Practical example

Importing the relevant libraries

# For this practical example we will need the following libraries and
modules
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import statsmodels.api as sm
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
import seaborn as sns
sns.set()

Loading the raw data

# Load the data from a .csv in the same folder
raw_data = pd.read_csv('1.04. Real-life example.csv')

# Let's explore the top 5 rows of the df

raw_data.head()

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV Engine Type \

0 BMW 4200.0 sedan 277 2.0 Petrol
1 Mercedes-Benz 7900.0 van 427 2.9 Diesel
2 Mercedes-Benz 13300.0 sedan 358 5.0 Gas
3 Audi 23000.0 crossover 240 4.2 Petrol
4 Toyota 18300.0 crossover 120 2.0 Petrol

Registration Year Model

0 yes 1991 320
1 yes 1999 Sprinter 212
2 yes 2003 S 500
3 yes 2007 Q7
4 yes 2011 Rav 4

Preprocessing
Exploring the descriptive statistics of the variables
# Descriptive statistics are very useful for initial exploration of
the variables
# By default, only descriptives for the numerical variables are shown
# To include the categorical ones, you should specify this with an
argument
raw_data.describe(include='all')
# Note that categorical variables don't have some types of numerical
descriptives
# and numerical variables don't have some types of categorical
descriptives

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV \

count 4345 4173.000000 4345 4345.000000 4195.000000
unique 7 NaN 6 NaN NaN
top Volkswagen NaN sedan NaN NaN
freq 936 NaN 1649 NaN NaN
mean NaN 19418.746935 NaN 161.237284 2.790734
std NaN 25584.242620 NaN 105.705797 5.066437
min NaN 600.000000 NaN 0.000000 0.600000
25% NaN 6999.000000 NaN 86.000000 1.800000
50% NaN 11500.000000 NaN 155.000000 2.200000
75% NaN 21700.000000 NaN 230.000000 3.000000
max NaN 300000.000000 NaN 980.000000 99.990000

Engine Type Registration Year Model

count 4345 4345 4345.000000 4345
unique 4 2 NaN 312
top Diesel yes NaN E-Class
freq 2019 3947 NaN 199
mean NaN NaN 2006.550058 NaN
std NaN NaN 6.719097 NaN
min NaN NaN 1969.000000 NaN
25% NaN NaN 2003.000000 NaN
50% NaN NaN 2008.000000 NaN
75% NaN NaN 2012.000000 NaN
max NaN NaN 2016.000000 NaN

Determining the variables of interest

# For these several lessons, we will create the regression without
'Model'
# Certainly, when you work on the problem on your own, you could
create a regression with 'Model'
data = raw_data.drop(['Model'],axis=1)

# Let's check the descriptives without 'Model'

data.describe(include='all')

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV \

count 4345 4173.000000 4345 4345.000000 4195.000000
unique 7 NaN 6 NaN NaN
top Volkswagen NaN sedan NaN NaN
freq 936 NaN 1649 NaN NaN
mean NaN 19418.746935 NaN 161.237284 2.790734
std NaN 25584.242620 NaN 105.705797 5.066437
min NaN 600.000000 NaN 0.000000 0.600000
25% NaN 6999.000000 NaN 86.000000 1.800000
50% NaN 11500.000000 NaN 155.000000 2.200000
75% NaN 21700.000000 NaN 230.000000 3.000000
max NaN 300000.000000 NaN 980.000000 99.990000

Engine Type Registration Year

count 4345 4345 4345.000000
unique 4 2 NaN
top Diesel yes NaN
freq 2019 3947 NaN
mean NaN NaN 2006.550058
std NaN NaN 6.719097
min NaN NaN 1969.000000
25% NaN NaN 2003.000000
50% NaN NaN 2008.000000
75% NaN NaN 2012.000000
max NaN NaN 2016.000000

Dealing with missing values

# data.isnull() # shows a df with the information whether a data point
is null
# Since True = the data point is missing, while False = the data point
is not missing, we can sum them
# This will give us the total number of missing values feature-wise
data.isnull().sum()

Brand 0
Price 172
Body 0
Mileage 0
EngineV 150
Engine Type 0
Registration 0
Year 0
dtype: int64

# Let's simply drop all missing values

# This is not always recommended, however, when we remove less than 5%
of the data, it is okay
data_no_mv = data.dropna(axis=0)

# Let's check the descriptives without the missing values

data_no_mv.describe(include='all')

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV \

count 4025 4025.000000 4025 4025.000000 4025.000000
unique 7 NaN 6 NaN NaN
top Volkswagen NaN sedan NaN NaN
freq 880 NaN 1534 NaN NaN
mean NaN 19552.308065 NaN 163.572174 2.764586
std NaN 25815.734988 NaN 103.394703 4.935941
min NaN 600.000000 NaN 0.000000 0.600000
25% NaN 6999.000000 NaN 90.000000 1.800000
50% NaN 11500.000000 NaN 158.000000 2.200000
75% NaN 21900.000000 NaN 230.000000 3.000000
max NaN 300000.000000 NaN 980.000000 99.990000

Engine Type Registration Year

count 4025 4025 4025.000000
unique 4 2 NaN
top Diesel yes NaN
freq 1861 3654 NaN
mean NaN NaN 2006.379627
std NaN NaN 6.695595
min NaN NaN 1969.000000
25% NaN NaN 2003.000000
50% NaN NaN 2007.000000
75% NaN NaN 2012.000000
max NaN NaN 2016.000000

Exploring the PDFs

# A great step in the data exploration is to display the probability
distribution function (PDF) of a variable
# The PDF will show us how that variable is distributed
# This makes it very easy to spot anomalies, such as outliers
# The PDF is often the basis on which we decide whether we want to
transform a feature
sns.distplot(data_no_mv['Price'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b897ab4940>
Dealing with outliers
# Obviously there are some outliers present

# Without diving too deep into the topic, we can deal with the problem
easily by removing 0.5%, or 1% of the problematic samples
# Here, the outliers are situated around the higher prices (right side
of the graph)
# Logic should also be applied
# This is a dataset about used cars, therefore one can imagine how
$300,000 is an excessive price

# Outliers are a great issue for OLS, thus we must deal with them in
some way
# It may be a useful exercise to try training a model without removing
the outliers

