3
Figure 22.75 shows a simple transformer.
(a) State, with reasons,
(i) the name of the material used a.c. input
to make the item labelled A;
(ii) whether the output voltage is
greater or smaller than the
input voltage.
(b) This transformer supplies a voltage
of !2Y to a model train, which r, Figure 22.15
draws a current of 0.8 A. lf the
voltage of the a.c. source is 240 V,
calculate the current in the orimarv coil.
(c) Power is lost as thermal energy during the transmission of electricity from
power stations to homes. State two ways through which this power loss
can be minimised.

Chaptet 22
22.4 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
r -
describe the applications of a cathode-ray oscilloscope;
o interpret cathode-ray oscilloscope displays to solve related problems.

The voltage waveforms of a transformer can be observed with a cathode-ray

oscilloscope (c.r.o.). The c.r.o. is a device that shows how a voltage varies with
time. The main component of a c.r.o. is the cathode-ray tube (Figure 221'6).

@ fne cathode-ray tube @ rne electron gun I R nrigfrt spot is created when the
is a vacuum glass emits a beam of electron beam strikes the fluorescent
tube that contains electrons (i.e. screen. This is because the fluorescent
an electron gun, a a cathode ray), screen is coated with zinc sulfide, a
deflecting system and which is produced chemical that glows when electrons
a fluorescent screen. by the cathode. strike it.
The larger the number of electrons
striking the screen, the brighter the spot.

deflecting system
e

fluorescent screen

zinc sulfide

@ Varying the voltage across the @ Varying the voltage across the X-plates changes
Y-plates changes the vertical the soeed at which the electron beam sweeps
deflection of the electron beam. horizontally across the fluorescent screen.

r Figure 22.L6 The cross-section of the cathode-ray tube

By adjusting the controls at the front panel of the c.r.o., we

can adjust the display of the voltage-time trace. The trace is
similar to a voltage-time graph the y-axis gives the voltage
and the x-axis gives the time. -

> Before plasma and LCD television were invented, televisions

contained cathode-ray tubes, and hence were large, boxy machines.
What is the science behind plasma and LCD technology?
 Using the c.r.o.
Figure 22.17 shows step-by-step instructions on how to use a c.r.o.

@ Turn on the c.r.o., @ nolust the X-shlft and g Adjust the Y-lain and time base
then connect it to Y-shift controls to controls to obtain a waveform
the voltage to be position the trace at the that can be visualised clearly
studied. centre of the screen. on the c.r.o. screen.

Y-gain Time base

. This control amplifies the vertical (Y) . This control adjusts how quickly the electron beam
deflection of the electron beam by varying sweeps horizontally across the screen. lt does this by
the voltage applied across the Y-plates of varying the voltage applied across the X-plates of the
the cathode-ray tube. cathode-ray tube.
o The voltage across the Y-plates is amplified . An internal circuit applies an alternating voltage across
by amplifier circuits in the c.r.o. the X-plates. This varies the frequency of the time base.

r Fiture 22.L7 How to use a c.r.o.

Common uses of the c.t.o.

The time base is switched off and the voltage to be measured is applied
across the Y-plates, via the Y-input terminals. The applied voltage sets up an
electric field between the Y-plates. When the electron beam passes through
this electric field, it gets deflected. The extent of the deflection is proportional
to the voltage applied.

The gain of the Y-input determines the sensitivity of the c.r.o. A gain
of 0.5 V/div means that if the electron beam is deflected upwards
An electric field deflects on the c.r.o. screen by three divisions, the applied voltage is 1.5 V
an electron beam, o'? V 1.5 V).
because the negative (3.0
. div t =
dIV
electrons are attracted
to the oositive terminal
of the electric field and lf we switch on the time base and select a suitable time base frequency,
repelled by the negative
we can display voltage waveforms on the c,r.o. The voltage waveform to be
terminal.
examined is applied to the Y-input terminals.

The number of complete cycles displayed is given by the ratio:

ttl where f, = frequency of the a.c. input (in Hz);

fx
f" = frequency of the time base (in Hz).

Chaptet 22
Table 22.4 shows how a c.r.o. can be used to measure voltages and display
voltage waveforms. Note how the deflection of the electron beam changes
with different applied voltages and when the time base is switched off or
on. The calculations in the third column show how we can use the c.r.o. to
measure the voltages if they are unknown.

v Tabfe 22.4 Using a c.r.o. to measure voltages and display voltage waveforms

0 V/div o The electron beam is

The electron beam
sweeps horizontally
not deflected.
. across the c.r.o.
As there is no vertical
screen.
deflection, the applied
We see a line along
voltage is o V.
the horizontal axis.

d.c. input 0.5 V/div The line is three

The electron beam is
deflected upwards by divisions above the
1.5 V
horizontal axis.
three divisions.
Applied voltage
= 0.5 V/div x 3 div

d.c. input 1.0 V/div The electron beam is

. The line is two
deflected downwards divisions below the
-2.O V
by two divisions. horizontal axis.
(reverse
voltage) Applied voltage
= 1.0 V/div x (-2 div)
= -2.O V
(Note that because the deflection
is downwards, the applied voltage
is negative.)
a.c. input 5.0 V/div The electron beam
The electron beam
sweeps horizontally
Peak voltage is deflected upwards
and oscillates
= 20V and downwards, by
vertically.
four divisions in each
Frequency We see a waveform.
d irection.
=50H2 The number of cycles
Applied voltage
shown on the screen
= 5.0 V/div x 4 div
=20Y _50Hz
25 Hz
= 2.0 complete cycles
a.c. input 5.0 V/div The electron beam The number of cycles
is deflected upwards shown on the screen
Peak voltage
and downwards, by _25H2
=20V four divisions in each 25 Hz
Frequency d irection. = 1.0 complete cycle
=25H2 Applied voltage
= 5.0 V/div x 4 div
=20Y

Electromagnetic Induction
 With its time base switched on, a c.r.o. can also be used to measure short
intervals of time. For example, the time taken for sound to travel a short
You learnt how to
calculate the speed of
distance can be measured bv a c.r.o.
sound using echoes in
Chapter 15. Figure 22.18 shows how a c.r.o. is used to measure the time taken to
receive an echo. By measuring the time taken and the distance travelled,
the speed of sound can be calculated.

g Clap your hands once, near the microphone. @ ffre sound pulse is reflected
This produces a pulse of sound. lt is by the wall. The microphone
received by the microphone and shown as receives the echo, and it is
a signal on the c.r.o. screen. shown as another signal on
the c.r.o. screen.

