Thermodynamics Lab

Air University
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace
Engineering Institute of Avionics and Aeronautics
(IAA)

Thermodynamics Lab
ME-234L

Lab Manual

Section:
Name AU ID

Submitted To:

Thermodynamics Lab 1
Thermodynamics Lab

Assessment Rubric and Grading of Lab Performance

The performance of students in the lab is based on the following criteria

PLO 5: MODERN TOOL USAGE:

Min
No progress Basics Good Excellent
Attributes Benchmark
1 2 3 4 5
Aware of process
Aware of the Aware of process Aware of
Mostly unaware and follow it.
process but lacks but lack process and
Apparatus of the process of Setup apparatus
competency in competency in follow it rightly
Setup setting up rightly and
following setting up as well as can
apparatus extend its
procedure apparatus setup apparatus
application.
Follows
Follows procedure Follows
Experimenta Does not procedure
Poor in following but not procedure
l Procedure comprehend appropriately and
completely appropriately
devise innovation
Lack proper
competency in Take readings
Can take readings
Unable to note taking readings, Can take accurately,
Readings and tabulate
readings and unable to readings, tabulate properly
properly but
and hence cannot properly tabulate tabulate properly and perform
cannot perform
Calculations perform and comes across and perform supporting
supporting
of Results supporting difficulty in supporting calculations
calculations by
calculations performing calculations through different
right method
supporting methods
calculations

PLO 9: INDIVIDUAL AND TEAMWORK:

Min
No progress Basics Good Excellent
Attributes Benchmark
1 2 3 4 5
Fulfill Performs all
Does not performs Inconsistently
performs duties duties assigned
Assigned No progress any duties performs duties
that are assigned and actively
Duties assigned that are assigned
assists others
Rarely does the Usually does Always does
Always relies on
Shares in assigned work assigned work assigned work
No progress other to do the
work of team often needs rarely needs without having to
work
reminding reminding reminded

Thermodynamics Lab 2
Thermodynamics Lab

Assessment Rubric And Grading of Lab Reports

PLO 10a: COMMUNICATION WRITTEN:

Note: To be filled by Lab Engineer for Lab Report Assessment.

STUDENT: Class: Roll No: Section:

No Min
Attributes Experiments progress Benchmark Basic Good Excellent
1 2 3 4 5
No Most results OK All results are All results are
calculatio Calculations and the necessary correct and correct and
ns have wrongly calculations have backed with properly
been made, and been carried out, appropriate shown and all
made and Results but some are still calculations, but the
Results contain missing some some have minor calculations
are errors. important or problems or could have been
missing. required features. still be improved. done correctly.
1
2
3
Calculations 4
and Results 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

All important
Both Major points in All important points in the
Sources Either one of conclusion have points in the conclusion and
of Error Sources of been stated and conclusion and sources of
& Error or sources of error are sources of error error have
Conclusio Conclusion is correctly identified have been stated, been clearly
n are missing but some points of could be better stated, student
missing both have been stated shows good
misstated understanding

1
Sources of 2
Error & 3
4
Conclusion 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Thermodynamics Lab 3
Thermodynamics Lab
No Min
Attributes Experiments progress Benchmark Basic Good Excellent
1 2 3 4 5
All the
Almost all the important
applications are applications
Written but Written but
covered shows are covered
Not the stated Missing some
good enough and well-
written applications important aspects
understanding, but written.
are irrelevant and/or applications
improvement can Student shows
be made. full
understanding.
1
Physical 2
Application 3
s of the 4
Experiment 5
ation 6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Average Score (Experiment 01) = Average Score (Experiment 02) =

Average Score (Experiment 03) = Average Score (Experiment 04) =

Average Score (Experiment 05) = Average Score (Experiment 06) =

Average Score (Experiment 07) = Average Score (Experiment 08) =

Average Score (Experiment 09) = Average Score (Experiment 10) =

Average Score (Experiment 11) = Average Score (Experiment 12) =

Average Score (Experiment 13) = Average Score (Experiment 14) =

Average Score (Experiment 15) =

Date: Signature:

Thermodynamics Lab 4
 Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Thermodynamics Lab
List of Experiments
Sr. No Name of Experiments
1. Introduction to equipment and layout of Thermodynamics Lab.
Recoding temperature of water using different temperature
2. measuring devices to give an idea about various temperature
sensors and gauges present in WL 202 fundamentals of
temperature measurement unit.
Calculate and measure different pressures using vertical and
3.
inclined U- Tube manometer.
Indirect method for pressure measurement: to demonstrate and
calculate working principle of Bourdon Tube pressure gauge.
4.
Calibrated systematic error. Study the working of piston operation
and working with a piston manometer.
To demonstrate the relationship between pressure and
5.
temperature of
saturated steam in equilibrium and vapor pressure curve of a
Marcet boiler.
Demonstration of single cylinder steam engine. Recording of a
6.
steam pressure curve in a single cylinder steam engine.
Demonstration of fuel consumption, amount of steam, steam
7.
power output and boiler efficiency in a single cylinder steam
engine.
To observe the basic refrigeration cycle by monitoring the transient
8.
changes in temperatures and pressure at different point along the
cycle.
To observe the basic heat pump cycle by monitoring the transient
9.
changes in temperatures and pressure at different point along the
cycle.
10. Measuring humidity using dew point hygrometer.
To measure the process of humidification and de-humidification
11. with the help
of four different humidity sensors present in Fundamentals of
Humidity Measurement WL 201.
Demonstration of Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law using Perfect Gas
12.
Apparatus TH 10-A
13. Demonstration of single stage air compressor.
14. Efficiency and performance of single stage air compressor
 Experiment No. 1
Objective:
Recording temperatures of water using different temperature measuring devices to
give an idea about various temperature sensors and gauges present in WL 202
Fundamentals of Temperature Measurement unit.

Method:
By measurement of temperature of water while heating it continuously up to the boiling
point.

Equipment Required:
 WL 202 Fundamentals of Temperature Measurement unit.
Thermodynamics Lab
Temperature Measurement Procedures:
Temperature Measurement Using Liquid Thermometers
In a glass thermometer, the relative expansion of a liquid compared to the contents of the bulb is
measured. The majority of the liquid bulb is in a spherical or cylindrical-shaped bulb that forms the
thermometer's actual sensing element (1). The bulb opens into the long, thin glass capillary tube (2).
Practically all liquids can be used in thermometers. Here a differentiation is made between wetting (e.g.
organic) and non-wetting liquids (e.g. mercury). Wetting liquids
cause additional errors as the temperature drops. An organic liquid
must be colored so that it is visible in the capillary tube and the
reading of the temperature made easier. Liquid containers for
mercury are larger than for other liquids due to the smaller
coefficient of expansion. The volume of the medium in liquid
thermometers changes in accordance with the following law:
Vt= Vo(1 + γ. ∆t)
Vt: Volume at temperature t
Vo: Volume at 0°C
γ :Coefficient of volumetric expansion in 1/K
γ: for mercury approx. 0.17. 10-
∆t Difference in temperature from 0°C in K
Temperature Measurement Using Bimetallic Thermometers
Bimetallic thermometers exploit the differential expansion of two different materials to indicate the
temperature. Two or more layers of different materials are rolled together. During this process,
different shapes can be manufactured depending on the application. One end of the sensor is firmly
anchored, the other is coupled to a transmission gear or directly to a display device. Contrary to rod
type thermometers, bimetallic sensors have only a low capacity to perform work. They are thus
practically limited to usage for indicating equipment, and are less suitable for remote indication. Over
wide measuring ranges, the nonlinear 5 relationship of the specific
deflection & to temperature becomes detrimentally apparent. Due to
the relatively large surface areas, bimetallic thermometers that are
exposed to the surrounding medium without heavy protective
housings, react comparatively quickly. The length of the individual
metals changes in accordance with the following formula:
Vt= Vo(1 + α. ∆t)
Vt: Volume at temperature t
Vo: Volume at 0°C
α: Coefficient of liner expansion in 1/K
∆t Difference in temperature from 0°C in K

