Lecture One Introduction

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
General
Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other
aspects of life. Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many devices,
such as car radiators, solar collectors, spacecraft, compute and the TV as shown
in Fig.(1.1) [1]. Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction,
convection, and radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a
temperature difference e.g. a closed container filled with hot coffee which
shown in Fig. (1.2). Convection is classified as natural (or free), forced and
mixed convection, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated that covered
by Ri= Gr/ parameter. In forced convection, Gr/ < 1 the fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In
natural convection Gr/ , where any fluid motion is caused by natural
means such as the buoyancy effect. In mixed convection Gr/ It is
necessary to enhances heat transfer enhancement in engineering systems
because these systems generate heat during their operation. If this generated
heat is not dissipating rapidly to its surrounding atmosphere, this may cause rise
in temperature of the system components. This byproduct cause serious
overheating problems in system and leads to system failure, so the generated
heat within the system must be rejected to its surrounding to maintain the
system at recommended temperature for its efficient working [3]. There are
different methods to enhancement heat depended on the application and
required work (cooling/heating) such as increase area by adding fins or different
shape cavities, Nano fluid, swirl etc. [4].
Lecture One Introduction

Figure 1.1: Some application of heat transfer [1]

Figure 1.2: Application of the different modes of heat transfer [2]

Introduction Heat Transfer /Third stage

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1- Objectives:
1. To develop an appreciation for the fundamental concepts and principles that underlies heat transfer
processes.
2. To illustrate the manner in which knowledge of heat transfer may be used with the first law of
thermodynamics to solve problems relevant to technology and society.

2- Unit Conversion and Constants:

Quantity S.I. to English English to S.I.

Length 1 m = 3.2808 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Area 1 m2 = 10.7639 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
Volume 1 m3 = 35.3134 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
Mass 1 kg = 2.20462 lb 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
Density 1 kg/m3 = 0.06243 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3
Force 1 N = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.4482 N
Pressure 1 N/m2 = 1.4504 × 10–4 lbf /in2 1 lbf /in2 = 6894.8 N/m2
Pressure 1 bar = 14.504 lbf /in2 1 lbf /in2 = 0.06895 bar
Energy 1 kJ = 0.94783 Btu 1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
(heat, work) 1 kW hr = 1.341 hp hr 1 hp hr = 0.7457 kW hr
Power 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp 1 hp = 745.7 W
Heat flow 1 W = 3.4121 Btu/hr 1 Btu/hr = 0.29307 W
Specific heat 1 kJ/kg°C = 0.23884 Btu/lb°F 1 Btu/lb°F = 4.1869 kJ/kg°C
Surface tension 1 N/m = 0.068522 lbf /ft 1 lbf /ft = 14.5939 N/m
Thermal conductivity 1 W/m°C = 0.5778 Btu/hr ft°F 1 Btu/hrft°F = 1.7307 W/m°C
1 Btu/hr ft2°F = 5.6783
Convection coefficient 1 W/m2°C = 0.1761 Btu/hrft2°F
W/m2°C
Dynamic viscosity 1 kg/ms = 0.672 lb/fts= 2419.2 lb/ft 1 lb/fts = 1.4881 kg/msor
hr Ns/m2
Kinematic viscosity 1 m2/s = 10.7639 ft2/s 1 ft2/s = 0.092903 m2/s
Universal gas const. 8314.41 J/kg mol K= 1545 ft lbf
/mol R= 1.986 B tu/lb mol R
5.67 W/m2K4 = 0.174 Btu/hr ft2
Stefan Boltzmann const.
R4

3- Definition and Classification:

Heat transfer is the process of thermal energy movement due to temperature difference. The study of
heat transfer is directed to
(i) The estimation of rate of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system both under steady
and transient conditions.
(ii) The determination of temperature field under steady and transient conditions i.e. T (x, y, z, t).

There are 3 modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.

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The basic laws governing heat transfer and their application are as below:

1. First law of thermodynamics: This law explains the energy conservation principle. It provides the
relation between the heat flow, energy stored and energy generated in a given system. The relationship for
a closed system is:
The heat flow into the system boundary + heat generated inside the system- The heat flow out of the
system bondary = change in the internal energy rate stored in the system. That is:
d E st
Ein  Eg  E out  Est 
dt
Where Est = rate change in energy stored
Ein , Eout = rate of heat in and out of control volume

Eg = rate of thermal energy generation.