@ Connect a
microphone to the
a @ a large distance
Y-input terminals I
of the c.r.o.
a loud clap as
incident sound
microphone ___-______>

reflected sound

The reflected pulse is @ ffre number of divisions between the two signals can be used to
smaller in amplitude calculate the time taken for the sound pulse to travel from the c.r.o. to
than the incident the wall and back.
pulse. This is because
energy is lost during For example, if t = 10 divisions and the time base setting is
the transmission of the 5 ms per division, the time taken = 10 div x 5 ms/div = 50 ms
pulse. Energy is usually
lost to the medium and
the reflecting surface. r Figure 22.18 Using a c.r.o. as a timer

From what you have

Figure 22.19 shows a cathode-ray tube. With the aid of a diagram,
learnt so far, have you describe what is seen at O when the
found the answers to (a) time base is switched off, and a battery is connected to the
Let's Explore (d)?
terminals A and B (A is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery and B to the positive terminal);
(b) time base frequency is set at 25 Hz, and a 50 Hz a.c. supply is
connected to the terminals A and B.

fluorescent screen

The c.r.o. is an electronic device

that can be used to measure
electron beam
voltages, study waveforms, and
measure short intervals of time. t Figute 22.L9

Chapter 22
 is defined as is applied in

governed by Devices that convert

mechanical energy
into electrical Devices that
energy change a high
alternating
Faraday's Law of i
The direction uiu
voltage (at
electromagnetic : of the induced
I

Y
low current)
induction '; e.m.f., and hence
Relative motion j
to a low
states that the : the induced alternating
between coil and
magnitude of the i current in a closed 1
voltage (at
magnets ---> induced :
induced e.m.f. in : circuit, is always high current),
alternating e.m.f. ---> : or vtce versa
a circuit is directly I such that its
induced alternating l
proportional to the : magnetic effect
rate of change of opposes the
current :
: ,."0
magnetic flux in ; motion or change ",.
the circuit. : producing it. J
. High-voltage
Output voltage can a
transmission of
therefore be displayed on and i of anf riniirr \rv
ltn Irorlt
vvuvv tra

measured with . power ross)

cathode-ray :
. Lowerin€l the voltage
oscilloscopes (c.r.o.)., supplied to homes
The induced e.m.f. can be increased by increasing the
. number of turns in the current-carrying coil;
. strength of the magnet; V

. speed at which the magnet moves with respect to a Y.,-^^ -^+i^

/V^ V^
lurr15rdLrui\-
the current-carrying conductor. ,'P'P v

a For an ideal transformer

V^t^=V^I^

Lenz's Law and the Principle of Conservation of Energy

The direction of the induced current in a solenoid opposes the motion of the magnet.
When we insert a magnet into a solenoid, we must do work to overcome the repulsion
between the magnet and the solenoid, and push the magnet into the solenoid. This work
done is converted into electrical energy in the induced current.

The same effect occurs when we try to pull the magnet out of the solenoid. We must do
work to overcome the attraction between the magnet and the solenoid. This work done is
converted into electrical energy in the induced current.

Electromagnetic Induction
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

A conductor is at rest in a rotating magnetic field. No e.m.f. is induced in

(a) 22.r
this conductor.
(b) A conductor moving in a magnetic field always has an e.m.f. induced in it. 22.1
(c) The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be found using Fleming's right-hand rule 22.r
In an a.c. generator, split rings connect the rotating coil to the external circuit. 22.2
lql
(e) The e.m.f. produced by an a.c. generator varies with time. 22.2

In a step-down transformer, the number of coils in the primary coil is largerthan

(f) zz.5
that in the secondary coil.
lf the primary coil of an ideal transformer has the same number of turns as the
(s) 22.3
secondary coil, no e.m.f. is induced in the secondary coil.

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage so that the power transferred is

(h) t/2
higher (P = L" ).
zz.5

The c.r.o. can be used to display voltage waveforms. 22.4

On the c.r.o. screen, the vertical axis represents the voltage applied across
(i) zz,+
the X-olates.

Answe rs are available at the back of the book.

Chapter 22
Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 5. The figure below shows an ideal transformer
connected lo a 24O V a.c. supply. The primary
1,. Which of the following procedures does not coil has 10OO turns, while the secondary coil
generate an e.m.f.? has 50 turns. The output voltage is connected to
A Holding a magnet stationary inside a coil a load with resistance of 10 Q.
B Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
C Rotating a magnet around a stationary coil
D Moving a bar magnet across a flat piece
of metal 24OV a.c.- R=10O

2. In electromagnetic induction, which of the

following does not affect the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f.? coil of 1000 turns coil of 50 turns
A The strength of the magnetic field linking What is the current passing through the load?
the coil
B The resistance of the coil cutting across the
A !.24
magnetic field
B 244
c The soeed with which the coil cuts across
c 48A
the magnetic field
D L2OA
D The number of turns in the coil

3. The figure below shows the coil of a generator Section B: Structured Questions
with slip rings. t. (a) What is electromagnetic induction?
(b) State the factors that affect the magnitude
of the induced e.m.f.

2. Referring to Figure 22.2O, state what is

observed in the galvanometer when the
(a) magnet is moved into the solenoid;
(b) magnet is pulled out of the solenoid;
(c) number of turns in the solenoid is
increased and (a) is repeated.
Which of the following graphs gives the correct
output voltage against time when the coil begins
to turn from the oosition shown?
A

t Fitute 22.20
*3. (a) State Lenz's Law of electromagnetic
induction.
c (b) Exolain how Lenz's Law illustrates the
Principle of Conservation of Energy.

4. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a simple

a.c. generator, and describe the use of
the slip rings.
4. Why is soft iron used in the core of a
(b) Sketch the graph of the output voltage
transformer? against time for a simple a.c. generator.
A lt has a low electrical resistance.
B lt conducts the induced current well.
C lt does not melt easily when the induced
current is too large.
D lt ensures better magnetic flux linkage
between the two coils.

Electromagnetic Induction
5. Figure 22.21 shows a solenoid connected to a 8. Figure 22.22 shows part of a power transmission
galvanometer. system. Electricity from the power station is
galvanometer transmitted to end users via transmission
cables. The power station has a capacity of
200 MW and produces a voltage of 2kY.
The transmission cable is at 4OO kV. The end
users receive a voltage of 250 V.

magnet
2 kV transformer A transformer B 250 V

t Fitwe 22.21-
Explain the following observations: 2OO MW udut95
(a) When the magnet is held stationary at the
end of the coil, the galvanometer needle t Figure 22.22
is not deflected. (a) ls transformer A a step-up or a step-down
(b) When the magnet is moved towards the
transformer? Explain your answer.
solenoid, the galvanometer needle is
deflected towards A.
(b) Assuming that transformers A and B are
ideal, and that no energy is lost during
(c) The faster the motion of the magnet
transmission, calculate the
towards the solenoid, the larger the
deflection of the galvanometer needle.
(i) current flowing through the
transmission cables;
(d) When the magnet is moved away from
(ii) total current supplied to the
the solenoid, the galvanometer needle is
eno users;
deflected towards B.
(iii)total energy generated by the power
station each day.
6. A transformer has 400 turns in the primary
coil and 10 turns in the secondary coil.
(c) Why is electricity transmitted at high
voltage?
The primary voltage is 250 V and the primary
current is 2,0 A.
(a) Calculate the
(i) secondary voltage; Section C: Free-Response Questions
(ii)secondary current, assuming the *1. A wire is wound 30 times around a soft iron
transformer is ideal. C-core (Figure 22.23).
(b) Several measures are taken to increase
the efficiency of transformers. Explain soft iron centre
why, and describe two features in
transformer design that improve coil of 3O turns of wire
efficiency.

7. A battery charger draws electricity from the t Figwe 22.23

240 V mains supply. The charger contains a
transformer, which provides an output of 15 V. You are orovided with two such C-cores.
(a) There are 6400 turns on the primary coil (a) Without the use of a magnet, describe how
of the transformer. Calculate the number you would use the C-cores to show that
of turns on the secondary coil. a current can be induced in a coil of wire
(b) Assuming that the transformer is 100% through electromagnetic induction.
efficient, calculate the current flowing in (b) Should the wires that are wound around the
the primary coil if the output current of soft iron C-cores be insulated? Whv?
the transformer is 2.0 A.
2. (a) Describe an experiment to demonstrate
electromagnetic induction. Explain how you
would demonstrate the factors that affect
the magnitude and the direction of the
induced e.m.f.
(b) Describe briefly how electromagnetic
induction is applied in the operation of
a transformer.

Chaptet 22
THEME I
1,. (a) Define the term moment of a force.
(b) What is meant by the density of a substance?
(c) Figure 1 shows the arrangement used to calculate the density of an unknown
metallic object (of mass m"and weight W,) usine the Principle of Moments.

A1,kg block of iron (weight Wr) is hung at a distance drfrom the pivot such that
the metre ruler is pivoted at its centre of gravity. The ruler is in equilibrium when
the weight W, is hung at a distance d, on the other side of the pivot. Table 1
shows the readings for d, and d, and the corresponding values of M.(= mrx d").

v Table 1

(i) Write down an equation involving W' W2, d, and d, when the ruler is in
equilibrium.
(ii) Hence, derive the relationship mrx dr= tnrx d,
(iii) Plot a graph of M2against dr
(iv) Hence, calculate the mass rnrof the metallic object,
(v) Deduce the density of the metallic object, given that its volume
is 1.33 x 10{ m3.

2. Ships face the danger of sinking in rough seas if they are overloaded. In 1876, a
British Member of Parliament, Samuel Plimsoll, introduced markings on the sides of
ships to indicate whether they are overloaded. These markings, known as the Plimsoll
lines (Figure 2), indicate the maximum allowable loading depths for different types of
water the ships are sailing in.

TF Legend:
Fresh Water
TF -Tropical Fresh Water
F - Fresh Water
Sea Water
T - Tropical
-
S Summer
W - Winter
WNA - Winter North Atlantic

r Figure 2

Data-based Questions
 (a) The volume of water displaced by a floating ship is the same as the volume of the
submerged portion of the ship. For simplicity, assume that the ship has a hull that
is vertical at the side and flat at the base. By considering the water pressure at
the base of the ship or otherwise, show that the weight of a floating ship in water
is equal to the weight of the displaced water.
(b) With reference to Figure 2, suggest a reason for the difference in height between
'S'and 'W'.
(c) The Yellow Sapphire is a large ship. lt displaces 48 500 m3 of water when loaded
with a consignment of cargo at the Port of Hamburg, which is located along the
banks of the Elbe River in Germany.

Use the data given below to answer the following questions.

Yellow Sapphire (a cargo ship)

Length=293.5m Density
Beam (at its widest point) = 32.0 m o Elbe River water = 1-OO4 kg rn-s
Height = 35.1 m . North Sea water = LO25 kg m-'
Cross-sectional area of ship between Gravitational field strength
Draft Marks 9.8 m and 10.3 m = 8790 m2 6= 10 m s-2

(i) Determine the total weight of the Yellow Sapphire and its cargo.
( ii) On the side of the Yellow Sapphire is a scale known as the Draft Mark,
which is used to indicate the height from the bottom of a ship. The water
level was at Draft Mark 10.1 m when the cargo was fully loaded in Hamburg.
From Hamburg, the ship sailed down the Elbe River to enter the North Sea.
On entering the North Sea, the water level indicates a different Draft Mark.
Determine the volume of North Sea water displaced by the ship.
( iii) With reference to the Draft Mark, show that the new Draft Mark is 10.0 m.