Temperature Measurements Using Gas Thermometers:

The thermodynamic temperature scale forms the theoretical basis of
thermometry. As the scale is very involved to reproduce, a number
of fixed points are defined for use in the engineering measurement field, these are considerably easier
to depict. The gas thermometer is one of the most important devices used to realize the thermodynamic
temperature scale over a very wide temperature range almost down to absolute zero. Using this
Thermodynamics Lab
method, the change in the pressure or volume of a gas is measured as a function of temperature in
accordance with the ideal gas equation:
P.V=mRT
Here the mass m and the gas constant R are constant. All approximately ideal gases can be used
(helium, nitrogen, argon). The lowest measurable temperature is just above the critical point of the
respective charge gas (nitrogen -147°C). The following relationship exists between the gas states at two
𝑉1 𝑉2
different temperatures:
P1 = P2
𝑇1 𝑇2

P: Pressure in N/mm2
V: Volume in m3
T: Temperature in K
Temperature Measurement Using Temperature Measuring Strips:
Alongside the classic temperature measuring equipment described, which can be classified in the
mechanical contact thermometer category, there is a series of further methods that are based on totally
different physical or chemical effects. They mostly have serious disadvantages, which is why they have
not become commonly adopted in practice, but are only used in very specific applications. One type is
temperature indicating films that change color from light to dark at a specific temperature as a result of
a chemical reaction. A heat sensitive layer is vapor deposited on small self-adhesive pieces of plastic.
The color change is irreversible. The error on the indication is between 1 and 2% of the printed value.
These films are suitable for a measuring range from 29 to 290°C.
Temperature and Resistance:
The electrical resistance of the majority of materials varies significantly with temperature. This effect,
often regarded as a problem in other areas, is exploited here for a temperature measuring principle. The
cause of this temperature dependency in metallic conductors is the unattached bonding electrons in the
metal lattice: at the temperature drops, the electrical resistance also drops. In semiconductors there is
normally a lack of conduction electrons. It only through the addition of thermal energy (temperature
increase) that electrons for the conduction of current become free: the electrical resistance drops with
increasing temperature. Contrary to thermocouples, using which only temperature differences
compared to a known temperature can be measured, the absolute temperature can be determined using
resistive sensor elements. Resistive sensor elements require an auxiliary power supply that is often not
used in thermocouple circuits. The measuring range of resistive sensor elements is limited, particularly
at high temperatures, the linearity of the temperature characteristic is in some circumstances poor,
depending on the material used for the sensor.
Temperature Measurement Using Resistor Thermometers:
The dependency of the resistance of metallic conductors on the temperature can be very precisely
described using a cubic equation. For normal accuracy requirements, it is usual to limit the calculation
to the use of quadratic or even linear functions:
∆R= α R. ∆t or Rt = Ro (1 + α.t)
R, RO and Rt [Ω] are resistors in their initial state at 0°C and at t [°C] a [1/K] is the linear temperature
coefficient of the resistor. As the linear equation does not apply exactly for the majority of materials,
that is α is not constant, a mean relative change in resistance per degree between 0 and 100°C is

α0,100 = .
1 ∆R 1
defined:

𝑅0 ∆t 𝑅0 .
R100 .R0
=
∆t [K-1]
 Thermodynamics Lab
Metallic substances with good electrical conductivity are used for the resistor materials, such as
Platinum (QPt0,100 = 3.85 . 10-3 K-1), Nickel (aNi0,100 = 6.17. 10-3 K-1) and Copper
(aCu0,100
4.27. 10-3 K-1). In the selection process, the nominal resistance at t0 = 0°C is defined as being Ro =
100 Ohm. Nickel and platinum are used exclusively for temperature measurement. There are
several possible ways of connecting up resistor thermometers.
Two-Wire Configuration
The so-called two-wire configuration does not, however, take into account the effects on the cable
resistances that can be caused by temperature variations. Every change in the cable resistance
incorrectly appears to be a change in the temperature at the measuring sensor.
Three-Wire Configuration
In the three-wire configuration, a current feed and a voltage take-off are connected to one of the
sensor's connecting terminals. By this means, the effect of temperature on the cables can be largely
removed. However, it is also necessary here to compensate for the cables using compensation resistors
Four-Wire Configuration
In the four-wire configuration, used for indirect acting measurements, two cables are used for the
current feed, and two cables for the voltage take-off on the measuring resistor. Here it is not necessary
to compensate for the cables, even if the cables are long.
Temperature Measurement Using Thermistors
These special resistive elements are manufactured from semiconductor materials. There are two
Different types, - NTC Thermistors - PTC Thermistors All semiconductor elements are ideal insulators
at very low temperatures. Their increase in conductivity is described approximately by the following

Rt1 = Rt2 . eb ( − )
1 1
law:

𝑡1 𝑡2
Where Rt1 and Rt2 are the resistances of the sensor at the absolute temperature T2 and a reference
temperature 11 [K] respectively. "b" is a material constant, the numerical value of which is between
2000 and 6000 K. The exponential characteristic that this law depicts has a large, strongly varying
temperature coefficient a. On NTC thermistors the coefficient ranges from 1 to -6 K-l.

Temperature Measurement Using Thermocouples

The technical exploitation of the thermoelectric effect for temperature measurement began with
Seebeck and Peltier. The development and testing of new materials for thermocouples is still not
complete. In general, any combination of two conductor materials can be utilized to manufacture a
thermocouple. The sensitivity of the thermocouple is the algebraic sum of the thermal electromotive
forces of the two conductors. The sensitivity is very high if the thermal electromotive forces are very
different. If two different materials are welded into a thermocouple and this joint is heated, an e.m.f.
(electromotive force) is generated. With the aid of the e.m.f. the temperature becomes a measured
parameter.
The following thermocouples are standardized in terms of their e.m.f. and their tolerance:
• Iron constantan (Fe-CuNi) code letter "J" up to 750 °C
• Copper constantan (Cu-CuNi) code letter "T" up to 350 °C
• Nickel-chromium nickel (NiCr-Ni) code letter "K" up to 1200 °C
• Nickel-chromium constantan (NiCr-CuNi) code letter "E" up to 900 °C
• Nicrosil nisil (NiCrSi-NiSi) code letter "N" up to 1200 °C
Procedure:

Results:
All readings should be recorded as follows:

At T = 60 At T = 120 At T = 180 At T = 240 At T =

Sensor/Gauge
sec sec sec sec 300 sec

Liquid Thermometer

Bimetallic Thermometer

PT 100

Thermocouple

Average Temperature

Conclusion:
Source of Error:






Physical Applications:
 Experiment 2

Aim
To measure the process of humidification with the help of four different humidity sensors.