# Let's declare a variable that will be equal to the 99th percentile

of the 'Price' variable
q = data_no_mv['Price'].quantile(0.99)
# Then we can create a new df, with the condition that all prices must
be below the 99 percentile of 'Price'
data_1 = data_no_mv[data_no_mv['Price']<q]
# In this way we have essentially removed the top 1% of the data about
'Price'
data_1.describe(include='all')

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV \

count 3984 3984.000000 3984 3984.000000 3984.000000
unique 7 NaN 6 NaN NaN
top Volkswagen NaN sedan NaN NaN
freq 880 NaN 1528 NaN NaN
mean NaN 17837.117460 NaN 165.116466 2.743770
std NaN 18976.268315 NaN 102.766126 4.956057
min NaN 600.000000 NaN 0.000000 0.600000
25% NaN 6980.000000 NaN 93.000000 1.800000
50% NaN 11400.000000 NaN 160.000000 2.200000
75% NaN 21000.000000 NaN 230.000000 3.000000
max NaN 129222.000000 NaN 980.000000 99.990000

Engine Type Registration Year

count 3984 3984 3984.000000
unique 4 2 NaN
top Diesel yes NaN
freq 1853 3613 NaN
mean NaN NaN 2006.292922
std NaN NaN 6.672745
min NaN NaN 1969.000000
25% NaN NaN 2002.750000
50% NaN NaN 2007.000000
75% NaN NaN 2011.000000
max NaN NaN 2016.000000

# We can check the PDF once again to ensure that the result is still
distributed in the same way overall
# however, there are much fewer outliers
sns.distplot(data_1['Price'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b897eacfd0>
# We can treat the other numerical variables in a similar way
sns.distplot(data_no_mv['Mileage'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b897e36e80>
q = data_1['Mileage'].quantile(0.99)
data_2 = data_1[data_1['Mileage']<q]

# This plot looks kind of normal, doesn't it?

sns.distplot(data_2['Mileage'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b8980359b0>

# The situation with engine volume is very strange

# In such cases it makes sense to manually check what may be causing
the problem
# In our case the issue comes from the fact that most missing values
are indicated with 99.99 or 99
# There are also some incorrect entries like 75
sns.distplot(data_no_mv['EngineV'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b897f681d0>
# A simple Google search can indicate the natural domain of this
variable
# Car engine volumes are usually (always?) below 6.5l
# This is a prime example of the fact that a domain expert (a person
working in the car industry)
# may find it much easier to determine problems with the data than an
outsider
data_3 = data_2[data_2['EngineV']<6.5]

# Following this graph, we realize we can actually treat EngineV as a

categorical variable
# Even so, in this course we won't, but that's yet something else you
may try on your own
sns.distplot(data_3['EngineV'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b8981a0b00>
# Finally, the situation with 'Year' is similar to 'Price' and
'Mileage'
# However, the outliers are on the low end
sns.distplot(data_no_mv['Year'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b89825e6a0>
# I'll simply remove them
q = data_3['Year'].quantile(0.01)
data_4 = data_3[data_3['Year']>q]

# Here's the new result

sns.distplot(data_4['Year'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b898296d30>

# When we remove observations, the original indexes are preserved

# If we remove observations with indexes 2 and 3, the indexes will go
as: 0,1,4,5,6
# That's very problematic as we tend to forget about it (later you
will see an example of such a problem)

# Finally, once we reset the index, a new column will be created

containing the old index (just in case)
# We won't be needing it, thus 'drop=True' to completely forget about
it
data_cleaned = data_4.reset_index(drop=True)

# Let's see what's left

data_cleaned.describe(include='all')

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV \

count 3867 3867.000000 3867 3867.000000 3867.000000
unique 7 NaN 6 NaN NaN
top Volkswagen NaN sedan NaN NaN
freq 848 NaN 1467 NaN NaN
mean NaN 18194.455679 NaN 160.542539 2.450440
std NaN 19085.855165 NaN 95.633291 0.949366
min NaN 800.000000 NaN 0.000000 0.600000
25% NaN 7200.000000 NaN 91.000000 1.800000
50% NaN 11700.000000 NaN 157.000000 2.200000
75% NaN 21700.000000 NaN 225.000000 3.000000
max NaN 129222.000000 NaN 435.000000 6.300000

Engine Type Registration Year

count 3867 3867 3867.000000
unique 4 2 NaN
top Diesel yes NaN
freq 1807 3505 NaN
mean NaN NaN 2006.709853
std NaN NaN 6.103870
min NaN NaN 1988.000000
25% NaN NaN 2003.000000
50% NaN NaN 2008.000000
75% NaN NaN 2012.000000
max NaN NaN 2016.000000

Checking the OLS assumptions

# Here we decided to use some matplotlib code, without explaining it
# You can simply use plt.scatter() for each of them (with your current
knowledge)
# But since Price is the 'y' axis of all the plots, it made sense to
plot them side-by-side (so we can compare them)
f, (ax1, ax2, ax3) = plt.subplots(1, 3, sharey=True, figsize =(15,3))
#sharey -> share 'Price' as y
ax1.scatter(data_cleaned['Year'],data_cleaned['Price'])
ax1.set_title('Price and Year')
ax2.scatter(data_cleaned['EngineV'],data_cleaned['Price'])
ax2.set_title('Price and EngineV')
ax3.scatter(data_cleaned['Mileage'],data_cleaned['Price'])
ax3.set_title('Price and Mileage')

plt.show()
# From the subplots and the PDF of price, we can easily determine that
'Price' is exponentially distributed
# A good transformation in that case is a log transformation
sns.distplot(data_cleaned['Price'])