THEME II
3. Figure 3 shows an arrangement to measure the specific heat capacity of milk. Two
identical hot hard-boiled eggs are individually placed inside two well-lagged containers
at the same time. One container holds 200 g of water, while the other holds 2OO g of
milk. As the contents are stirred, the temperatures of water and milk are noted at equal
intervals of time. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g_' oC-'.

identical well-lagged
insulated flasks

identical hot
hard-boiled
eddq

r Figure 3

(a) Define the term specific heat capacity.

Data-based Questions
 (b) Fill in the column for the heat supplied Q by the egg to the water in Table 3.
(Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings.)
v Table 3

(c) Assuming that the same amount of heat is supplied to both water and milk, plot
a graph of Q against AI,,,n on a sheet of graph paper.
(d) Hence, calculate the specific heat capacity of milk.
(e) Explain why this is a good method to calculate specific heat capacity.

4. (a) Discuss briefly how you would calibrate an alcohol-in-glass thermometer, and
state the relationship between the length L, of the alcohol thread and the
temperature 9.
(b) Table 4 lists the values of the length L, of an alcohol thread at various
temperatures 0 in an alcohol-in-glass thermometer.
v Table 4

(i) Using the data in Table 4, plot and draw a graph of temperature against
length.
( ii) Predict the lengths of the alcohol thread at O'C and 100'C.
( iii) An alcohol-in-glass thermometer is used to measure the melting point of
naphthalene. At the melting point of naphthalene, the length of the alcohol
thread is 26.8 cm. What is the melting point of naphthalene?

5. A railway track contracts in cold weather and expands in F/kN

hot weather. lt can buckle if there is not enough room for
it to expand. To prevent buckling, a railway track is laid in
sections, with gaps in between adjacent sections. When
a track section of initial length L expands or contracts
due to a change in temperature AI,

*L * ot, where AL is the change in the initial length.

For small fractional change f in it. length, a railway
L
track behaves like a spring.
Figure 5 shows the graph describing the relationship
between the force F on a constrained track due to
thermal expansion and the change in temperature Af. r, Figure 5
Data-based Questions
 An engineer is tasked to design a track with small gaps between them across a small
town. The lowest and highest temperatures ever experienced by the town are -7.0"C
in winter and 38.0'C in summer, respectively. For safety, the maximum allowable force
that the track can withstand when the gaps are closed is set at 500 kN. The length of
each track section is 30.O m and *L = (f.fe x 1O-5)Af.
(a) Using the kinetic theory of matter, explain why most solids expand when heated.
(b) What is the change in the length of a track section when the temperature changes
from -7.0'C to 38.0"C?
(c) What is the increase in temperature if the track is constrained by a force of
500 kN? Hence, determine the change in the length of a train section if it is
subjected to the same increase in temperature unconstrained.
(d) Based on your answers in (b) and (c), determine the smallest gap that the
engineer can allow in his design of the entire track.
(e) Alternatively, the engineer can design a continuously welded track without gaps.
To prevent it from contracting and expanding due to changes in temperature, the
track can be anchored to the ground using devices called sleepers.

lf such a track is laid at a temperature of 18'C, determine the force on it in

(i) winter; (ii) summer. State whether the track is in compression or tension in
eacn case.

THEME III
6. A salvaging vessel looking for a shipwreck emits signals at 40 ms intervals towards
the seabed from a sound transmitter-receiver embedded in its hull and receives tne
echoes, which are displayed on a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.). A typical c.r.o.
display is shown in Figure 6.1.

< Figure 6.1

20
Time delay (ms)

(a) Mark the trace formed by an echo with the letter E on Figure 6.1.
(b) Given that the seabed is 22.5 m below the hull of the ship, draw a shaded vertical
bar B to represent the trace formed by the echo in the c.r.o. display corresponding
to the seabed. (Speed of sound in water = 1500 m s-1)
(c) Figure 6.2 shows a bar chart describing how the time delay changes over the
span of the shipwreck (i.e. from the front to the back of the shipwreck).

Time delaylms

25
20
L5
10

Span/m
510
r Figure 6.2
Data-based Questions
 (i) The heights of three points (O m, 8.0 m and 20.O m) along the span of the
shipwreck are given in Table 6. Calculate and fill in the missing heights for
three other ooints in Table 6.
v Table 6

(ii) Suggest the minimum span of the shipwreck.

(iii) Describe how you would use the sound transmitter-receiver to collect data that
allows you to sketch a scaled three-dimensional profile of the shipwreck.

7. Active sonar is a technology that emits sound pulses and receives v Table 7
their echoes to locate the positions of objects in water. The time
delay between the transmission of a sound pulse and the reception
of its echo can be measured using a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
The depth of an object can be determined if we know the speed
of sound in water. Table 7 shows the soeed of sound in water at
d if ferent temperatu res.

A navy submarine in the Atlantic Ocean uses active sonar to locate

the position of a ship on the ocean surface. Figure 7.1 shows two
traces on an oscilloscope screen, one produced by the emitted
pulse and the other by its echo. The screen area is 8 cm (vertical
scale) by 10 cm (horizontal scale). The horizontal scale is set at
0.050 s cm-1.

\ I\

r Figure 7.1

Data-based Questions
 (a) What is the time delay between the transmission of the sound pulse and the
reception of its echo?
(b) lf the temperature of the ocean is 1-1-'C,
(i) estimate the speed of sound v in it;
(ii) calculate the vertical distance d between the submarine and the ship.
(c) Figure 7 .2 shows the navigation console of the submarine. The range of the
distance shown is in metres and the cross (x) marks the position of a ship
relative to the submarine. Based on the information in Figure 7 .2, determine the
bearing and range of the ship.

t Figute 7.2
8. Figure 8 below shows the refraction of a ray of light travelling from air into a transparent
block of unknown material.

i = angle of incidence
r= angle of refraction

< Figure 8

(a) Define refractive index of a medium in terms of the speed of light in air and in the
medium.
(b) Table 8.1 shows the values of i, r, sin i and sin r.
v Table 8.1

(i) By plotting a suitable graph, deduce the refractive index of the unknown
block.
( ii) Referring to the refractive indices of some materials in Table 8.2, identify
the material of the block.
v Table 8.2

Data-based Questions
 (c) (i) Explain the term critical angle.
( ii) Calculate the critical angle for this medium in air.