Learning Objectives / Experiments

1. Measuring methods for air humidity measurement
- Psychometric humidity measurement
- Hygrometric humidity measurement
- Capacitive humidity measurement

2. Characteristic variables to describe air humidity

3. Changes of the state of humid air in the h-x diagram

4. Determination of the relative air humidity with

- Psychometer
- Hair hygrometer
- Hygrometer with synthetic fiber
- Capacitive humidity sensor

5. Design and operation of the instruments

6. Comparison of the instruments

Equipment Required
WL 201 Fundamentals of Humidity Measurement
The measurement of air humidity plays an important role in many branches of industry, e.g.
during drying or in the air conditioning of buildings and vehicles. There are different measuring
methods to determine humidity.
The trainer WL 201 enables the measurement of air humidity with four different instruments
which can be directly compared to each other: two different hygrometers, a capacitive
hygrometer and a psychrometer.
Psychrometers operate based on the principle of evaporation cooling and compare the ambient
temperature with the wet bulb temperature to determine the humidity. Hygrometers utilize the
property of specific fibres, e.g. hair, to expand with increasing air humidity. In the capacitive
sensor the dielectricity constant of a layer and with it its capacity changes due to the water
molecules absorbed.
The core element of the trainer is a climatic chamber with transparent door. This chamber can
be humidified and dehumidified and contains the four instruments. A Peltier cooling element is
used for dehumidification. An ultrasonic atomizer is used for humidification. To circulate the air
and ensure good mixing a fan is used.

Overall System

Labelled Components
Specification
[1] Different measuring methods for measuring humidity
[2] Climatic chamber with adjustable humidity and transparent door
[3] Humidification via ultrasonic atomizer
[4] Dehumidification via Peltier cooling element
[5] Fan for air recirculation
[6] Two mechanical instruments: psychrometer, hair hygrometer
[7] Two electronic instruments: capacitive sensor, hygrometer with synthetic fibre and combined
temperature sensor

Technical Data
Humidifier
- Ultrasonic atomizer
- Power consumption: 21,6W
- Low water cut-off

Dehumidifier
• Peltier element
- Cooling capacity: 56,6W (50°C ambient temperature)
- Cooling surface: 1600mm2

Hair hygrometer with deflective needle

- Measuring range: 0…100% r. h.

Hygrometer with synthetic fibre

- Output voltage: 0…10V
- Measuring ranges: 0…100% r. h. / -30…80°C

Capacitive sensor with digital display

- Output voltage: 0…10V
- Measuring range: 1…100% r. h.

Psychrometer with thermometer

- Measuring range: -10…60°C, graduation: 0,5°C
230V, 50Hz, 1 phase
120V, 60Hz, 1 phase; 230V, 60Hz, 1 phase
UL/CSA optional
LxWxH: 1400x800x1630mm
Weight: approx. 110kg

Detailed Component Diagram

1 Drain Plug 13 Switch for ultrasound atomizer

2 Ultrasound water tank 14 Temperature display for (9) (C)
3 Condensate drain plug 15 H2 Humidity display for (9) (% r.H.)
4 Water tank 16 Switch for cooler (6)
H1 Humidity display for (10) – capacitive
5 H4 Hair hygrometer 17
(% r.H.)
6 Peltier cooling element with heat sink 18 Switch for air circulation (8)
7 H3 Psychrometer 19 Potentiometer for fan (8)
8 Fan for circulating air 20 Potentiometer for cooler (6)
H2 Humidity and temperature sensor 2
9 21 Gate valve for humidification
(with synthetic fibres)
10 H1 Humidity sensor 1 (capacitive) 22 Lockable drawer
11 Latch for opening the chamber 23 Lockable swivel castor
12 Main switch
Preparing the Experiment
Fill the water tank (2) for the ultrasound atomizer with water. Close the gate valve (21) for the
water tank. Remove any water droplets from filling with a cloth. Prepare the psychrometer for
measurement. Place the holder with the psychrometer and hair hygrometer obliquely in the
chamber in such a way that the psychrometer is not positioned directly in the flow of circulating
air.

Procedure
- Close the door of climatic chamber.
- Turn off the cooling element with the switch (16).
- Turn off the ultrasound atomizer (13) and close the gate valve (21).
- Turn (18) on the fan (8) to provide better mixing of the circulating air. Set the
potentiometer to position “1”.
- After around 4…5 minutes, record the first measured value for the ambient humidity.
Then record further measured values at 5 minute intervals.
- Once the ambient humidity has been measured, the humidity can be increased
- To do this, turn on the ultrasound atomizer (13) and open the gate valve (21). Record
measured values at 5 minute intervals.
- Record the measured values in a table and plot the relative humidity vs time on a graph to
compare the sensors.

Experimental Results
Humidity 1 Humidity 2 Temp 2 Temp 3 – Temp 4 – Humidity 3 Humidity 4
(H1) (H2) (T2) Dry Bulb (T3) Wet Bulb (H3) (H4)
(T4)
Time % r. H. % r. H. C C C % r. H. % r. H.
Mollier h,x Diagram (Used to calculate H3)
The following information can be derived from a point in the diagram, e.g. 30C; 10 g/kg
(point 1):
- Dry bulb temperature: Is read on the y-axis following the red lines (30C).
- Dew point temperature: Follow vertically downwards to the condensation line (point 4).
Then read off the temperature on the y-axis (13.9 C).
- Wet bulb temperature: Follow along the isenthalps as far as the condensation line (point
6). The read off the temperature on the y-axis (19.5C).
- Relative humidity: Hyperbolic lines (blue) limited by the condensation line (37% r.H.).
- Absolute humidity: Read off directly on the (top point 3) x-axis (10g/kg).
- Specific enthalpy: The isenthalps are lines of equal specific enthalpy (56 kJ/kg).
- Density: The lines of equal density run from left to right with a slight downward slope
(green in the figure (1.133 kgm3)).

Conclusion:

Source of Error:

Physical Applications:
 Experiment No. 03

Objective:
 To calibrate a Bourdon type pressure gauge and to determine the gauge errors.
Calculate the applied force by using Bourdon gauge

Equipment Required:
 Bourdon Type Pressure Guage
Apparatus:

Bourdon Type Pressure Gauge

Procedure:
Procedure:

Results:

Piston diameter = 12 mm

Gauge Pressure Abso lute gauge

reading Applied error % Gauge Error
Sr. # ( k N/ m 2 ( k N/ m 2 )
)
G ( bars) P( bars) G - P 100 *( G- P)/ P
1
2
3
4
5

Calculate the applied force by using Bourdon gauge

Sr. # Measured pressure on Bourdon gauge Applied Force F = PA

1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:
Source of Error:

Physical Applications:
 Experiment No. 4

Marcet Boiler
Objective:
 To obtain a balance relationship between temperature and pressure of saturated steam
for water at all pressure levels between atmospheric pressure and 10 bars (150 lb/in 2).
Then, the experimental value for the slope of the graph (dT/dP) SAT is compared to the
theoretical value found in the steam table.