2. Newton's laws of motion used in the determination of fluid flow parameters.

3. Law of conservation of mass, used in the determination of flow parameters. The mass flow rate of the
fluid inside a channel may be expressed as m  V Ac , where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the channel
through which the fluid flows.

4- Heat transfer and thermodynamic:

The subjects of heat transfer and thermodynamics are highly complementary, but they also have
fundamental differences. While "thermodynamics" may be used to determine the amount of energy
required in the form of heat for a system to pass from one state to another, it considers neither the
mechanisms that provide for heat exchange nor the methods that exist for computing the rate of heat
exchange. The "heat transfer" specifically seeks to quantify the rate at which heat is exchanged through
the rate equations expressed.

5- Modes of heat transfer:

There are three modes of heat transfer. They are (see figure 1.1):
 Conduction: the heat transfer that occurs across a stationary medium (a solid or a fluid) when a
temperature gradient exists in the medium.
 Convection: the heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at
different temperatures.
 Radiation: the net heat transfer that occurs between two surfaces at different temperatures as a
result of energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves.

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Introduction Heat Transfer /Third stage

1- Conduction:
The conduction mechanism occurs mostly in solid medium. It could occurs in liquid and gases when
they are still. The rate equation used to quantify heat conduction is known as Fourier’s law. For 1-
dimensional heat conduction, it is expressed as
dT
q x   k
dx
Where qx (W/m2) ≡ heat flux = heat transfer in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction
of transfer and k (W/m.k) ≡ thermal conductivity of the medium.
For the steady-state 1-dimensional plane wall shown in figure, where the temperature distribution is
linear, the heat flux is
T2  T1 T T T
q x   k k 1 2 k
L L L

The heat rate by conduction, qx (W) through a plane wall of area A is:
qx  qx  A

Notes:
1- Temperature gradient depends on coordinate. For example for cylindrical coordinates:
dT
qr  kAr
dr
2- Materials of low thermal conductivity are called Insulations like fiber glass, asbestos…etc. In industry,
the materials that keep the insulations from environment are called lagging for example Aluminum.

3-Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may be considered a function
of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties are largely independent of pressure and depend on
temperature alone.
k  k(T )

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Introduction Heat Transfer /Third stage

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Introduction Heat Transfer /Third stage

Example 1: Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm thickness with
a constant thermal conductivity of 8.5 W/mK when the surface temperatures are
steady at 100°C and 30°C. The wall area is 3m2. Also find the temperature
gradient in the flow direction.
Solution:

To find the temperature gradient:

This is also equal to – (100 – 30)/0.1 = – 700°C/m, as the gradient is constant all through the thickness.

2- Convection:
The convection heat transfer mode occurs in flowing liquids.
 Consider fluid flow over the heated surface as shown in figure.
 Due to the fluid-surface interaction, a region in the fluid develops in which the velocity varies
from zero at the surface to a finite value U (the free-stream velocity). This region of the fluid is
known as the hydrodynamic, or velocity, boundary layer (HBL).
 If the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region of the fluid through which the
temperature varies from Ts at y = 0 to T in the outer flow. This region is called the thermal
boundary layer (TBL).
 The TBL may be smaller, larger, or the same size as the HBL.
 Near the surface, the contribution due to diffusion dominates. The heat conducted at the surface is then
swept downstream by the bulk motion of the fluid.
 Convection heat transfer may be classified, according to the nature of the flow, as follows:
 Forced convection when the flow is caused by external means, e.g. a fan, a pump, atmospheric
wind (see figure 1.5a).
 Free (or natural) convection when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which are due to
density differences, caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
 Boiling: Here, fluid motion is induced by vapor bubbles generated due to latent heat transfer.
 Condensation: Here, the condensed liquid drops from the cold surface.

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 Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage

 The rate equation for convection heat transfer process is known as Newton’s law of cooling. It is
expressed as
q  hTs T 









where q is the heat flux, Ts is the surface temperature, T is the fluid temperature and h (W/m2.K) is
termed the convection heat transfer coefficient. The parameter h depends on the surface geometry, the
nature of the fluid motion, and the fluid thermodynamic and transport properties.