THEME IV
9. (a) State Ohm's law for electrical resistance.
(b) Table 9 shows the recorded values of the current l and the corresponding values
of potential difference V across a resistor of resistance R. Plot a graph of V
against 1.

v Table 9

(c) Figure 9 shows a concealed box connected to a circuit. The readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter are 0.3 A and 0.5 V, respectively. There are two resistors
(2 Q and 10 O) inside the concealed box connected between the terminals
X and Y. Deduce the arrangement of the resistors between X and Y.

r Figure 9

10. The maximum current delivered by a dry cell depends on how

fast it can convert its stored chemical energy into electrical
energy. This is why dry cells are not suitable for applications that
require a large amount of energy within a very short time, such
as a camera flash lamp. To overcome this shortcoming of dry
cells, capacitors are usually used together with dry cells in such
applications. A capacitor can store electrical energy and release
it within a short time.
r Figure 10.1
A simple capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a
thin dielectric material, as shown in Figure 1-0.1.

Data-based Questions
 The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the amount of electrical charge stored
per unit potential difference. The electrical energy is stored in the form of the potential
energy of the electrical charges.

The electrical energy stored in a particular capacitor is E= (3.33 x LO-6)W, where

E = electrical energy stored (in J), and V = the potential difference (in V) across the
capacitor.

Figure IO.2 shows a circuit diagram that operates a flash lamp. There is an electronic
device in the circuit to step up the voltage to 3OO0 V.
switch S, switch S,

flash lamp

r Figure 1O.2
When switch S, is closed and S, is open, the electronic device steps up the voltage to
3000 V and charges the capacitor. When switch S, is closed, the charged capacitor
sends a current through the flash lamp. This will cause the lamp to flash once.
(a) Calculate the maximum energ/ that can be stored in the capacitor.
(b) Figure 10.3 describes the rate of power dissipated across the flash lamp when
switch S, is closed. The energy dissipated is given by the area under the power-
time graph.

Power/kW

Time/ms

r Figure 10.3

(i) Determine the energy dissipated across the flash lamp within 3.0 ms.
(ai) Determine the average power released by the capacitor within 3.0 ms.
(c) The flash lamp uses a rechargeable 6.0 V battery. When fully charged, the battery
has 2.60 Wh of stored energy. Determine the maximum number of flashes that a
fully charged 6.0 V battery can deliver.
(d) In practice, the number of flashes is significantly lower than that calculated in (c).
Suggest a reason for this.

Data-based Questions
 i
THEME I W= mE where W=weight;
Chapter 3" ,r, - ilto-o,
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. lt consists g = gravitational field strength.
of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a
Each complete to-and-fro motion of an object is one oscillation. force due to gravitational attraction.
The pedod of a simple pendulum is the time taken for one complete Gravitational field strength g is defined as the gravitational force
oscillation. acting per unit mass.

The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object to

Chapter 2 change its state of rest or motion, due to its mass.
Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude only.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
Vector quantities are physical quantities that have both magnitude
and direction. where P = density;
Speed is the distance moved per unit time. m = mass of the object;
V= volume of the obiect.
distance travelled
Speed =
time taken
Chapten 5
The moment of a force (or torque) is the product of the force and
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of
the force.
Velocity =
Moment of a force = Fx d

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. where F= force;

4 = perpendicular distance from the pivot.
change in velocity
Acceleration = The Principle of Moments states that when a body is in
time taken
equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal
Uniform acceleration is a constant rate of change of velocity. to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same pivot.

The gradient of a displacement-time graph of an object gives The centre of gravity of any object is defined as the point through
the velocity of the object. which its whole weight appears to act.

The gradient of a velocity-time graph of an object gives the The stability of an object is a measure of its abilityto return to its
acceleration of the object. original position after it is slightly displaced.

To find displacement, we can calculate the atea under a

Chapter 6
velocity-time graph. Energy is the capacity to do work.
An object falling through air achieves terminal velocity when its
The Principle of Conservation of EnerEly states that energy
weight is equal to the air resistance against it.
cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be converted from
one form to another. The total energy in an isolated system is
ehapter 3 constant.
Newton's First Law of Motion states that every object will
continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straisht line The efficiency of a machine can be calculated using
unless a resultant force acts on it.
Newton's Second Law of Motion states that when a resultant
Efficiency = x 100%

force acts on an object of a constant mass, the object will

accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The product of Work done by a constant force on an object is the product of the
the mass and acceleration of the object gives the resultant force. force and the distance moved bythe object in the direction ofthe
force.
F= ma where F= resultant force;
rn = mass of object; W= Fx s where W=work done by a constantforce F;
a = acceleration of object. F = constant force;
s = distance moved by the object in the
Nervton's Third Law of Motion states that if body A exerts a force
direction of the force.
Fo, on body B, body B will exert an equal and opposite force Fuo on
body A. When a body of mass m moves at a speed y, its kinetic energy q
is given by
Friction is the contact force that opposes or tends to oppose
motion between surfaces in contact. 1
E,=;mv2 where f, = kinetic energy;
rn = mass of the body;
Ghapter 4 y = soeed of the bodv.
Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
The weight of an object is the gravitational force, or gravity,
acting on it.

Quick Revision Guide

Gravitational potential energy Ee is given by Chapter 10
Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature
Eo= where Ee = gravitational potential ener$/;
rn = mass of an object; to a region of lower temperature. Net flow of thermal energy occurs
g= gravitational field strength; only when there is a difference in temperature.
h = hei€ht above the ground. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through a medium
Power is defined as the rate ofwork done or rate ofenergy without any flow of the medium.
converslon. Convection is the transfer of thermal ener$/ by means of convection
currents in a fluid (liquid orgas), due to a difference in density.

Radiation is the transfer of thermal enerS/ in the form of

electromagnetic waves such as infrared radiation without the aid of
E = energY converted;
a medium.
t = time taken.