Equipment Required:
Apparatus Specification:
Theory:
Thermodynamics is defined as a study related to the transfer of heat and work
between a system and its surrounding, undergoing a process causing any of the properties of
the system change.
An ideal gas obeys the equation of state that relates the pressure, specific volume or
density, and absolute temperature with mass of molecule and the gas constant, R.

mRT
PV  M
However, real gas does not absolutely obey the equation of state. A few changes on
the ideal gas equation of state allow its application in the properties of real gas.
When energy increases within water, the increasing of activities among the molecules
enables the increase in the number of molecule escape from the surface until an equilibrium
state is reached. The state of equilibrium depends on the pressure between the water surface
and steam. At lower pressure, the molecules become easier leaving the water surface while
less energy required in achieving the state of equilibrium (boiling point). The temperature
where equilibrium occurs at a given pressure level is called saturated temperature.
The Marcet Boiler is used to investigate the relationship between the pressure and
temperature of saturated steam in equilibrium with water at all temperature levels between
the atmospheric pressure and 10 bars. The experimental slope (dT/dP)SAT obtained is
compared to the theoretical value determined through calculation from the steam table.
Clausius-Clapeyron states:

 dT 
dP Tv
 fgh
  SAT fg

 dT 
dP T (v  hv g ) and hf + hfg =  hfg = - hf
f h hg hg
  SAT f g

 dT 
dP T (v  v g ) as vg >> vf

f h Tvg  h
  SAT fg fg

in which, vf = specific volume of saturated liquid

vg = specific volume of saturated vapor
hf = enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg = enthalpy of saturated vapor
hfg = latent heat of vaporization

Procedure:
Questions:
1. Complete Table 1 attached.
2. Plot the graph of temperature, T, versus absolute pressure, P.
3. Plot dT/dP versus P and Tvg/hfg versus P on a same graph.
4. Compare and discuss the graph plotted from experiment data to that of the calculated
data.
5. Discuss any discrepancy and sources of error of the experiment.
6. Why is it necessary to ensure no air trapped within the device at the beginning of the
experiment?
7. Discuss the liquid and vapor behavior observed through the experiment and list some
examples of its industrial applications.

Results:

Table 1: Data Collected and Calculated Results

Pressure, P (bar) Temperature, T

Measured Calculated
Slope, Slope,
absolute Gauge Increase Decrease Average Average dT/dP Tvg/hfg
(0C) (0C) Tavc Tavc (K)
(0C)
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

1.8
1.9
2.0
 Table 2: Saturated Water and Steam Tables

Pressure Temperature Specific Latent Heat of

P T Volume of Vaporization, hfg
Bars (Abs) 0C Steam, vg m3/kg kJ/kg
1.0 99.6 1.694 2258
2.0 120.2 0.8856 2202
3.0 133.5 0.6057 2164
4.0 143.6 0.4623 2134
5.0 151.8 0.3748 2109
6.0 158.8 0.3156 2087
7.0 165.0 0.2728 2067
8.0 170.4 0.2403 2048
9.0 175.4 0.2149 2031
10.0 179.9 0.1944 2015
11.0 184.1 0.1774 2000
12.0 188.0 0.1632 1986
13.0 191.6 0.1512 1972
14.0 195.0 0.1408 1960
15.0 198.3 0.1317 1947
16.0 201.4 0.1237 1935
17.0 204.3 0.1167 1923
18.0 207.1 0.1104 1912
19.0 209.8 0.1047 1901
20.0 212.4 0.09957 1890

Conclusion:
Source of Error:

Physical Applications:
 Experiment # 05

Objective:

Recording of a steam pressure curve in a Single Cylinder Steam Engine.

Apparatus:

Single Cylinder Steam Engine.

Apparatus Setup:

18 17 16 15

ET 810 1 Feed Water Tank

Ta
IV
Demoanlage Dampfmaschine Miniature Steam Powe r Plant
2 Feed Pump Pu
19
Dam pfk essel St eam boiler V3T3

14 3 Non-Return Valve V2
T2

V4
III

4 Boiler
V2 T4
Druck Pressure Strom Current

G II
5 Burner
1
Brenngas Fuel Gas

20
T5

13 6 Water Level Gauge L1

Spannung
3
7 Main Steam Valve V4
Voltage I
Load

Kühlwasser Cooling Water

8 Steam Engine
Ko ndensator Condenser
T7

Temperatur Temperature

9 Generator
T8

T1 : ambient air T2 : feeding water T3 : steam boiler T4 : steam inlet

21
T5 : steam outlet
V1

10 Collecting Vessel for

T6

Reset

V5
Condensate 11 Drain Valve for
22 Condensate V5 12 Condenser
12
13 Flowmeter F1 for
Cooling Water and Adjusting
Valve
V6
14 Bulbs for Loading
with Pushbuttons
1 23 4 56789 15 Voltmeter
11 16 Ammeter
17 Master Switch
18 Manometer P1 Boiler
Pressure 19 Temperature
Indications 8-off 20
Flowmeter F2 for
Combustion Gas and Adjusting
Val- ve V8
10 21 Reset for Over-temperature
Protection
22 Master Valve V7 for
Combustion Gas
Schematic Diagram:

V3 T3 T4

V4
T5

P1
Dampfmaschine Steam Engine
Ta

T7 F1
Kessel Boiler

Kondensator Condensator V6
L1 Kühlwasser Cooling water
T8

V2
T6
F2 T2
V8 V5
Speisewasserpumpe Feed pump

V7
Pu

V1
Kondensat Condensate
Gas
Speisewassertank Feed water tank
Function of Schematic Diagram:

The feed pump Pu draws the water from the feed water tank and drives it through the non-return valve V2
into the boiler. The water level is checked using a water level gauge L1. A manometer P1 indicates the
steam pressure in the boiler. The steam pressure is measured using T3. A safety valve V3 prevents
excessively high pressure. The steam enters the steam engine via the shut-of valve V4.

The steam inlet temperature is measured at T4, the steam outlet temperature at T5. The waste steam from
the engine is fed to the condenser. The condensate can be drained from time to time using valve V5 and
collected in a measuring container. The condensate temperature is measured using T6. The cooling water
for the condenser flows from the water connection through the regulator valve V6 and flow meter F1 to
the condenser. From there it flows to the drain. Inlet temperature and outlet temperature of the cooling
water are measured using T7 and T8.

The combustion gas passes through the main gas valve V7, rapid action stop valve V1 and regulator valve
V8 to the flow meter F2, and from there to the burner on the boiler. A thermostat Ta monitors the exhaust
temperature and shuts down the gas supply via V1 in the case of a risk of overheating.

Theoretical Principle:

Steam Power Plant:

In a steam power plant heat energy is converted into electrical energy. The heat energy is mostly available
as chemically bound energy in the fuel. The mechanical energy is then converted by means of generators
into electrical energy.

Steam

Piston
Steam

Boiler
Crank
Water

Heater Steam engine

Simplest Steam Power Plant

The simplest steam power plant consists of only a boiler and steam engine or steam turbine.

In the boiler the water is heated and evaporated by means of the supply of external heat. The pressurized
steam is then supplied to the steam engine. Here the pressure energy of the steam is exploited to move a
piston. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into a rotary motion using a crank mechanism.
The disadvantage of this very simple system is that when the water in the boiler has all been evaporated,
the system must be shut down for refilling the boiler. In addition, the steam escapes to the atmosphere
such that water is lost.
The following Figure shows the block diagram of a simple steam power plant.

Steam

Steam
engine
Steamboiler
Generator

Condensator
Feedpump

Water Water

Feedwater tank Condensate tank

Block Diagram of a Simple Steam Power Plant

This system facilitates continuous operation. Water is added from a feed water tank to the water
evaporated in the boiler by means of a feed pump.
The steam used is precipitated in a condenser and can be used again for supplying the boiler. Feed water
and condensate tank are drawn separately here, as the condensate in piston steam engine mostly contains
small amounts of lubricating oil that is not permitted to enter the boiler. Here in reality the condensate
must be cleaned before it can be used again as feed water. The steam engine drives a generator here.
Function of a Steam Engine

The steam engine converts the pressure

energy of the steam in the mechanical
energy. The function can be shown most
Piston Stroke clearly in a p-V diagram. In the middle the
pressure in the cylinder is plotted over the
displacement. The curve shows a complete
OT UT rotation. The position of the piston is
shown at the top. At the bottom the
p ES opening angle for inlet and outlet are
EO
drawn on the crank circle.