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x2b8994ccdd8>

Relaxing the assumptions

# Let's transform 'Price' with a log transformation
log_price = np.log(data_cleaned['Price'])

# Then we add it to our data frame

data_cleaned['log_price'] = log_price
data_cleaned

Brand Price Body Mileage EngineV Engine Type

\
0 BMW 4200.0 sedan 277 2.00 Petrol

1 Mercedes-Benz 7900.0 van 427 2.90 Diesel

2 Mercedes-Benz 13300.0 sedan 358 5.00 Gas

3 Audi 23000.0 crossover 240 4.20 Petrol

4 Toyota 18300.0 crossover 120 2.00 Petrol

5 Audi 14200.0 vagon 200 2.70 Diesel

6 Renault 10799.0 vagon 193 1.50 Diesel

7 Volkswagen 1400.0 other 212 1.80 Gas

8 Renault 11950.0 vagon 177 1.50 Diesel

9 Renault 2500.0 sedan 260 1.79 Petrol

10 Audi 9500.0 vagon 165 2.70 Gas

11 Volkswagen 10500.0 sedan 100 1.80 Petrol

12 Toyota 16000.0 crossover 250 4.70 Gas

13 Renault 8600.0 hatch 84 1.50 Diesel

14 BMW 2990.0 other 203 2.00 Petrol

15 Toyota 26500.0 crossover 21 2.00 Petrol

16 Audi 3500.0 vagon 250 2.50 Diesel

17 Toyota 38233.0 other 0 2.40 Diesel

18 Volkswagen 7500.0 hatch 132 1.40 Diesel

19 Audi 6800.0 sedan 225 2.40 Gas

20 Mitsubishi 10500.0 crossover 130 2.40 Gas

21 Audi 24900.0 sedan 163 4.20 Diesel

22 Volkswagen 20800.0 crossover 151 3.00 Diesel

23 Audi 6500.0 sedan 330 2.40 Petrol

24 Mercedes-Benz 13566.0 other 171 2.20 Other

25 Mitsubishi 8500.0 hatch 65 1.30 Petrol

26 Audi 2900.0 sedan 1 2.30 Gas

27 BMW 21500.0 other 72 3.00 Petrol

28 Mitsubishi 17900.0 crossover 87 3.80 Gas

29 BMW 28500.0 crossover 160 4.80 Gas

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

3837 Mercedes-Benz 11500.0 van 180 2.20 Diesel

3838 Mitsubishi 9700.0 van 247 2.40 Gas

3839 Renault 10500.0 vagon 185 1.50 Diesel

3840 Renault 10900.0 vagon 180 1.50 Diesel

3841 Mercedes-Benz 25500.0 crossover 77 3.50 Petrol

3842 Volkswagen 15500.0 sedan 80 1.40 Petrol

3843 Volkswagen 9750.0 van 159 1.90 Diesel

3844 BMW 16100.0 crossover 194 3.00 Diesel

3845 Volkswagen 9200.0 vagon 171 1.60 Petrol

3846 Volkswagen 5150.0 van 240 2.00 Diesel

3847 Toyota 100000.0 crossover 0 4.50 Diesel

3848 Renault 8999.0 other 126 2.00 Diesel

3849 Mercedes-Benz 16800.0 sedan 125 1.80 Petrol

3850 Mercedes-Benz 8200.0 sedan 280 2.40 Gas

3851 Mercedes-Benz 24950.0 other 60 1.80 Petrol

3852 Audi 80999.0 crossover 0 3.00 Diesel

3853 Mercedes-Benz 7300.0 van 207 2.20 Diesel

3854 BMW 21335.0 other 105 3.00 Petrol

3855 BMW 45000.0 crossover 80 3.00 Petrol

3856 Renault 6750.0 van 155 1.50 Diesel

3857 Renault 7000.0 van 210 1.50 Diesel

3858 BMW 12090.0 hatch 145 1.60 Petrol

3859 BMW 27900.0 sedan 38 2.00 Petrol

3860 Renault 2100.0 vagon 237 1.90 Diesel

3861 Renault 6800.0 sedan 152 1.60 Petrol

3862 Volkswagen 11500.0 van 163 2.50 Diesel

3863 Toyota 17900.0 sedan 35 1.60 Petrol

3864 Mercedes-Benz 125000.0 sedan 9 3.00 Diesel

3865 BMW 6500.0 sedan 1 3.50 Petrol

3866 Volkswagen 13500.0 van 124 2.00 Diesel

Registration Year log_price

0 yes 1991 8.342840
1 yes 1999 8.974618
2 yes 2003 9.495519
3 yes 2007 10.043249
4 yes 2011 9.814656
5 yes 2006 9.560997
6 yes 2012 9.287209
7 no 1999 7.244228
8 yes 2011 9.388487
9 yes 1994 7.824046
10 yes 2003 9.159047
11 yes 2008 9.259131
12 yes 2001 9.680344
13 yes 2012 9.059517
14 no 2001 8.003029
15 yes 2013 10.184900
16 no 1998 8.160518
17 yes 2016 10.551454
18 yes 2006 8.922658
19 yes 1998 8.824678
20 yes 2006 9.259131
21 yes 2008 10.122623
22 yes 2008 9.942708
23 yes 1999 8.779557
24 no 2011 9.515322
25 yes 2010 9.047821
26 yes 1989 7.972466
27 yes 2007 9.975808
28 yes 2008 9.792556
29 yes 2008 10.257659
... ... ... ...
3837 yes 2011 9.350102
3838 yes 2008 9.179881
3839 yes 2011 9.259131
3840 yes 2012 9.296518
3841 yes 2008 10.146434
3842 yes 2013 9.648595
3843 yes 2009 9.185023
3844 yes 2004 9.686575
3845 yes 2008 9.126959
3846 yes 2005 8.546752
3847 yes 2016 11.512925
3848 yes 2012 9.104869
3849 yes 2008 9.729134
3850 yes 1997 9.011889
3851 yes 2013 10.124629
3852 yes 2016 11.302192
3853 yes 2003 8.895630
3854 yes 2008 9.968104
3855 yes 2011 10.714418
3856 yes 2012 8.817298
3857 yes 2005 8.853665
3858 yes 2010 9.400134
3859 yes 2013 10.236382
3860 no 2001 7.649693
3861 yes 2007 8.824678
3862 yes 2008 9.350102
3863 yes 2014 9.792556
3864 yes 2014 11.736069
3865 yes 1999 8.779557
3866 yes 2013 9.510445

[3867 rows x 9 columns]

# Let's check the three scatters once again

f, (ax1, ax2, ax3) = plt.subplots(1, 3, sharey=True, figsize =(15,3))
ax1.scatter(data_cleaned['Year'],data_cleaned['log_price'])
ax1.set_title('Log Price and Year')
ax2.scatter(data_cleaned['EngineV'],data_cleaned['log_price'])
ax2.set_title('Log Price and EngineV')
ax3.scatter(data_cleaned['Mileage'],data_cleaned['log_price'])
ax3.set_title('Log Price and Mileage')

plt.show()