Chapter 7 Chapter X1
Heat capacity C is the amount of thermal energy required to raise
Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area.
the temperature of a substance by 1 K (or 1'C).
wnere p = pressure;
F = force.
C -- where Q = thermal energy required;
A0 = change in temperature.
A = area.
Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of thermal
wnere p = pressurei energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (e.9. 1 kg)
h = hei€ht; of a substance by 1 K or l-'C.
P = density;
g = gravitational field strength. whereC=heatcapacity;
Q = thermal energy required;
In a hydraulic press, A0 = temperature change;
F,x d,= F,x d, where m = mass of substance.
5=:::::fJ"[:l"Tffit:i;" Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed by a substance
during a change of state, without a change in its temperature.
THEME II Latent heat of fusion L, is the amount of thermal energy required
0hapter I to change a substance from solid state to liquid state, without a
Temperature refers to how hot or cold an object is. change in temperature.

Heat refers to the amount of thermal energy that is being Specific latent heat of fusion I, of a substance is the amount of
transferred from a hotter to a colder region. thermal energy required to change a unit mass (e.9. 1kg) of the
substance from solid state to liquid state, without a change in
The ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice at one
temoerature.
atmosphere, and is assigned a value of 0'C.
The steam point is the temperature of steam from water boiling \= It x m where L. = latent heat of fusion;
at one atmosphere, and is assigned a value of 10O"C. 4 = specific latent heat of fusion;
m = mass of the substance.
General equation for the Celsius scale:
Latent heat of vaporisation Lu is the amount of thermal energy
required to change a substance from liquid state to gaseous state,
0= x 100'C where 0= unknown temperature;
without a change in temperature.
X = value of physical quantity.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation lu of a substance is the amount
Clrapter 9 of thermal energy required to change a unit mass (e.9. 1 kg) of the
The kinetic model of mattel states that the tiny particles that substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a change in
make up matter are always in continuous random motion. temoerature.

The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to l- = l, x m where \ = latent heat of vaporisation;
its temperature f, provided its volume remains constant L = specific latent heat of vaporisation;
In symbols, we can express this relationship as p f. * m = mass of substance.

The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional

to its volume V, provided its temperature remains constant. In THEME III
symbols, we can express this relationship as p * or i Ohapter 3-2
p= {,v where k is a constant The first law of reflection states that the incident ray, reflected ray
The volume Vof a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
its temperature f, provided its pressure remains constant. In
The second law of reflection states that the angle of incidence I is
symbols, we can express this relationship as V- L equal to the angle of reflection r (i.e. i = r).
Refraction is the bending of iight as light passes from one optical
medium to another.
The first law of refraction states that the incident ray, the normal
and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
Quick Revision Guide
The second law of refraction states that, for two given media, the Ghapter 15
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence i to the sine of the angle Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to
of refraction r is a constant, i.e. another as a longitudinal wave.
An echo is the repetition of a sound due to the reflection of sound.
= constant'
stn r
Ultrasound is sound with frequencies above the upper limit of the
This is also known as Snell's law. human range of audibility.
Refiactive index n of an optical medium Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave the higher the
-
frequency, the higher the Pitch.
n = where c = speed of light in vacuum;
Y = speed of light in the medium. Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave larger
-the
the amplitude, the louder the sound.
n = sf n r where I = angle of incidence in vacuum;
r = anCle of refraction in the medium.
THEME IV
The critical angle c is defined as the angle of incidence in an Chapter 16
optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the An electric force is the attractive or repulsive force that electric
optically less dense medium is 90'. charges exert on one another.
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light ray An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences
inside an optically denser medium at its boundary with an optically an electric force.
less dense medium.
The direction of an electric field is the direction of the force that
Relationship between the critical angle c and the refractive index would act on a small positive charge.
n of an optical medigm:
The strength of an electric field is indicated by how close the field
.7
SlflC=- lines are to one another.
n

Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the ChaBter 17
focal ooint. Gonventional cunent is in the opposite direction to electron flow.
An electric current 1 is the rate of flow of electric charge 0.
Chapter 13
The source of a wave is a vibration or an oscillation. I= wherel=current;
I q = charge;
Waves transfer energy from one point to another without
t = time taken.
transferring the medium.
Transvelse waves are waves that travel perpendicular to the The electromotive force (e.m.f.) e of an electrical energy source
direction of the vibration. is the work done by the source in driving a unit charge around a
comDlete circuit.
Longitudinal waves are waves that travel parallel to the direction
of the vibration.
c= . where s= e.m.f. of the electrical energy source;
The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of a
point from its rest position. enerry converted to electrical energy;
Q = amount of charge'
The wavelenglth ,t of a wave is the shortest distance between any
two points in phase. When cells are arranged in series, the resultant e.m'f. is the sum
of all the e.m.f. of the cells.
The period f of a wave is the time taken to produce one complete
wave. When cells of equal e.m.f. are arranged in parallel, the resultant
e.m.f. is equal to that of a single cell.
The frequency fof a wave is the number of complete waves
produced per second. The potential difference (p.d.) across a component in an electric
circuit is the work done to drive a unit charge through the
component.
f= where f= frequency;
f = oerioo. V= where V= potential difference orvoltage across a
comPonent;
Wave speed v is the distance travelled by a wave per second. W = work done, i.e. amount of electrical energy
Wave speed is given by converted to other forms;
0 = amount of charge.
v= wnerey=wavespeeo;
2 = wavelength; The resistance R of a component is the ratio of the potential
f = oeriod. difference V across it to the current l flowing through it.
Wave speed v= frequency fx wavelength 2 R = where R = resistance of the component
Awavefiont is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all adjacent V = p.d. across the component;
points that are in phase. 1 = current flowing through the component.

Quick Revision Guide

Ohm's Law states that the current passing through a metallic For a resistor of resistance R, the electrical energy converted
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across to thermal energy can be calculated from any of the following
it, provided that physical conditions (such as temperature) remain eouations:
constant.
E= Wt
I*V where 1 =currenti
= I2Rt (since V= /R)
Y = potential difference.

