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Chemistry Full Overview

1. Matter and Materials
States of Matter
Solid: Fixed shape and volume.

Liquid: Fixed volume but takes the shape of its container.

Gas: No fixed shape or volume; fills the entire container.

Example: Ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas) are all forms of H₂O.

Properties of Substances
Physical Properties: Can be observed without changing the substance
(e.g., color, melting point).

Chemical Properties: Describe how a substance reacts with others (e.g.,

reactivity with acid).

Mixtures and Solutions

Mixture: Combination of two or more substances where each retains its
properties (e.g., salad).

Solution: Homogeneous mixture where one substance dissolves in another

(e.g., saltwater).

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 2. Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonds
Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

Example: Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) form NaCl (table salt).

Covalent Bonds
Formed when atoms share electrons.

Example: Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) form H₂O (water).

Metallic Bonds
Formed between metal atoms, allowing for conductivity and malleability.

Example: Copper (Cu) conducts electricity due to metallic bonding.

Molecular Geometry

The 3D arrangement of atoms in a molecule affects its properties.

Example: Water has a bent shape due to the arrangement of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms.

3. Chemical Reactions
Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis: Two or more reactants combine to form a product.

Example: A+B→AB

A + B → AB

2. Decomposition: A single compound breaks down into two or more

products.

Example: AB→A+B

AB → A + B

3. Single Replacement: An element replaces another in a compound.

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 Example: A+BC→AC+B

A + BC → AC + B
4. Double Replacement: Two compounds exchange ions.

Example: AB+CD→AD+CB

AB + CD → AD + CB

Balancing Chemical Equations

Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

Example:

Unbalanced: H2​+O2​→H2​O

H2 + O2 → H2 O
​ ​ ​

Balanced: 2H2​+O2​→2H2​O

2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
​ ​ ​

Reaction Rates

Factors affecting reaction rates: temperature, concentration, surface area,

and catalysts.

4. Stoichiometry
Mole Concept

A mole (mol) (Avogadro's number) is .

6.022 × 1023

Example: 1 mole of water contains 6.022×1023 molecules of H₂O.

Calculating Molar Mass

The mass of one mole of a substance (g/mol).

Example:

Water (H₂O): 2(1)+16=18g/mol

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 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol
Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Empirical Formula: Simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a

compound.

Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.

Example:

Empirical: CH (for benzene, C₆H₆)

Molecular: C₆H₆

Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the relationships

between the quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Understanding stoichiometry is crucial for predicting how much product can be
formed from given reactants, as well as determining the proportions of
reactants needed for a desired amount of product.

Balanced Chemical Equations

A balanced chemical equation ensures the law of conservation of mass is
upheld, indicating that the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of
products.

Example of Balancing:

Unbalanced Equation:
H2​+O2​→H2​O

H2 + O2 → H2O

Balanced Equation:
2H2​+O2​→2H2​O

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Stoichiometric Calculations
Using a balanced equation, stoichiometry allows us to calculate the amount of
reactants needed or products formed.

General Steps for Stoichiometric Calculations:

1. Write and Balance the Equation.

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 2. Convert quantities of known substances to moles.

3. Use mole ratios from the balanced equation to calculate the moles of the
unknown substance.

4. Convert moles back to desired units (grams, liters, molecules, etc.).

Example Calculations
Example 1: Calculating Product from Reactants

Reaction: 2H2​+O2​→2H2​O

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Problem: How many grams of water can be produced from 4 moles of H2​?

Step 1: Determine moles of water produced.

From the balanced equation, 2molH2​produces 2molH2​O.

2 mol H2 ​

2 mol H2 O
​

Therefore, 4molH2​produces 4molH2​O.

4 mol H2 ​

4 mol H2 O
​

Step 2: Calculate mass of water produced.

Molar mass of H2​O=2(1)+16=18g/mol.

H2 O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol
​

Mass of water:

m = n × M = 4 mol × 18 g/mol = 72 g

Example 2: Calculating Reactants from Products

Reaction: 2Na+Cl2​→2NaCl

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

​

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 Problem: If 5 moles of NaCl are produced, how many moles of Na are
required?

Step 1: Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation.

From the equation, 2molNa produces 2mol NaCl.

2 mol Na

2 mol NaCl

Therefore, 5molNaCl requires 5molNa (because of the 1:1 ratio).

5 mol NaCl

5 mol Na

Example 3: Finding Limiting Reactants

Reaction: 2H2​+O2​→2H2​O

2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
​ ​ ​

Problem: If you have 3 moles of H2​and 1 mole of O2​, which reactant is

limiting?

H2 ​

O2 ​

Step 1: Determine the mole ratios.

According to the balanced equation:

2 moles of H2​react with 1 mole of O2​.

H2 ​

O2 ​

Step 2: Calculate how much O2 is needed for 3 moles of H2.

Required O2​:

O2 ​

lO

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 1 mol O2
× 3 mol H2 = 1.5 mol O2
​

2 mol H2
​ ​ ​

Since we only have 1 mole of O2O_2O2​, oxygen is the limiting reactant.

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