# The relationships show a clear linear relationship

# This is some good linear regression material

# Alternatively we could have transformed each of the independent

variables
# Since we will be using the log price variable, we can drop the old
'Price' one
data_cleaned = data_cleaned.drop(['Price'],axis=1)

Multicollinearity
# Let's quickly see the columns of our data frame
data_cleaned.columns.values

array(['Brand', 'Body', 'Mileage', 'EngineV', 'Engine Type',

'Registration', 'Year', 'log_price'], dtype=object)

# sklearn does not have a built-in way to check for multicollinearity

# one of the main reasons is that this is an issue well covered in
statistical frameworks and not in ML ones
# surely it is an issue nonetheless, thus we will try to deal with it

# Here's the relevant module

# full documentation:
http://www.statsmodels.org/dev/_modules/statsmodels/stats/outliers_inf
luence.html#variance_inflation_factor
from statsmodels.stats.outliers_influence import
variance_inflation_factor

# To make this as easy as possible to use, we declare a variable where

we put
# all features where we want to check for multicollinearity
# since our categorical data is not yet preprocessed, we will only
take the numerical ones
variables = data_cleaned[['Mileage','Year','EngineV']]

# we create a new data frame which will include all the VIFs
# note that each variable has its own variance inflation factor as
this measure is variable specific (not model specific)
vif = pd.DataFrame()

# here we make use of the variance_inflation_factor, which will

basically output the respective VIFs
vif["VIF"] = [variance_inflation_factor(variables.values, i) for i in
range(variables.shape[1])]
# Finally, I like to include names so it is easier to explore the
result
vif["Features"] = variables.columns

# Let's explore the result

vif

VIF Features
0 3.791584 Mileage
1 10.354854 Year
2 7.662068 EngineV
# Since Year has the highest VIF, I will remove it from the model
# This will drive the VIF of other variables down!!!
# So even if EngineV seems with a high VIF, too, once 'Year' is gone
that will no longer be the case
data_no_multicollinearity = data_cleaned.drop(['Year'],axis=1)

Create dummy variables

# To include the categorical data in the regression, let's create
dummies
# There is a very convenient method called: 'get_dummies' which does
that seemlessly
# It is extremely important that we drop one of the dummies,
alternatively we will introduce multicollinearity
data_with_dummies = pd.get_dummies(data_no_multicollinearity,
drop_first=True)

# Here's the result

data_with_dummies.head()

Mileage EngineV log_price Brand_BMW Brand_Mercedes-Benz \

0 277 2.0 8.342840 1 0
1 427 2.9 8.974618 0 1
2 358 5.0 9.495519 0 1
3 240 4.2 10.043249 0 0
4 120 2.0 9.814656 0 0

Brand_Mitsubishi Brand_Renault Brand_Toyota Brand_Volkswagen \

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0

Body_hatch Body_other Body_sedan Body_vagon Body_van Engine

Type_Gas \
0 0 0 1 0 0
0
1 0 0 0 0 1
0
2 0 0 1 0 0
1
3 0 0 0 0 0
0
4 0 0 0 0 0
0

Engine Type_Other Engine Type_Petrol Registration_yes

0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
2 0 0 1
3 0 1 1
4 0 1 1

Rearrange a bit
# To make our data frame more organized, we prefer to place the
dependent variable in the beginning of the df
# Since each problem is different, that must be done manually
# We can display all possible features and then choose the desired
order
data_with_dummies.columns.values

array(['Mileage', 'EngineV', 'log_price', 'Brand_BMW',

'Brand_Mercedes-Benz', 'Brand_Mitsubishi', 'Brand_Renault',
'Brand_Toyota', 'Brand_Volkswagen', 'Body_hatch', 'Body_other',
'Body_sedan', 'Body_vagon', 'Body_van', 'Engine Type_Gas',
'Engine Type_Other', 'Engine Type_Petrol', 'Registration_yes'],
dtype=object)

# To make the code a bit more parametrized, let's declare a new

variable that will contain the preferred order
# If you want a different order, just specify it here
# Conventionally, the most intuitive order is: dependent variable,
indepedendent numerical variables, dummies
cols = ['log_price', 'Mileage', 'EngineV', 'Brand_BMW',
'Brand_Mercedes-Benz', 'Brand_Mitsubishi', 'Brand_Renault',
'Brand_Toyota', 'Brand_Volkswagen', 'Body_hatch', 'Body_other',
'Body_sedan', 'Body_vagon', 'Body_van', 'Engine Type_Gas',
'Engine Type_Other', 'Engine Type_Petrol', 'Registration_yes']

# To implement the reordering, we will create a new df, which is equal

to the old one but with the new order of features
data_preprocessed = data_with_dummies[cols]
data_preprocessed.head()

log_price Mileage EngineV Brand_BMW Brand_Mercedes-Benz \

0 8.342840 277 2.0 1 0
1 8.974618 427 2.9 0 1
2 9.495519 358 5.0 0 1
3 10.043249 240 4.2 0 0
4 9.814656 120 2.0 0 0

Brand_Mitsubishi Brand_Renault Brand_Toyota Brand_Volkswagen \

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0
 Body_hatch Body_other Body_sedan Body_vagon Body_van Engine
Type_Gas \
0 0 0 1 0 0
0
1 0 0 0 0 1
0
2 0 0 1 0 0
1
3 0 0 0 0 0
0
4 0 0 0 0 0
0

Engine Type_Other Engine Type_Petrol Registration_yes

0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
2 0 0 1
3 0 1 1
4 0 1 1

Linear regression model

Declare the inputs and the targets
# The target(s) (dependent variable) is 'log price'
targets = data_preprocessed['log_price']

# The inputs are everything BUT the dependent variable, so we can

simply drop it
inputs = data_preprocessed.drop(['log_price'],axis=1)

Scale the data

# Import the scaling module
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

# Create a scaler object

scaler = StandardScaler()
# Fit the inputs (calculate the mean and standard deviation feature-
wise)
scaler.fit(inputs)