AO
At top dead centre (OT) the steam inlet
Work Performed
(EO) and the pressure in the cylinder
increases rapidly. The steam now presses
the piston down. After around 2/3 of the
AS travel the inlet closes (ES). The steam
V
enclosed in the cylinder is now expanded
and in the process losses part of its
ES
pressure. Just before bottom dead centre
(UT) the outlet (AO) opens and the steam
Inlet
Open
AO pressure drops to zero. The piston now
O reverses its motion and pushes the
remaining steam into the outlet. Just
E before top dead centre
Outlet Open
the outlet (AS) closes and the game begins
AS
again from the start.
As the steam engine used is double-acting,
the same occurs underneath the piston.
The enclosed area shown in grey on the p-V
diagram indicates the work performed by the
ste-
P-V Diagram am. With the number of piston strokes per unit
time
the so-called indicated power of the steam
engine is found.
 4 3

2 1

5 6

Slider Control

The control of the steam inlet and outlet is performed by a flat slider (1). Depending on the position of
the piston (2), the flat slider (1) joins the inside of the cylinder with the fresh steam side (3) or with the
steam outlet (4). During this process the flat slider controls top and bottom of the piston on the double-
acting machine. Steam inlet and outlet must be matched to the movement of the piston. The flat slider is
therefore moved by a cam (6) on the crank shaft (5).

Procedure:
Calculations and Results:

Table:

Sr. No. Pressure Temperature

Graph:

Plot the graph between steam pressure and temperature.

Conclusion:

Source of Error:
Physical Applications:
 Experiment 6

Aim
To measure the process of de-humidification with the help of four different humidity sensors.

Learning Objectives / Experiments

1. Measuring methods for air humidity measurement
- Psychometric humidity measurement
- Hygrometric humidity measurement
- Capacitive humidity measurement

2. Characteristic variables to describe air humidity

3. Changes of the state of humid air in the h-x diagram

4. Determination of the relative air humidity with

- Psychometer
- Hair hygrometer
- Hygrometer with synthetic fiber
- Capacitive humidity sensor

5. Design and operation of the instruments

6. Comparison of the instruments

Equipment Required
WL 201 Fundamentals of Humidity Measurement
The measurement of air humidity plays an important role in many branches of industry, e.g.
during drying or in the air conditioning of buildings and vehicles. There are different measuring
methods to determine humidity.
The trainer WL 201 enables the measurement of air humidity with four different instruments
which can be directly compared to each other: two different hygrometers, a capacitive
hygrometer and a psychrometer.
Psychrometers operate based on the principle of evaporation cooling and compare the ambient
temperature with the wet bulb temperature to determine the humidity. Hygrometers utilize the
property of specific fibres, e.g. hair, to expand with increasing air humidity. In the capacitive
sensor the dielectricity constant of a layer and with it its capacity changes due to the water
molecules absorbed.
The core element of the trainer is a climatic chamber with transparent door. This chamber can
be humidified and dehumidified and contains the four instruments. A Peltier cooling element is
used for dehumidification. An ultrasonic atomizer is used for humidification. To circulate the air
and ensure good mixing a fan is used.

Overall System

Labelled Components
Specification
[1] Different measuring methods for measuring humidity
[2] Climatic chamber with adjustable humidity and transparent door
[3] Humidification via ultrasonic atomizer
[4] Dehumidification via Peltier cooling element
[5] Fan for air recirculation
[6] Two mechanical instruments: psychrometer, hair hygrometer
[7] Two electronic instruments: capacitive sensor, hygrometer with synthetic fibre and
combined temperature sensor

Technical Data
Humidifier
- Ultrasonic atomizer
- Power consumption: 21,6W
- Low water cut-off

Dehumidifier
• Peltier element
- Cooling capacity: 56,6W (50°C ambient temperature)
- Cooling surface: 1600mm2

Hair hygrometer with deflective needle

- Measuring range: 0…100% r. h.

Hygrometer with synthetic fibre

- Output voltage: 0…10V
- Measuring ranges: 0…100% r. h. / -30…80°C

Capacitive sensor with digital display

- Output voltage: 0…10V
- Measuring range: 1…100% r. h.

Psychrometer with thermometer

- Measuring range: -10…60°C, graduation: 0,5°C
230V, 50Hz, 1 phase
120V, 60Hz, 1 phase; 230V, 60Hz, 1 phase
UL/CSA optional
LxWxH: 1400x800x1630mm
Weight: approx. 110kg

Detailed Component Diagram

1 Drain Plug 13 Switch for ultrasound atomizer

2 Ultrasound water tank 14 Temperature display for (9) (C)
3 Condensate drain plug 15 H2 Humidity display for (9) (% r.H.)
4 Water tank 16 Switch for cooler (6)
H1 Humidity display for (10) – capacitive
5 H4 Hair hygrometer 17
(% r.H.)
6 Peltier cooling element with heat sink 18 Switch for air circulation (8)
7 H3 Psychrometer 19 Potentiometer for fan (8)
8 Fan for circulating air 20 Potentiometer for cooler (6)
H2 Humidity and temperature sensor 2
9 21 Gate valve for humidification
(with synthetic fibres)
10 H1 Humidity sensor 1 (capacitive) 22 Lockable drawer
11 Latch for opening the chamber 23 Lockable swivel castor
12 Main switch
Preparing the Experiment
Fill the water tank (2) for the ultrasound atomizer with water. Close the gate valve (21) for the
water tank. Remove any water droplets from filling with a cloth. Prepare the psychrometer for
measurement. Place the holder with the psychrometer and hair hygrometer obliquely in the
chamber in such a way that the psychrometer is not positioned directly in the flow of circulating
air.
Increase the relative humidity in the climatic chamber to approx. 95% r.H.
- Turn on the ultrasound atomizer.
- Open the gate valve.
- Turn on the fan and set the potentiometer to “1”.
- Turn off the cooling element.
The value of 95% r.H. is considered to have been reached when the values no longer change
across several measurements.

Procedure
- Record the first measured values for the ambient humidity. Then record further measured
values at 5 minute intervals.
- Close the gate valve (21).
- Turn off the ultrasound atomizer (13).
- Set the cooler potentiometer to “5”.
- Turn (16) on the cooler.
- To prevent excessively fast dehumidification, the cooling capacity has been increased
slowly in increments from 5 to 10, recording the measured values from the sensors every
5 minutes. The measured values are in the table below.

Experimental Results
Humidity 1 Humidity 2 Temp 2 Temp 3 – Temp 4 – Humidity 3 Humidity 4
(H1) (H2) (T2) Dry Bulb (T3) Wet Bulb (H3) (H4)
(T4)
Time % r. H. % r. H. C C C % r. H. % r. H.
Mollier h,x Diagram (Used to calculate H3)
The following information can be derived from a point in the diagram, e.g. 30C; 10 g/kg
(point 1):
- Dry bulb temperature: Is read on the y-axis following the red lines (30C).
- Dew point temperature: Follow vertically downwards to the condensation line (point 4).
Then read off the temperature on the y-axis (13.9 C).
- Wet bulb temperature: Follow along the isenthalps as far as the condensation line (point
6). The read off the temperature on the y-axis (19.5C).
- Relative humidity: Hyperbolic lines (blue) limited by the condensation line (37% r.H.).
- Absolute humidity: Read off directly on the (top point 3) x-axis (10g/kg).
- Specific enthalpy: The isenthalps are lines of equal specific enthalpy (56 kJ/kg).
- Density: The lines of equal density run from left to right with a slight downward slope
(green in the figure (1.133 kgm3)).