Table 1. Typical values of h (W / m2.K)

gases: 2 25
Free convection
liquid: 50 – 100
gases: 25- 250
Forced convection
liquid: 50 -20,000
Boiling/Condensation 2500- 100,000

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 Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage

Example 1.2: Determine the heat transfer by convection over a surface of 0.5 m2 area if the surface is at
160°C and fluid is at 40°C. The value of convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2K. Also estimate
the temperature gradient at the surface given k = 1 W/mK for the fluid.
Solution:

The fluid has a conductivity of 1 W/mK, then the temperature gradient at the surface is:

3- Radiation:
 Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature. It is transferred by
electromagnetic waves.
 Thermal radiation does not require the presence of any medium (unlike conduction and convection).
 The rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) of a surface is termed the surface emissive
power E. The emissive power of a real surface is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

E    Ts4
where Ts is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and  is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (
=5.67×10-8 W/m2.K4).
 is a radiative property of the surface termed the emissivity. Its value depends strongly on the surface
material and finish. It is in the range of 0    1. The value of  for ideal surface is =1(black body)
 Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its surroundings or from special sources, e.g. the sun.
 Consider a small surface at Ts that is completely surrounded by a much larger isothermal surface at Tsur
as shown in figure, then the net radiation exchange heat flux from the surface is



qrad    Ts 4 T sur
4

 Sometimes it is convenient to express the net radiation exchange in the form
q rad  hr ATs Tsur 

Where the radiative heat transfer coefficient hr is

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 Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage


h r    Ts Tsur  T 2 T 2
s

sur

 If heat transfer takes place by both convection and radiation from the surface, then the total rate of heat
transfer from the surface is then


q  qconv  qrad  h ATs T    A Ts4 T sur
4








Example 1.3: A surface is at 200°C and has an area of 2m2. It exchanges heat with another surface B at
30°C by radiation. The value of emissivity is 0.46. Determine the heat exchange. Also find the value of
thermal resistance and equivalent convection coefficient.
Solution:

(This conversion of temperature unit is very important)

Therefore, Q = 2171.4 W
Resistance can be found as

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6- The Thermal Resistance Concept:

The three modes of heat transfer were introduced in the preceding sections. The equations described the
heat transfer rate can be expressed in the form:
T
q  qA 
Rt
The quantity Rt (K/W) is called a thermal resistance and takes different forms for the three different
modes of heat transfer. An electrical analogy is useful as a concept in solving conduction problems and in
general heat transfer problems.

Fig. the electrical analogy for the heat transfer modes.

7- Combined modes of heat transfer

In practice all the three modes of heat transfer can occur simultaneously. Most of the time conduction
and convection modes occur simultaneously when heat from a hot fluid is transferred to a cold fluid
through an intervening barrier. Consider the following example. A wall receives heat by convection on
one side. After conduction to the next surface, heat is transferred to the other surroundings by convection
also. This situation is shown in figure below.

The heat flow is given by:

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Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage
T T1  T2
Q 
1 L


Rtotal 1
 
h1 A kA h1 A
Example 1.4:
A block of 0.2 m thick with thermal conductivity of 45 W/mK receives heat from a furnace at 500 K by
convection. The convection coefficient has a value of 50 W/m2K. The surface temperature is 400 K on this
side. The heat is transferred to surroundings at the other side at T ∞2 by convection. The convection
coefficient on this side being 60 W/m2K.
Determine the surrounding temperature.
Assume A = 1m2.
Solution:
Heat received:
Q  hA(T1  T1)  50*1*(500  400)  5000W
To determine the value of T2 ,

On the other side, Heat rejected:

Q  hA(T2  T1 )  60 *1*(368.43  T1 )  5000W  T 1  285.1o C

****SOLVED PROBLEMS****
Problem 1:
A surface is at 200°C and is exposed to surroundings at 60°C and convects and radiates heat to the
surroundings. The convection coefficient is 80W/m2K.. If the heat is conducted to the surface through a
solid of conductivity 12 W/mK, determine the temperature gradient at the surface in the solid. Take
A  1m2 ,   1.

Solution:

Heat convected + heat radiated = heat conducted considering 1m2,

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Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage

Problem 2:

Heat is conducted through a material with a temperature gradient of – 9000 °C/m. The conductivity of
the material is 25W/mK. If this heat is convected to surroundings at 30°C with a convection coefficient of
345W/m2K, determine the surface temperature. If the heat is radiated to the surroundings at 30°C
determine the surface temperature.
Take A  1m2 ,   1.