StandardScaler(copy=True, with_mean=True, with_std=True)

# Scale the features and store them in a new variable (the actual
scaling procedure)
inputs_scaled = scaler.transform(inputs)
Train Test Split
# Import the module for the split
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

# Split the variables with an 80-20 split and some random state
# To have the same split as mine, use random_state = 365
x_train, x_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(inputs_scaled,
targets, test_size=0.2, random_state=365)

Create the regression

# Create a linear regression object
reg = LinearRegression()
# Fit the regression with the scaled TRAIN inputs and targets
reg.fit(x_train,y_train)

LinearRegression(copy_X=True, fit_intercept=True, n_jobs=1,

normalize=False)

# Let's check the outputs of the regression

# I'll store them in y_hat as this is the 'theoretical' name of the
predictions
y_hat = reg.predict(x_train)

# The simplest way to compare the targets (y_train) and the

predictions (y_hat) is to plot them on a scatter plot
# The closer the points to the 45-degree line, the better the
prediction
plt.scatter(y_train, y_hat)
# Let's also name the axes
plt.xlabel('Targets (y_train)',size=18)
plt.ylabel('Predictions (y_hat)',size=18)
# Sometimes the plot will have different scales of the x-axis and the
y-axis
# This is an issue as we won't be able to interpret the '45-degree
line'
# We want the x-axis and the y-axis to be the same
plt.xlim(6,13)
plt.ylim(6,13)
plt.show()
# Another useful check of our model is a residual plot
# We can plot the PDF of the residuals and check for anomalies
sns.distplot(y_train - y_hat)

# Include a title
plt.title("Residuals PDF", size=18)

# In the best case scenario this plot should be normally distributed

# In our case we notice that there are many negative residuals (far
away from the mean)
# Given the definition of the residuals (y_train - y_hat), negative
values imply
# that y_hat (predictions) are much higher than y_train (the targets)
# This is food for thought to improve our model

Text(0.5,1,'Residuals PDF')
# Find the R-squared of the model
reg.score(x_train,y_train)

# Note that this is NOT the adjusted R-squared

# in other words... find the Adjusted R-squared to have the
appropriate measure :)

0.744996578792662

Finding the weights and bias

# Obtain the bias (intercept) of the regression
reg.intercept_

9.415239458021299

# Obtain the weights (coefficients) of the regression

reg.coef_

# Note that they are barely interpretable if at all

array([-0.44871341, 0.20903483, 0.0142496 , 0.01288174, -

0.14055166,
-0.17990912, -0.06054988, -0.08992433, -0.1454692 , -
0.10144383,
-0.20062984, -0.12988747, -0.16859669, -0.12149035, -
0.03336798,
-0.14690868, 0.32047333])

# Create a regression summary where we can compare them with one-

another
reg_summary = pd.DataFrame(inputs.columns.values,
columns=['Features'])
reg_summary['Weights'] = reg.coef_
reg_summary

Features Weights
0 Mileage -0.448713
1 EngineV 0.209035
2 Brand_BMW 0.014250
3 Brand_Mercedes-Benz 0.012882
4 Brand_Mitsubishi -0.140552
5 Brand_Renault -0.179909
6 Brand_Toyota -0.060550
7 Brand_Volkswagen -0.089924
8 Body_hatch -0.145469
9 Body_other -0.101444
10 Body_sedan -0.200630
11 Body_vagon -0.129887
12 Body_van -0.168597
13 Engine Type_Gas -0.121490
14 Engine Type_Other -0.033368
15 Engine Type_Petrol -0.146909
16 Registration_yes 0.320473

# Check the different categories in the 'Brand' variable

data_cleaned['Brand'].unique()

# In this way we can see which 'Brand' is actually the benchmark

array(['BMW', 'Mercedes-Benz', 'Audi', 'Toyota', 'Renault',

'Volkswagen',
'Mitsubishi'], dtype=object)

Testing
# Once we have trained and fine-tuned our model, we can proceed to
testing it
# Testing is done on a dataset that the algorithm has never seen
# Luckily we have prepared such a dataset
# Our test inputs are 'x_test', while the outputs: 'y_test'
# We SHOULD NOT TRAIN THE MODEL ON THEM, we just feed them and find
the predictions
# If the predictions are far off, we will know that our model
overfitted
y_hat_test = reg.predict(x_test)
# Create a scatter plot with the test targets and the test predictions
# You can include the argument 'alpha' which will introduce opacity to
the graph
plt.scatter(y_test, y_hat_test, alpha=0.2)
plt.xlabel('Targets (y_test)',size=18)
plt.ylabel('Predictions (y_hat_test)',size=18)
plt.xlim(6,13)
plt.ylim(6,13)
plt.show()

# Finally, let's manually check these predictions

# To obtain the actual prices, we take the exponential of the
log_price
df_pf = pd.DataFrame(np.exp(y_hat_test), columns=['Prediction'])
df_pf.head()

Prediction
0 10685.501696
1 3499.255242
2 7553.285218
3 7463.963017
4 11353.490075

# We can also include the test targets in that data frame (so we can
manually compare them)
df_pf['Target'] = np.exp(y_test)
df_pf
# Note that we have a lot of missing values
# There is no reason to have ANY missing values, though
# This suggests that something is wrong with the data frame / indexing

Prediction Target
0 10685.501696 NaN
1 3499.255242 7900.0
2 7553.285218 NaN
3 7463.963017 NaN
4 11353.490075 NaN
5 21289.799394 14200.0
6 20159.189144 NaN
7 20349.617702 NaN
8 11581.537864 11950.0
9 33614.617349 NaN
10 7241.068243 NaN
11 5175.769541 10500.0
12 5484.015362 NaN
13 13292.711243 NaN
14 8248.666686 NaN
15 10621.836767 NaN
16 23721.581637 3500.0
17 11770.636010 NaN
18 37600.146722 7500.0
19 16178.143307 6800.0
20 11876.820988 NaN
21 31557.804999 NaN
22 6102.358118 NaN
23 13111.914144 NaN
24 23650.150725 NaN
25 45272.248411 NaN
26 2178.941672 NaN
27 2555.022542 NaN
28 35991.510539 NaN
29 26062.229419 NaN
.. ... ...
744 2379.583414 NaN
745 6421.180201 7777.0
746 13355.106770 NaN
747 8453.281424 10500.0
748 48699.979367 NaN
749 6082.849234 4100.0
750 10381.621436 NaN
751 8493.042746 NaN
752 8591.658845 13999.0
753 6358.547301 NaN
754 17028.451182 NaN
755 15885.658673 NaN
756 3752.540952 NaN
757 12028.905190 NaN
758 9380.459827 16999.0
759 10125.265176 NaN
760 13443.324968 NaN
761 9097.127448 NaN
762 12201.288474 4700.0
763 12383.352887 NaN
764 14049.760996 NaN
765 11034.660068 3750.0
766 18982.148845 NaN
767 24323.483753 NaN
768 38260.361723 NaN
769 29651.726363 6950.0
770 10732.071179 NaN
771 13922.446953 NaN
772 27487.751303 NaN
773 13491.163043 NaN