+ =R=constant

The resistance of metallic conductors, ohmic or non-ohmic Ghapter 2O

(e.g. filament lamp), generally increases with increasing Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted to a
temperature. magnet.

R = p where R = resistance of the wire; Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be attracted to
p (a constant) = resistivity, a fixed property of the a magnet.
wire's material; Magnetic induction is the process whereby an object made of a
I = length of the wire; magnetic material becomes a magnet when it is near or in contact
A = cross-sectional area of the wire.
with a magnet.
A magnetic field is the region surrounding a magnet, in which a
Chapter 18 body of magnetic material experiences a magnetic force.
In a series cilcuit, the curlent at every point is the same.

In a series circuit, the sum ofthe p.d, across each component is Chapter 2t
equal to the p.d. across the whole circuit. A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
V.= V"+ V2+ ... + V^
The direction of the magnetic field of a current{arrying wire is
reversed when the direction of the cuffent is reversed.
ln a series circuit, the effective resistance R is the sum of all the
reststances. The strenglth of the magnetic field of a current-carrying wlre
increases when the current is increased.
R=Rr+Rr+...+R"
The strenglth of the magnetic field of a flat coil can be increased
by increasing the current flowing through the coil.
In a parallel circuit, the sum of the individual curents in each of
the parallel branches is equal to the main current flowing into or The magnetic field streng$h in a solenoid can be increased by
out of the parallel branches. . increasing the current flowing through the solenoid;
. increasing the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid;
I = I"+ I, + ... + In o placin! a soft iron core within the solenoid.

In a parallel circuit, the p.d. across separate parallel branches is When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
the same. the conductor experiences a force. This effect on the conductor is
called the motor effect.
The reciprocal of the effective resistance of resistors in parallel,
The direction of the force on a currentcarrying conductor is reversed
f,t1 is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of all the individual
when we reverse the direction of the curent or magnetic field.
resistances.
The force, current and magnetic field are at right angles to one
_!11-
= ...* 1
another.
RR1R2
-+ -+ R"
The direction of the force acting on a current-carrying conductor in
a magnetic field can be deduced using Fleming's left-hand rule.
A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series.
It is used to provide a fraction of the voltage of a source to another Conductors carrying curents in opposite directions repel.
part of the circuit.
Conductors carrying cuilents in the same direction attract.
Input transducers are electronic devices that convert
The direction of the force on a beam of charged particles is
non-electrical energy to electrical energy.
reversed when we reverse the direction of the current or if the
particles are oppositely charged.
Chapten 19
For a resistor with resistance R, the rate at which electrical energy The direction of the force on a beam of charged particles is
is converted to thermal energy (i.e. the poweo can be calculated reversed when we reverse the direction of the maghetic field.
using any of these equations:
The turning effect on a current-carrying wire coil can be increased
P=W by increasing the
= PR (since V= IR) . number of turns in the wire coil;
. current in the wire coil.
The turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a d.c. motor can be
increased by
. inserting a soft iron core into the coil;
. increasing the number of turns in the coil;
. increasing the current in the coil.
Quick Revision Guide
Chapter 2 The voltages and the number of tulns in the primary and
Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an secondary coils in a transformer are related bv this formula:
induced e.m.f. is produced in a conductor due to a changing
V^
j-j N^
magnetic field. where ys = secondary (output) voltage;
V^ N.
Yp = primary (input) voltage;
Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction states that the
Ns = flumber of turns in secondary coil;
magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly proportjonal
No = number of turns in primary coil.
to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit.
In an ideal tlansfolmer, the power supplied to the primary coil is
Lenz's Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f.,
fully transferred to the secondary coil.
and hence the induced current in a closed circuit, is ajways
such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change Vo1, = V.1. where V. = secondary (output) voltage;
producing it. Ve = primary (input) voltage;
Is = cuff€ht in secondary coil;
An alternating curlent generator is a mechanical device that
/, = current in primary coil.
uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the
following equation:
A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating
voltage (at low current) to a low alternating voltage (at high Efflciency4= x1O0%
current), or vice versa.

The number of complete cycles displayed on a c.r.o is given by

the ratio:

f v
where f, = frequency of the a.c. inpu'
f
{ = frequency of the time base.

The table below lists symbols that can represent more than one quantitv.

. Speed of light in vacuum

. Critical angle
. Specific heat capacity
. Volume
V
'. Potential difference /n rt t
Voltage

. Weight
W
. Work done

f
. Focal length
o Frequency

p
o Density
. Resistivity

. Tension
. Temperature
. Period

Quick Revision Guide

A circu it E
acceleration breakers 375, 4LO earth wire 378

definition 24 diagrams 324,325 earthing 3tI,378

due to gravity parallel 345,349 echo 293,294
non-uniform 26 342 efficiency 438
uniform 24 short 325 Einstein, Albert 3

zero symbols 524 elastic potential energy 105

alternating current 392 compresstons 26I,247 electric

alternating current condensation 196 bell 424
generators 430,432 conduction 168, 169, ]-70,177, charge 306, 307
ammerer 323 fi7, LAO,364 circuit 324
5,525 conductor
ampere current 322,323,342
263, 300 electrical 308, 309, 310
amplitude field 3I2
heat L69,777
angle field lines 3!2
critical z5v, z5!, z5z non-ohmic 554
force 312
of incidence . 273 ohmic 333
heating 364
of reflection zrc convection 168,772, L7A, L8O,364 elecrical
of refraction zz5 conventional current 322 energy 106,364,365,370
atmospheric converginglenses 234,24O,243 electromagnet 399,409
pressure : t33,1-34,136, 159 coulomb 307 electromagnetic
atoms 5UO
cresr 263 induction 4ZO

critical angle 230,231,232 waves 774,274

Curie, Marie 2ao spectrum 274
B currenr electrons 5Ub
barometer 136
alternating 392 electron flow 322
balance 5ZZ
conventional electrostatic
Deam 73
direct 391 discharge 370,31.4,3L5
electronic aa
electric 5ZZ,sZJ, J4Z precipitators 3L7
spnng 72
electromotive force
boiling L96, 197,202 (e.m.f.) L49,325,326,329, 426
boiling point 196 energy
D
Brownian motion 156 d.c. motor 41.8
conversion 707