Conclusion:

Source of Error:

Physical Applications:
 Experiment # 07

Objective:
To observe the basic refrigeration cycle.

Method:

By monitoring the transient changes in temperatures and pressuresat different points along the
cycle when the volume flow rate is changed. Note that this experiment requires continuous
recording of sensor outputs.

Equipment Required:
ET 411 C Basic Cycle Refrigeration Trainer / PC

ET 411 C Basic Cycle Refrigeration Trainer / PCis a fully functional model of a typical
refrigerationsystem. The unit consists of components commonly found in refrigeration
technology. Instruction using this model provides a high degree ofpractical relevance.
The model serves as an example of a typical circuitprocess. The system includes a number of
mano- meters, thermal sensors and watt meters, whichpermit the state of the refrigerant to be
directly readand interpreted. Special emphasis can be placedon the expansion element of this
refrigeration system: in addition to a thermostatic expansion valve, the unit has three different
sizes of capillarytubes, which can be compared to one another.
Evaporators and liquefiers are transparent so thatthe refrigerant can be examined in its phase
tran- sitions.
The refrigerant used is environmentally friendlyR1 34a.
1 - Movable frame 7 - Capillary tubes, length: 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m
2 - White control panel 8 - Evaporator with fan
3 - Compressor, semi-hermetic 9 - Collector for refrigerant
4 - Liquefier with fan 10 - Control and display panel
5 - Flowmeter 11 - Filter
drier 6 - Expansion valve

11 11

7
Temperature
Temperatur

6
10
5
10
Evaporao
trFan CondenserFa

4
Power

123.9

9
9
8
1

Unit design
SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

 Compressor:

The compressor is a fully encapsulated pistoncompressor

which has been specially designed forthe refrigerant R 134 a.
It has two pressure gauges (Pressostats) that switch the
compressor off when pressure is excessively high on the
pressure side or whenpressure is too low on the intake side.
If it should become necessary to empty or fill thesystem with refrigerant,
the procedure must becarried out properly using the compressor
fillingvalve.

 Liquefier (condenser):

The condenser is designed as a finned tube liquefier with a very large

surface area. The tubes aretransparent in order make it possible to
observethe changes in the state of the refrigerant. The fluidflows
through the condenser and releases thermalenergy to the ambient air
via the large surfacearea. The release of heat can be increased by
afan, which blows the cooling air through the finnedtubes. The
potentiometer on the control panel canbe adjusted for this purpose.

 Volumetric flow meter:

The system has a v olumetricflowmeter which isdesigned as a

variable-area flowmeter. With thisparticular type, normally a conical measuring
body(1) "floats" in the fluid flow and moves higher or loweralong the graduated scale 2
(2)
,(depending on the flow.The flow rate can be read on the scale.
1
When reading the flow rate it must be noted thatany air bubbles in the
volumetric flowmeter willcorrupt the result.

 Expansion valve:

The refrigerant expands in the expansion valve. This causes the temperature of
the refrigerant to drop.To ensure that the refrigerant leaves the evaporator in a
slightly superheated state, the outlet temperature of the evaporator is
determined by atemperature sensor, and the expansion valve controls the flow rate of the
refrigerant. For this reasonit is known as a thermostatic expansion valve.
  Capillary tubes:

Three capillary tubes of various lengths are alsoprovided for the expansion of the
refrigerant:length = 2 m (1), 1 m (2), 0.5 m (3). In contrast tothe expansion valve the expansion
is uncontrolled,i.e. it occurs without changing the cross-section ofthe flow. Capillary tubes are
generally used forcooling with low requirements, because they areinexpensive and have a very
simple design. Thevalves (1) - (4) must be opened or shut, dependingon
the desired use.

 Evaporator:

The evaporator is designed as a finned tube evaporator, a part of which

is made of glass in orderto facilitate examination.A fan can be added by
means of a potentiometer.This improves the efficiency of the
evaporator
byincreasing the absorption of heat from the air.The evaporator outlet leads to the intake side
ofthe piston compressor, where the compressionbegins again.

 Collector:

The Trainer is equipped with a refrigerant collector(3). It is filled and emptied via the two valves
(1)and (2). This makes it possible to empty or overfillthe system, and to examine the results.
The collector is located in the bypass between thepressure and intake of the compressor.

Procedure:
Experimental results:

Observation Length Volume Temperature (°C) Pressure (kPa)

No. of Flow Rate T1 T2 T3 T4 P1 P2
capillary (liter/sec)
tube (m)
1 0.5
2 1.0
3 1.5

Observation Wc QL QH Co-efficient
No. (kJ/K) (kJ/K) (kJ/K) of
performance
â
1
2
3

Conclusion:

Source of Error:
Physical Applications:
 Experiment 8

Objective:
To observe the basic Heat Pump cycle.
Method:
By monitoring the transient changes in temperatures and pressures at different points along the cycle when
the volume flow rate is changed. Note that this experiment requires continuous recording of sensor outputs.
Equipment Required:

ET 411 C Basic Cycle Refrigeration Trainer / PC

ET 411 C Basic Cycle Refrigeration Trainer / PC is a fully functional model of a typical

refrigeration system. The unit consists of components commonly found in refrigeration
technology. Instruction using this model provides a high degree of practical relevance.
The model serves as an example of a typical circuit process. The system includes a number of
mano- meters, thermal sensors and watt meters, which permit the state of the refrigerant to be
directly read and interpreted. Special emphasis can be placed on the expansion element of this
refrigeration sy- stem: in addition to a thermostatic expansion valve, the unit has three different
sizes of capillary tubes, which can be compared to one another.
Evaporators and liquefiers are transparent so that the refrigerant can be examined in its phase
tran- sitions.
The refrigerant used is environmentally friendlyR1 34a.
System Components:

1. Compressor
The compressor is a fully hermetically sealed reciprocating piston compressor specially designed
for use with the refrigerant R 134a. For this reason the compressor must not be used with any
other refrigerant. The compressor is fitted with an overload protection device that is triggered if
the compressor overheats. Should it become necessary to drain or refill the system with
refrigerant, then this must be performed in the correct manner via the filler valve (1) on the
compressor! The refrigerant is a pollutant and must not be released into the atmosphere.
2. Evaporator
The evaporator is of a finned tube construction with a very large surface area. The refrigerant
flows through the evaporator and draws heat from the ambient air over the large surface area.
The take up of heat can be increased by two fans that draw the air through the fins. The switch
under the evaporator is used (8) to switch on the fans. The refrigerant inlet and outlet
temperatures are measured by two bonded sensors.
3. Expansion Valve
The refrigerant is expanded in an expansion valve (12). During this process the temperature of
the refrigerant drops. This temperature drop is recorded by a temperature sensor and displayed on
a digital display (11).
In order that the refrigerant leaves the evaporator slightly superheated, the expansion valve
regulates the flow of the refrigerant based on the evaporator outlet temperature measured by
temperature sensor (21).
4. Condenser
The condenser is of a coaxial pipe cluster heat exchanger construction that works on the counter
flow principle, that is the difference between the refrigerant temperature and the water
temperature is smallest at the outlet of the condenser. This enables the highest efficiency to be
obtained. The temperature of the refrigerant at the inlet and outlet of the condenser can be read
on displays (15) and (20) respectively; the temperatures in the water circuit are indicated on
digital displays (7) and (11). The inlet to the condenser is connected to the delivery side of the
piston compressor. The pressure acting here can be read off on display (17).