[774 rows x 2 columns]

# After displaying y_test, we find what the issue is

# The old indexes are preserved (recall earlier in that code we made a
note on that)
# The code was: data_cleaned = data_4.reset_index(drop=True)

# Therefore, to get a proper result, we must reset the index and drop
the old indexing
y_test = y_test.reset_index(drop=True)

# Check the result

y_test.head()

0 7.740664
1 7.937375
2 7.824046
3 8.764053
4 9.121509
Name: log_price, dtype: float64

# Let's overwrite the 'Target' column with the appropriate values

# Again, we need the exponential of the test log price
df_pf['Target'] = np.exp(y_test)
df_pf

Prediction Target
0 10685.501696 2300.0
1 3499.255242 2800.0
2 7553.285218 2500.0
3 7463.963017 6400.0
4 11353.490075 9150.0
5 21289.799394 20000.0
6 20159.189144 38888.0
7 20349.617702 16999.0
8 11581.537864 12500.0
9 33614.617349 41000.0
10 7241.068243 12800.0
11 5175.769541 5000.0
12 5484.015362 7900.0
13 13292.711243 16999.0
14 8248.666686 9200.0
15 10621.836767 11999.0
16 23721.581637 20500.0
17 11770.636010 9700.0
18 37600.146722 39900.0
19 16178.143307 16400.0
20 11876.820988 15200.0
21 31557.804999 24500.0
22 6102.358118 5650.0
23 13111.914144 12900.0
24 23650.150725 20900.0
25 45272.248411 31990.0
26 2178.941672 3600.0
27 2555.022542 11600.0
28 35991.510539 43999.0
29 26062.229419 42500.0
.. ... ...
744 2379.583414 3000.0
745 6421.180201 4400.0
746 13355.106770 7500.0
747 8453.281424 10900.0
748 48699.979367 77500.0
749 6082.849234 7450.0
750 10381.621436 3000.0
751 8493.042746 12800.0
752 8591.658845 12000.0
753 6358.547301 4850.0
754 17028.451182 18700.0
755 15885.658673 17300.0
756 3752.540952 2600.0
757 12028.905190 10500.0
758 9380.459827 7950.0
759 10125.265176 6700.0
760 13443.324968 9000.0
761 9097.127448 8000.0
762 12201.288474 12999.0
763 12383.352887 10800.0
764 14049.760996 10700.0
765 11034.660068 9800.0
766 18982.148845 17900.0
767 24323.483753 18800.0
768 38260.361723 75555.0
769 29651.726363 29500.0
770 10732.071179 9600.0
771 13922.446953 18300.0
772 27487.751303 68500.0
773 13491.163043 10800.0

[774 rows x 2 columns]

# Additionally, we can calculate the difference between the targets

and the predictions
# Note that this is actually the residual (we already plotted the
residuals)
df_pf['Residual'] = df_pf['Target'] - df_pf['Prediction']

# Since OLS is basically an algorithm which minimizes the total sum of

squared errors (residuals),
# this comparison makes a lot of sense

# Finally, it makes sense to see how far off we are from the result
percentage-wise
# Here, we take the absolute difference in %, so we can easily order
the data frame
df_pf['Difference%'] =
np.absolute(df_pf['Residual']/df_pf['Target']*100)
df_pf

Prediction Target Residual Difference%

0 10685.501696 2300.0 -8385.501696 364.587030
1 3499.255242 2800.0 -699.255242 24.973402
2 7553.285218 2500.0 -5053.285218 202.131409
3 7463.963017 6400.0 -1063.963017 16.624422
4 11353.490075 9150.0 -2203.490075 24.081859
5 21289.799394 20000.0 -1289.799394 6.448997
6 20159.189144 38888.0 18728.810856 48.160900
7 20349.617702 16999.0 -3350.617702 19.710675
8 11581.537864 12500.0 918.462136 7.347697
9 33614.617349 41000.0 7385.382651 18.013128
10 7241.068243 12800.0 5558.931757 43.429154
11 5175.769541 5000.0 -175.769541 3.515391
12 5484.015362 7900.0 2415.984638 30.582084
13 13292.711243 16999.0 3706.288757 21.802981
14 8248.666686 9200.0 951.333314 10.340580
15 10621.836767 11999.0 1377.163233 11.477317
16 23721.581637 20500.0 -3221.581637 15.715032
17 11770.636010 9700.0 -2070.636010 21.346763
18 37600.146722 39900.0 2299.853278 5.764043
19 16178.143307 16400.0 221.856693 1.352785
20 11876.820988 15200.0 3323.179012 21.863020
21 31557.804999 24500.0 -7057.804999 28.807367
22 6102.358118 5650.0 -452.358118 8.006338
23 13111.914144 12900.0 -211.914144 1.642745
24 23650.150725 20900.0 -2750.150725 13.158616
25 45272.248411 31990.0 -13282.248411 41.520001
26 2178.941672 3600.0 1421.058328 39.473842
27 2555.022542 11600.0 9044.977458 77.973944
28 35991.510539 43999.0 8007.489461 18.199253
29 26062.229419 42500.0 16437.770581 38.677107
.. ... ... ... ...
744 2379.583414 3000.0 620.416586 20.680553
745 6421.180201 4400.0 -2021.180201 45.935914
746 13355.106770 7500.0 -5855.106770 78.068090
747 8453.281424 10900.0 2446.718576 22.446959
748 48699.979367 77500.0 28800.020633 37.161317
749 6082.849234 7450.0 1367.150766 18.351017
750 10381.621436 3000.0 -7381.621436 246.054048
751 8493.042746 12800.0 4306.957254 33.648104
752 8591.658845 12000.0 3408.341155 28.402843
753 6358.547301 4850.0 -1508.547301 31.104068
754 17028.451182 18700.0 1671.548818 8.938764
755 15885.658673 17300.0 1414.341327 8.175383
756 3752.540952 2600.0 -1152.540952 44.328498
757 12028.905190 10500.0 -1528.905190 14.561002
758 9380.459827 7950.0 -1430.459827 17.993205
759 10125.265176 6700.0 -3425.265176 51.123361
760 13443.324968 9000.0 -4443.324968 49.370277
761 9097.127448 8000.0 -1097.127448 13.714093
762 12201.288474 12999.0 797.711526 6.136715
763 12383.352887 10800.0 -1583.352887 14.660675
764 14049.760996 10700.0 -3349.760996 31.306178
765 11034.660068 9800.0 -1234.660068 12.598572
766 18982.148845 17900.0 -1082.148845 6.045524
767 24323.483753 18800.0 -5523.483753 29.380233
768 38260.361723 75555.0 37294.638277 49.360914
769 29651.726363 29500.0 -151.726363 0.514327
770 10732.071179 9600.0 -1132.071179 11.792408
771 13922.446953 18300.0 4377.553047 23.921055
772 27487.751303 68500.0 41012.248697 59.871896
773 13491.163043 10800.0 -2691.163043 24.918176