24 chemical potential tO5,37!

deceleration
demagnetisation 390 definition tO4
c density
efficiency 77O
camera 234,237,244 77 elastic potential 1O5
average
carbon brushes 4L4,433 definition to electrical 106, 364, 366, 370
cathode-ray gravitational
direct current 391
oscilloscope (c.r.o.) 299,441,442 potential tO5, I74,37O
displacement
cells kinetic LO4, 773, 1.57, t7O,37O
definition 20
in parallel 327 tight 106, 370
d is placement-time
In senes 327 Principle of Conservation
graph 27,30,264,249
of Energy 107, 108, !7O,73O,437
Celsius scale 745,746, L4A
displacement-distance
centre of gravity 92,93 grapn 264,289 non-renewable sources 370

cnarge 5UO distance 20 nuclear !06,377

diverging lenses 234 renewable sources 370
chemical
potential energy LOs,371
double insulation 379 thermal 106, 168, 177,364

dry cell 5ZO

equilibrium gravitational K
potential energy tos, 174,370
neutral kelvin 3,744
gravity 70
stable 95 kilogram 3,70
unstable kilowatt-hour 368
error kinetic energy ro4, tt3, 1,57,
4a H L70,370
human reaction time
parallax 7
hard magnetic materials 397 kinetic model of matter
' o 1n
heat definition 155
definition 1-44 evidence 156
evaporailon 202,203,204
capacity 747
capacity (specific) 188
human reaction time f5 L
F
hurricanes 205 lamina v5
Faraday, Michael 4ZO
hydraulic latent heat
Faraday's Law of
electromagnetic induction 427 disc brake system 732 definition 797
Faraday's solenoid experiment 426 machines 129 of fusion 193, 195, 198
filament lamp 334 press 130 of fusion (specific) 198
Fleming's of vapourisation 797,200
left-hand rule 4r2,43r of vapourisation (specific) 200
right-hand rule 431- I Law of lnertia 56
focal length 236 ice point 1-46 law of magnetic poles 387
focal plane 234 induced current 4ZO laws of reflection 273,275
forces induced e.m.f. 427 laws of refraction 222,275
balanced 5b induction LCD projector 244
definition 50 electromagnetic 426 length 6
effects 55 electrostatic 309 tenses
electric 312 magnetic 389 converging 234,24O,243
equilibrium 88 inertia 75 diverging 234
free-body diagrams 64 infrared Lenz's Law 427
turning effect 84,477 heating 280 light
unbalanced 5I radiation 174, !75, 176,274,278 energy 106,370
fossil fuels 370 infrasound 296 ray diagrams 217,240
free-body diagrams 64 input transducers 354 reflection 272,213,2L4
free electron diffusion 770 insulation refraction 222,227
freezing point 193 damaged 372 speed 224
frequency 265,298 double 379 light-dependentresistor(LDR) 356
friction 61, 63, 308 insulator lightning 314
fuses electrical 308, 310 line ol action 84
heat 169,178 liquid 155
internal energy live wire 378
G kinetic 186 lodestone 386
Galileo, Galilei 51, potential 186 long-sightedness 245
gamma rays 274,279 longitudinal wave 267,2aG
gas 155 loudness 300
gas pressure 133, 137, 159 I luminous objects 272
gravitational joule LO4, 744,186, 366
field 7t Joufe. James Prescott !46
field strength 77
force 72
M non-ohmic conductor 334 precrsron 7
Maglev trains 4tO non-uniformacceleration 26 prefixes 4
magnets north pole 387 pressure
induced 389 nuclear energy LO6,371, atmospheric 1-33, 134, 136, 159
permanent 397,4tB nucleus 306 definition !24
temporary 397 in gases 133, 137, 159
magnetic in liquids 127, L29
domains 390 o primary coil 436
door-catches 399 Oersted, Hans Christian 406 principal axis 234
field 393, 406, 475,477 Oersted's experiment 4Oo principal focus 234
field lines 395 ohm 33O Principle of Conservation
field patterns 395, 4O7 Ohm, Georg 332 ofEnergy 107, 108, !7O,73O,437
force 393 Ohm's law 332 Moments
Principle of 86, 87

induction 389 one-way mirrors 22I,227 protons 306

materials 386, 391 open circuit 325

poles optical centre 238
. 387
optical fibres R
repulsion 388 235,278
" shielding 396 oscillation L3,256 radiation 168,774, 775,776, ta0
overheating 372 radiation therapy 279
magnetic resonance
imaging (MRl) 396 radio waves 274,277
magnetisation 390 radiography 279
manometer !37 P range of audibility 296
mass 70 parallax error 7 rarefactions 287
matter 2,70 parallel circuit 345, 349 reflection
melting 792,793 parallelogram method 52 of light 272,21.3,2t4
melting point t92 Pascal's principle 729 of sound 293
melre 3,6,20 pascal LZ+ refraction 222,227
micrometer screw gauge 10 pendulum 13, 108 refractive index 224
mtcrowaves 274,277 period 12, 1,3,265 repulsion J66
moments periodic motion a5 resistance
definition a4 permanent magnets 397,4r8 atr 40,4r
Principle of Moments 86, 87 pnase 263 effective 344,347
motor effect 4t1,4!3 photocopiers 316 electrical 149, 330, 332, 366
moving-coil ammeters 399 physical quantities thermometer 1.49

moving-coil loudspeakers 399 3 resistivity 336

derived resistors

standard form 5 fixed 551

N piston L30,767 in parallel 346, 350
neutral equilibrium 95 pitch 298 In senes 343, 350
neutral wire 378 pivot a4 light-dependent 355, 356
neurrons 306 plane mirror 2t6 variable 331
newlon 51-,70 potentialdifference 325,32A,329, retardation 24
Newton's Laws of Motion 343,346 rheostat
First 56 dividers
potential 352 right-hand grip rule 397,407
Second definition 352 ripple tank 254
Third 59, 159 variable 353
non-luminous objects 212 potentiometer 353
non-magnetic materials 56b power 714,365,437

Index