Solution:
If the conducted heat transfer is convected to the fluid, then:

If the conducted heat transfer is radiated to the fluid, then:

Problem 3:

A person sits in a room with surrounding air at 26°C and convection coefficient over the body surface is
6 W/m2K. The walls in the room are at 5°C. If the body temperature is 37°C, determine the heat losses by
convection and radiation (with the wall). Assume ε = 1.0 for radiation. Consider a surface area of 0.6
m2.
Solution:

Total = 150.59 W
The direct heat loss by radiation makes one feel cooler though the surrounding temp is not that low.
Calculate the same when the wall temp is also 26°C in summer.
Convection loss = 39.6 W
Radiation loss:

Total heat loss = 81.88 W.

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Asst. Lec.Murtadha S. Mohammed Heat Transfer /Third stage

Problem 4:
A person stands in front of a fire at 650 C in a room where air is at 5°C. Assuming the body temperature
to be 37°C and a convection coefficient of 6 W/m2K, the area exposed to convection as 0.6m2, determine
the net heat flow from the body. . The area exposed to radiation from the fire and reaching the person is
0.01. Assume ε = 1.0 for radiation

Problem 5:

A electric room heater (radiator) element is 25 cm long and 4 cm in diameter. The element dissipates
heat to the surroundings at 1500 W mainly by radiation, the surrounding temperature being 15°C.
Determine the equilibrium temperature of the element surface. Assume ε = 1.0 for radiation.

Problem 6:
A steel plate is exposed to solar heat flux of 800 W/m2 on one side. The plate is exposed to air at 30°C on
both sides. The convection coefficients are 10 W/m2K on the back side and 15 W/m2K on the front.
Determine the equilibrium temperature assuming no temperature gradient across the plate. Neglect
radiation loose.
Solution:
The energy balance yields

The heat rate in = convection on the front side + convection on the back side
Substituting the values, and considering 1m2
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Problem 7:
Air at 120°C flows over a plate 20 mm thick and the temperatures in the middle 10mm layer of the plate
was measured using thermo couples and were found to be 42°C and 30°C. The thermal conductivity of
the material is known to be 22.5 W/mK. Determine the average convection coefficient over the plate.
Solution:
The surface temperature Ts and Q
can provide the means for the determination
of the convection coefficient.
Using the rate equation,

Using the temperature drop and the

thermal conductivity of the wall material, Q
can be determined using

The surface temperature can be found assuming the material to be isotropic and having constant thermal
conductivity. The drop in temperature over a 10mm layer is, 42 – 30 = 12°C. Hence, over 5mm, the drop
will be 6°C. Hence the surface temperature = 42 + 6 = 48°C.
Substituting, 27000 = h × 1 (120 – 48)
Therefore, h = 375 W/m2K.

Problem 8:
A glass plate at 40°C is heated by passing hot air over it with a convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K. If the
temperature change over 1mm thickness is not to exceed 5°C to avoid distortion damage, determine the
maximum allowable temperature of the air. Thermal conductivity of the plate material is 1.4 W/mK.
Solution:
The heat flow by conduction = heat flow
by convection
The conduction heat flow is found using the
allowable temperature drop over 1mm thickness.

Assuming unit area,

Therefore,
7000 = hA(Tair – 40)
= 18(Tair – 40)
Therefore, Tair = 428.9°C.

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Problem 9:

A surface at 260°C convects heat at steady state to Air at 60°C with a convection coefficient of
30W/m2K. If this heat has to be conducted through wall with thermal conductivity of 9.5 W/mK,
determine the temperature gradient in the solid.

Solution:

Energy balance yields the relation, heat

conducted = heat convected
Assuming Unit area
= – kA(dT/dx) = hA(T2 – T∞)
Therefore dT/dx = (–h/k) (T2 – T∞)
(30/9.5) (260 – 60) = – 631.5°C/m
or, – 6.315°C/cm.

Problem 10:

Heat is conducted at steady state through a solid with temperature gradient of – 5°C/cm, the thermal
conductivity of the solid being 22.5 W/mK. If the heat is exchanged by radiation from the surface to the
surroundings at 30°C, determine the surface temperature.

Solution:

Energy balance yields the relation

Heat conducted = heat radiated

Considering unit area and substituting

the values

(The gradient should be converted to °C/m by multiplying by 100) Therefore T2 = 674.4K or 401.4°C.

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