[774 rows x 4 columns]

# Exploring the descriptives here gives us additional insights

df_pf.describe()

Prediction Target Residual Difference%

count 774.000000 774.000000 774.000000 774.000000
mean 15946.760167 18165.817106 2219.056939 36.256693
std 13133.197604 19967.858908 10871.218143 55.066507
min 1320.562768 1200.000000 -29456.498331 0.062794
25% 7413.644234 6900.000000 -2044.191251 12.108022
50% 11568.168859 11600.000000 142.518577 23.467728
75% 20162.408805 20500.000000 3147.343497 39.563570
max 77403.055224 126000.000000 85106.162329 512.688080

# Sometimes it is useful to check these outputs manually

# To see all rows, we use the relevant pandas syntax
pd.options.display.max_rows = 999
# Moreover, to make the dataset clear, we can display the result with
only 2 digits after the dot
pd.set_option('display.float_format', lambda x: '%.2f' % x)
# Finally, we sort by difference in % and manually check the model
df_pf.sort_values(by=['Difference%'])

Prediction Target Residual Difference%

698 30480.85 30500.00 19.15 0.06
742 16960.31 16999.00 38.69 0.23
60 12469.21 12500.00 30.79 0.25
110 25614.14 25500.00 -114.14 0.45
367 42703.68 42500.00 -203.68 0.48
369 3084.69 3100.00 15.31 0.49
769 29651.73 29500.00 -151.73 0.51
272 9749.53 9800.00 50.47 0.52
714 23118.07 22999.00 -119.07 0.52
630 8734.58 8800.00 65.42 0.74
380 3473.79 3500.00 26.21 0.75
648 21174.10 21335.00 160.90 0.75
308 8967.74 8900.00 -67.74 0.76
665 17858.02 18000.00 141.98 0.79
379 17654.84 17800.00 145.16 0.82
719 11391.95 11500.00 108.05 0.94
102 28625.56 28900.00 274.44 0.95
94 7724.17 7800.00 75.83 0.97
561 6429.03 6500.00 70.97 1.09
242 7597.39 7500.00 -97.39 1.30
528 18555.09 18800.00 244.91 1.30
61 7396.87 7300.00 -96.87 1.33
19 16178.14 16400.00 221.86 1.35
280 12327.10 12499.00 171.90 1.38
311 51287.19 52055.25 768.06 1.48
723 6009.63 6100.00 90.37 1.48
49 4973.17 4900.00 -73.17 1.49
114 27716.14 27300.00 -416.14 1.52
636 28498.91 28950.00 451.09 1.56
612 2953.17 3000.00 46.83 1.56
47 26425.14 25999.00 -426.14 1.64
23 13111.91 12900.00 -211.91 1.64
31 12858.08 12650.00 -208.08 1.64
91 13421.16 13200.00 -221.16 1.68
329 7327.18 7200.00 -127.18 1.77
549 3816.33 3750.00 -66.33 1.77
252 9721.50 9900.00 178.50 1.80
387 44173.72 44999.00 825.28 1.83
267 40753.58 40000.00 -753.58 1.88
467 22262.80 22711.65 448.85 1.98
556 18231.44 18600.00 368.56 1.98
165 9596.94 9400.00 -196.94 2.10
259 6067.79 6200.00 132.21 2.13
601 35371.16 34600.00 -771.16 2.23
708 11967.39 11700.00 -267.39 2.29
593 17908.00 17500.00 -408.00 2.33
398 8707.13 8500.00 -207.13 2.44
526 29049.27 28350.00 -699.27 2.47
603 14513.46 14900.00 386.54 2.59
53 20453.89 21000.00 546.11 2.60
632 15383.35 14990.00 -393.35 2.62
533 24642.50 24000.00 -642.50 2.68
497 50099.92 51500.00 1400.08 2.72
212 16133.86 15700.00 -433.86 2.76
130 17489.92 18000.00 510.08 2.83
290 1894.40 1950.00 55.60 2.85
78 30810.25 29900.00 -910.25 3.04
642 8721.97 8999.00 277.03 3.08
437 18866.50 18300.00 -566.50 3.10
101 5958.63 6150.00 191.37 3.11
314 5811.74 6000.00 188.26 3.14
150 9800.43 9500.00 -300.43 3.16
565 7324.63 7100.00 -224.63 3.16
574 12583.52 13000.00 416.48 3.20
591 10115.13 9800.00 -315.13 3.22
172 11156.38 10800.00 -356.38 3.30
133 9279.28 9600.00 320.72 3.34
480 31369.37 32500.00 1130.63 3.48
87 2315.71 2400.00 84.29 3.51
11 5175.77 5000.00 -175.77 3.52
43 21611.83 22400.00 788.17 3.52
96 7976.26 7700.00 -276.26 3.59
406 24874.86 23999.00 -875.86 3.65
173 36516.35 37900.00 1383.65 3.65
540 4666.05 4500.00 -166.05 3.69
40 18672.68 18000.00 -672.68 3.74
340 14815.83 15400.00 584.17 3.79
239 10581.62 10999.00 417.38 3.79
109 12663.54 12200.00 -463.54 3.80
256 1825.44 1900.00 74.56 3.92
317 12247.90 12750.00 502.10 3.94