Procedure:
ε (Ideal) is given by,

ε (Actual) is given by,

Cp = 4.19 KJ/Kg. K
Experimental results:

Sr No. Temperature Deg °C Pressure bar Enthalpy KJ/Kg

1 T1 P1 h1
2 T2 P2 h2
3 T3 P3 h3
4 T4 P4 h4

Calculate Coefficient of Performance, COP =

Conclusion:

Source of Error:

Physical Applications:
 Experiment No 09
Single Stage Air Compressor
Objective:

Demonstration of Single Stage Air Compressor.

Technical Features :
Compressors:

1.1.1.1 type : air-cooled ,single stage.

1.1.1.2 displacement : over 300 ml.

1.1.1.3 maximum working : 8 kg/cm2

pressure

Air receiver : approx..90 l as required with safety valve , a drain valve and discharge
valve.

Motor : 1.5 KW

Speed control : 1.5 KW advanced inverter for controlling and indicating motor speed

as well as for calculating motor input power.

Measuring instruments:

1.1.5.1 speed : speed sensors and an indicator for compressor.

1.1.5.2 pressure : pressure gauge at compressor outlet.

1.1.5.3 air flow rate : inlet orifice plate with an air box and an inclined water manometer

0-450 mm x 1mm graduation ,multiple slope 1:10,1:15 and 1:1.

1.1.5.4 temperature : air inlet and outlet.

Accessory : aneroid barometer.

Power supply : 220V 1ph 50 Hz.

Equipment Required:

Theory:
There are two generic principles for the compression of air or gas; positive displacement
compression and dynamic compression.

Positive displacement compression include ,for example ,reciprocating compressors ,orbital

compressors and different types of rotary compressors in positive displacement compression ,the air
is drawn into one or more compression chambers, which are then closed from the inlet. gradually
the volume of each chamber decreases and the air is compressed internally. when the air pressure
has reached the designed build in pressure ratio , a port or valve is opened and the air is discharged
into the outlet system due to continued reduction of the compression chamber’s volume.

In dynamic compression ,air is drawn between the blades on a rapidly rotating compression impeller
and accelerates to a high velocity. The gas is then discharge through a diffuser ,where the kinetic
energy is transformed into static pressure .most dynamic compressors are turbo compressors with
an axial or radial flow pattern. All are designed for large volume flow rates.

Procedure:

1. Level the table by turning the adjusting screws and observing the level at inclined
manometer at horizontal position.
2. Close the air receiver discharge valve and drain valve.
3. Turn on ELCB and CB at the right side of the control box.
4. Press the run button at the advance inverter , and then adjust the frequency to 50 hz.
5. The experiments will start at 1 bar and increase is a step of 1 bar , by observing the
compressor outlet pressure gauge.
6. To reduce the air receiver pressure ,open the air receiver discharge valve slowly.
7. Record the following data : motor and compressor speed ,motor input power temperatures,
compressor outlet pressure, manometer level and slope.
8. Increase the pressure to 2 bar by adjusting the air receiver discharge valve slowly and
observe the compressor outlet pressure gauge.
 9. Repeat steps 3.5-3.8 until pressure is reached e.g 7 bar.
10. After finishing the experiment , open the drain valve.

Conclusion:

Sources of Error:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Physical Applications:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 Experiment No 10
Single Stage Air Compressor
Objective:

Calculation of Power, Efficiency and Performance of Single Stage Air Compressor.

Technical Features :
Compressors:

1.1.1.1 type : air-cooled ,single stage.

1.1.1.2 displacement : over 300 ml.

1.1.1.3 maximum working : 8 kg/cm2

pressure

Air receiver : approx..90 l as required with safety valve , a drain valve and discharge
valve.

Motor : 1.5 KW

Speed control : 1.5 KW advanced inverter for controlling and indicating motor speed

as well as for calculating motor input power.

Measuring instruments:

1.1.5.1 speed : speed sensors and an indicator for compressor.

1.1.5.2 pressure : pressure gauge at compressor outlet.

1.1.5.3 air flow rate : inlet orifice plate with an air box and an inclined water manometer

0-450 mm x 1mm graduation ,multiple slope 1:10,1:15 and 1:1.

1.1.5.4 temperature : air inlet and outlet.

Accessory : aneroid barometer.

Power supply : 220V 1ph 50 Hz.

Equipment Required:

Theory:
There are two generic principles for the compression of air r gas ; positive displacement compression
and dynamic compression.

Positive displacement compression include ,for example ,reciprocating compressors ,orbital

compressors and different types of rotary compressors in positive displacement compression ,the air
is drawn into one or more compression chambers, which are then closed from the inlet. gradually
the volume of each chamber decreases and the air is compressed internally. when the air pressure
has reached the designed build in pressure ratio , a port or valve is opened and the air is discharged
into the outlet system due to continued reduction of the compression chamber’s volume.

In dynamic compression ,air is drawn between the blades on a rapidly rotating compression impeller
and accelerates to a high velocity. The gas is then discharge through a diffuser ,where the kinetic
energy is transformed into static pressure .most dynamic compressors are turbo compressors with
an axial or radial flow pattern. All are designed for large volume flow rates.

Procedure:

1. Level the table by turning the adjusting screws and observing the level at inclined
manometer at horizontal position.
2. Close the air receiver discharge valve and drain valve.
3. Turn on ELCB and CB at the right side of the control box.
4. Press the run button at the advance inverter , and then adjust the frequency to 50 hz.
5. The experiments will start at 1 bar and increase is a step of 1 bar , by observing the
compressor outlet pressure gauge.
6. To reduce the air receiver pressure ,open the air receiver discharge valve slowly.
7. Record the following data : motor and compressor speed ,motor input power temperatures,
compressor outlet pressure, manometer level and slope.
 8. Increase the pressure to 2 bar by adjusting the air receiver discharge valve slowly and
observe the compressor outlet pressure gauge.
9. Repeat steps 3.5-3.8 until pressure is reached e.g 7 bar.
10. After finishing the experiment , open the drain valve.

Results:

System Efficiency = W / BP x tot

100 Brake Power, BP = 1.0270

watt , Flow Rate, V = 2.759 x 10
1
-3

m /sec. Isothermal Power, W =

3
tot

P V ln P /P Isentropic Power, W :
1 1 2 1

K=C/C
P v

Conclusion:

Results:
Isentropic Isothermal
P1 (Kgcm-3) P2 (Kgcm-3) T1 (°C) T2 (°C) Efficiency
Power (KW) Power (KW)
Sources of Error:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical Applications:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Experiment No. 11
Perfect Gas Apparatus
Objective:

The SOLTEQ PERFECT GAS APPARATUS (Model: TH 10-A) is designed and

developed to provide students a comprehensive understanding of the gas law. The Perfect
Gas Apparatus will enable students to understand the characteristics of the gas when pressure,
volume and temperature are changed. This unit has been designed in such a way that the
change in pressure and temperature are detected by the temperature and pressure sensor fixed
on the top of the chambers and the results will be shown on the digital indicators on the
control panel.