77 5930.73 5700.00 -230.73 4.05
301 9782.47 10200.00 417.53 4.09
333 12452.22 11960.00 -492.22 4.12
570 23163.87 24171.42 1007.55 4.17
581 3246.94 3390.00 143.06 4.22
693 12354.16 12900.00 545.84 4.23
381 33499.44 35000.00 1500.56 4.29
438 16257.03 16999.00 741.97 4.36
368 8415.81 8800.00 384.19 4.37
273 12318.39 12900.00 581.61 4.51
235 2765.14 2900.00 134.86 4.65
168 11420.95 11999.00 578.05 4.82
707 2725.40 2600.00 -125.40 4.82
72 23624.69 22500.00 -1124.69 5.00
559 11377.84 11999.00 621.16 5.18
134 12096.18 11500.00 -596.18 5.18
446 9363.27 8900.00 -463.27 5.21
127 12311.47 11700.00 -611.47 5.23
450 14218.94 13500.00 -718.94 5.33
293 8431.89 7999.00 -432.89 5.41
18 37600.15 39900.00 2299.85 5.76
452 39882.67 37700.00 -2182.67 5.79
195 20588.57 21900.00 1311.43 5.99
676 6861.84 7300.00 438.16 6.00
766 18982.15 17900.00 -1082.15 6.05
328 15067.85 14200.00 -867.85 6.11
762 12201.29 12999.00 797.71 6.14
649 11147.91 10500.00 -647.91 6.17
299 20183.30 18999.00 -1184.30 6.23
641 17334.11 18500.00 1165.89 6.30
5 21289.80 20000.00 -1289.80 6.45
545 6826.78 7300.00 473.22 6.48
622 4472.47 4200.00 -272.47 6.49
422 53294.61 57000.00 3705.39 6.50
740 6658.73 6250.00 -408.73 6.54
85 19001.29 17800.00 -1201.29 6.75
315 4590.49 4300.00 -290.49 6.76
462 43236.92 40500.00 -2736.92 6.76
394 9076.42 8500.00 -576.42 6.78
188 10159.18 10900.00 740.82 6.80
731 16027.02 15000.00 -1027.02 6.85
448 13502.35 14500.00 997.65 6.88
254 6413.26 5999.00 -414.26 6.91
667 49221.63 52999.00 3777.37 7.13
600 21816.43 23500.00 1683.57 7.16
144 11969.66 12900.00 930.34 7.21
270 8263.95 7700.00 -563.95 7.32
8 11581.54 12500.00 918.46 7.35
433 6977.90 6500.00 -477.90 7.35
251 6978.91 6500.00 -478.91 7.37
553 16392.22 17700.00 1307.78 7.39
725 15742.41 16999.00 1256.59 7.39
615 7869.47 8500.00 630.53 7.42
518 21297.65 19800.00 -1497.65 7.56
268 6893.62 6400.00 -493.62 7.71
71 15627.03 14500.00 -1127.03 7.77
579 3411.53 3700.00 288.47 7.80
330 11336.71 12300.00 963.29 7.83
59 8195.34 7600.00 -595.34 7.83
354 16717.08 15500.00 -1217.08 7.85
147 7772.57 7200.00 -572.57 7.95
508 16197.42 15000.00 -1197.42 7.98
22 6102.36 5650.00 -452.36 8.01
103 4488.43 4150.00 -338.43 8.16
755 15885.66 17300.00 1414.34 8.18
198 17983.10 19600.00 1616.90 8.25
470 7045.72 6500.00 -545.72 8.40
710 3795.06 3500.00 -295.06 8.43
185 6130.96 6700.00 569.04 8.49
542 5947.51 6500.00 552.49 8.50
412 7609.28 7000.00 -609.28 8.70
415 8117.44 8900.00 782.56 8.79
200 11098.18 10200.00 -898.18 8.81
754 17028.45 18700.00 1671.55 8.94
65 19847.25 18200.00 -1647.25 9.05
682 5454.34 5000.00 -454.34 9.09
222 20662.46 18900.00 -1762.46 9.33
89 11696.25 12900.00 1203.75 9.33
52 10716.84 9800.00 -916.84 9.36
126 13459.92 12300.00 -1159.92 9.43
598 8767.54 9700.00 932.46 9.61
504 23272.83 25749.75 2476.92 9.62
493 5484.97 4999.00 -485.97 9.72
449 9495.62 8650.00 -845.62 9.78
516 11858.48 10800.00 -1058.48 9.80
261 53312.81 48535.50 -4777.31 9.84
531 47047.70 52300.00 5252.30 10.04
68 6717.17 6100.00 -617.17 10.12
376 5391.77 6000.00 608.23 10.14
538 17591.09 19600.00 2008.91 10.25
419 17591.09 19600.00 2008.91 10.25
595 25576.58 28500.00 2923.42 10.26
472 20367.25 22700.00 2332.75 10.28
386 7267.36 8100.00 832.64 10.28
473 1792.36 1999.00 206.64 10.34
14 8248.67 9200.00 951.33 10.34
123 5643.45 6300.00 656.55 10.42
142 6839.57 7650.00 810.43 10.59
257 41503.90 37500.00 -4003.90 10.68
194 9310.69 8400.00 -910.69 10.84
637 35662.26 40000.00 4337.74 10.84
410 16407.29 14800.00 -1607.29 10.86
395 21303.57 23900.00 2596.43 10.86
213 15872.91 14300.00 -1572.91 11.00
653 10332.54 9300.00 -1032.54 11.10
54 18575.43 20900.00 2324.57 11.12
105 8882.65 10000.00 1117.35 11.17
597 7797.18 6999.00 -798.18 11.40
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