Unit Assembly:

Figure 1: Unit Construction for Perfect Gas Apparatus (Model: TH10-A)

 TABLE 1: Main Components of Perfect Gas Apparatus (Model: TH10-A)

1. Pressure Relief Valve 6. Control Valve

2. Pressure Transmitter 7. Control Panel
3. Temperature Transmitter 8. Heaters
4. Constant Volume Chamber 9. Pressure/ Vacuum Pump
5. Measuring Chamber 10. Pressure Chambers

Experiment Capabilities:
The perfect gas apparatus has the following experiment capabilities.
1. Demonstration of Boyle’s Law
2. Demonstration of Charles’s Law
3. Demonstration of Gay-Lussac’s Law
4. Demonstration of Ideal Gas Equation of State
Specifications
The SOLTEQ Perfect Gas Apparatus (Model: TH 10-A) comes completely with the
followings:
a. Test Section
Compressible Cylinder (Oil)
Measuring Chamber : 5L (OD: 139mm, ID: 129mm, Length: 410mm)
Pressure Chamber : 5L (OD: 139mm, ID: 129mm, Length: 410mm)
Heater : Cartridge Immersion type (350W)
Constant Volume Cylinder (Air)
Constant Volume Chamber : 5L (OD: 139mm, ID: 129mm, Length: 410mm)
Heater : Cartridge Immersion type (800W)
b. Pressure/ Vacuum Pump

Maximum open flow : 0.95 CFM (1.63 m^3/hour)

Maximum vacuum : 15-mbar (abs.)/25.5 inHG

Maximum pressure : 60psi/4bar

Motor Specification : 0.09 kW (220-240V/50 Hz/1-phase)

Pump speed : 1275 RPM

c. Digital Instrumentation (EI)

i. 2 units of temperature sensor
ii. 2 units of temperature controller (heater)
iii. 2 units of pressure sensor
 iv. 4 units of digital indicator

Overall Dimensions
Length : 1.05 m

Width : 0.73 m

Height : 0.82 m

Utilities Requirements
Electrical: 220-240 VAC/1-phase/50Hz

Other Requirements
Hydraulic Oil (4 Liter)

Instrumentation and Control

TABLE 2: List of Tags with their Description and Range

Tag Description Range

PT1 Pressure Sensor (air) 0-2.5 bar (abs)

PT2 Pressure Sensor (oil) 0-4 bar (abs)

TT1 Temperature Sensor (air) 0-100 °C

TT2 Temperature Sensor (oil) 0-100 °C

TlC1 Temperature Control (air) 0-200 °C

TlC2 Temperature Control (oil) 0-200 °C

PRV1 Pressure relief valve Pre-set at 3 bar (abs) blow

PRV2 Pressure relief valve Pre-set at 3 bar (abs) blow

SUMMARY OF THEORY

Boyle’s Law:
Boyle’s law is a gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the
volume of the container decreases. This law was named after chemist and physicist Robert
Boyle in 1662. This law works when the pressure increases inversely with the volume of gas
where the temperature held constant along the process. The gas inside a system loosely
packed and move randomly. If the volume is reduced, then the pressure become high as the
molecules having less space to move, to hit the wall of container more frequently.
Boyle observed that the product of the pressure and volume are observed to be nearly
constant. The product of pressure and volume of a fixed quantity of an ideal gas is constant,
given constant temperature. Expressed mathematically, the formula for Boyle’s law is.

𝑃×𝑉 =𝑘

𝑃 = Pressure of the gas

𝑉 = Volume of the gas

𝑘 = Constant

The value of k is a product of volume and pressure for a fixed quantity of gas. By changing
the system, typically by forcing a change in the volume of the cylinder containing the fixed
quantity of gas, the new volume and new pressure are measured. The result of computing the
product of the measured new volume and the new pressure should be the original value of the
constant
k. The initial and final volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the initial
and final temperatures are the same are related by the equation:

𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2

Figure 2: Graph of Boyle's Law

Charles’s Law:

Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes
how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: “When the
pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume
will be in direct proportion.”

𝑉 𝖺𝑇
The relationship of the direct proportion can be written as:

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇

𝑉1 𝑉2
For two sets of conditions, a mathematical statement can be derived:
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
From the equation, we can conclude that when the volume of a container is increased, the
temperature will increase as well; when the volume of a container is decreased, the
temperature will decrease.
This can be explained using the Kinetic Theory of Gases. When the temperature of gas is
increased, the gas molecules will move faster and the impact on the walls of the container
will be greater. This means that the gas pressure inside the container will be higher. The
greater pressure on the inside of the container walls will push them outward, thus increasing
the volume. When this happens, the gas molecules will now have farther to go, thereby
lowering the number of impacts and dropping the pressure back to its constant value.
If a decrease in temperature results in a decrease in volume, what happens if the temperature
is lowered to a point where the volume drops to zero? A negative volume is obviously
impossible, so the temperature at which the volume drops to zero must be the lowest
temperature that can be achieved. This temperature is called absolute zero.

Figure 3: Graph of Charles's Law

Gay-Lussac’s Law:
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) investigated the relationship between pressure and the
temperature of the gases. At constant volume, the pressure of a gas sample is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature. The relationship is similar to the Volume-
Temperature relationship, Charles’s Law. The mathematical statement is shown as below:

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
The above equation shows that when temperature of a container is increased, the pressure
wills also increase and vice-versa. This is due to the fact that when temperature is increased,
the gas molecules will move faster and the impact on the container wall will be more often.
This means that the gas pressure inside the container will increase, since the container has a
rigid wall (volume remains constant).

Figure 4: Graph of Gay-Lussac’s Law

Ideal Gas Law of State / Perfect Gas Law:
In the kinetic theory of gases, an ideal gas is one in which the individual molecules are
sufficiently far apart that the short-range force acts between them can be ignored. Collisions
between molecules are assumed to be elastic. The perfect gas law is the equation of state of a
perfect gas and it express the relationships between pressure, volume and temperature. A
perfect gas will obey the Ideal Gas Law, which are:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Where,
𝑃 = Pressure
𝑉 = Volume
𝑛 = number of moles of gas
𝑅= Gas Constant
𝑇 = Temperature
A perfect gas is modeled on the Kinetic Theory of gases which has 4 postulates:
1. Gases consist of small particles (molecules) which are in continuous random motion.
2. The volume of the molecules present is negligible compared to the total volume
occupied by the gas.
3. Intermolecular forces are negligible.
4. Pressure is due to the gas molecules colliding with the walls of the containers.
A gas that deviates from the Ideal Gas Law is called non-ideal gas.
Note: Ideal gas (perfect gas) stated that the gas undergoes perfect elastic collisions with the
walls of the cylinder. Real gases do not exhibit these exact properties. Approximation if often
good enough to describe real gases. In high pressure and low temperatures, the approximation
of the ideal gas on real gases is not valid because intermolecular forces play a great role in
determining the properties of gas.
Procedure:

Experiment Results (Charles’s Law):

Pressure: bar abs
Height of Oil in Volume of Oil in Volume (Total
Measuring Measuring Volume-Volume of Temperature (K)
Chamber (m) Chamber (m3) Oil) (m3)
Experiment Results (Boyle’s Law):
Temperature: °C
Height of Oil in Volume of Oil Volume (Total
Pressure (bar 1/Volume
Measuring in Measuring Volume-Volume
abs) (m-3)
Chamber (m) Chamber (m3) of Oil) (m3)

Plot the graph for Temperature vs Volume (Charles’s Law).

Plot the graph for Temperature vs Pressure (Boyle’s Law).

Conclusion:

Source of Error:

Physical Applications: