on

lh-+Kl,

N,
N2
Fig.(7.8)

Phasor diagram. Fig. (7.9) shows the phasor diagram for the usual case of
Both Et and E; lag behind the mutual flux o by inductive load.
90° The current I'2 represents the primay
curent to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary current Iz. Now I2
antiphase with I2. lo is the no-load current of the transformer. The phasor sum of l2=Klh
and lo
and 1S
the total primary current I1. Note that in drawing the phasor gives
to be unity so that primary phasors are diagram, the value of K is asSumed
equalto secondary phasors.
Primary p.f. = cos p1
Secondary p.f. cos p2
Primary input power = Vilicos 91
Secondary output power = VT I, cos 2

12
E= V,iK=1
Fig.(7-9)
 Translormer with
9
(7.10)shows a
resistance and leakage reactance:
Fig. practical transformer having
actual
These are
the
conditions
primary e.m.f E is
that exist in a winding resistances and leakage reactances.
less than the appliedtransformer. There is voltage drop in Ri and X1
oihat
X2So
that
Rand usualcase secondary
of terminal voltage voltage Vi. Similarly, there is voltage drop in
V is less
akethe voltage V nductive load which than the secondary ..m.f. E. Let us
Ondary by 2. The total primarycauses the secondary
the current I1 must meet
current Iz to lag behind the
two requiremnents viz.
) It must supply no-load
provide flux in the core. current lo to meet the iron losses in the transformer and to
b) It must supply a current I2 to
counteract the
bThe magnitude of l2 will be such that: demagnetizing, effect of secondary current
NT,=N,I,
I,= -KI,

Fig.(7.10)
Tbe total primary curent I; will be the phasor sum ofI; and Io i.e.,
I, =I;+ Io where I;=KI,
VË-E, + IH(R,+ jX) where I l , t (-KIL)
=-E I|Z1
=E- ; (R3 +jX2)
Eg- IZ2
sOr diagram. Fig. (7.11) shows the phasor diagram of apractical transformer for the usual
e of inductive load. Both El and E, lag he mutual flux o by 90°. The current I'2 represents
Prmary current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary current I>. Now I-K
dis opposite to I. Also Iois the no-load current of the transformer. The phasor sum of I,
gives the total primary current I.
Note that counter e.m.f. that opposes the applied voltage Vi is -E. Therefore, if we add IR
phaseEz with I) andtheI X (90° abhead of Ii) to -Ei, we get the applied primary voltage V, The
phasor Tepresents induced e mf. in the secondary by the mutual flux . The secondary
leLoadrninal voltage V will be what is left over after subtracting ILR: and IX, from
E.

power factorCOS
ranarypower to factor
power =
92
COS 91
iput transformer, P Vil cos 1
power of transformer, P:Vlzcos 2
Iron or Core losses, P, Hysteresis loss +Eddy current loss
Constant losses
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using stecl of high silicon content whereas eddy
current loss can be reduced by using core of thin laminations.
2. Copper losses:
These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic resistance.
These can be determined by short-circuit test.
Total Culosses, P =I¡R, +IR,
Ror Rzt R,
- IRo1 or IRo2
It is clear that copper losses vary as the square of load current Thus if copper losses are 400 W
at aload current of 10 A, then they will be (1/2) x 400 = 100 Wata load current of 5A.
Total losses in a transformer=P1 + Pc
= Constant losses + Variable losses
It may be noted that in a transformer, copper losses account for about 90% of the total losses.

VOLTAGE REGULATION: the lod

and d s
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference (not phasor difference) olhge at
between the no-load secondary voltage (oV2) and the secondary voltage V2 on load expressed
as percentage of no-load voltage i.e.
°oage voltage regulation V;2 x100
he vothaye shoulZ
where oSy= No-load secondary voltage Jemeu Gonytat rt he
V,= Secondary voltage on load
Itmay be noted that %oage voltage regulation of the transformer will be the same whether
primary or secondary side is considered.

EFFICIENCY OFA TRANSFORMER:

Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of
output power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.,
Output power
Efficiency =
Input power
It may appear that efficiency can be determined by directly loading the transformer and
measuring
drawbacks:
the input power and output power. However, this method has the following
(i) Since the efficiency of a transformer is very high, even 1% error in cach wattmeter
(output and input) may give ridiculous results. This test, for instance, may give
cfficiency higher than 100%.
 Hysleras los

L,X1
-E,

3.

Co)

Fig.(7-11)
h a

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER:
The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely:
1.Core or Iron losses 2. Copper losses
These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in temperature and
(ii) a drop in efficiency.
1.Core or Iron losses (P):
These consist ofhysteresisand eddy current losses and occur in the transformer core due to the
alternating flux. These can be determined by open-circuit test.
Hysteresis loss, = k, f B wats/m
Eddy curent loss, =k, f Be watts/m'

Both hysteresisand eddy current losses depend upon (i) maximum flux density B¡p in the core
and (i) supplyfrequency f. Since transformers are conected to constant-frequency, constant
voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losSses are practically the same
at all loads.

and hdcas an emf

 (i) Since the test is performed with transforner on load, considerable amount of power is
wasted. For large transformers, the cost of power alone would be considerable.
(i)lt is generally difficult to have adevice that is capable of absorbing all of the output
power.
(i9)The test gives no information about the proportion of various losses.
Due to these drawbacks, direct loading method is seldom used to determine the efficiency of a
transformer. In practice, open-circuit and short-circuit tests are carried out to find the
efficiency.
Output Output
Efficiency= Input Output + Losses
The losses can be dctermined by
transformer tests.

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

Output power =Vl, Cos 2
IfRo2 is the total resistance of the transfomer referred to secondary, then,

Total Cu loss, P =1;Ro2

Total losses = P, +Pc
Transformer VI, cos,
Vil, cos, + +ERo:
V, cos2 ’Congt
VË cos, +P/I, +1,Ro2
For anormal transformer, V, is approximately constant. Hence for a load of
given p.£., efficiency depends upon load current Iz. It is clear from exp (i) above
that numerator is constant and for the efficiency to be
maximum, the
denominator should be minimun ie.,

di, (denoinat or) =0

d
Or
dl. ; cos4, +P/I, +I,Rop)=0n olobg
a)
 0
+Ro=0
P-Ro (i1)
Iron losses =Copper losses
Hence eficiency of a transtomer will be maxinum when copper loSses are
equal toconstant or iron losses.
From eq. (m) above, the load current I, coresponding to maxinum efficiency is
given by:

I,=
|Ro:
The relative value of these losses is in the control of the designer of the
transformer
according to the relative amount of copper and iron he uses. Atransformer which is to operate
continuously on full-load would, therefore, be designed to have-maximum efficiency at full
load. However, distribution transformers operate for long periods on light load.
point of maximum efficiency is usually arranged to be between three-quarter andTherefore, their
half full-load.
Note. In a transformer, iron losses are constant whereas copper losses are variable. In order to
obtain maximum efficiency, the load current should be such that total Cu losses become equal
to iron losses.

AUTOTRANSFORMER:
An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core anda part of winding is common to
both the primary and secondary circuits. Fig. (7.36 (i) shows the connections of a step-down
autotransformer whereas Fig. (7.36 (ii) shows the connections of a step-up autotransformer.
In either case, the winding ab having NË turns is the primary winding and
N2 turns is the secondary winding. Note that the primary and secondary winding bc having
windings connected
are
electrically as well as magnetically. Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the
secondary conductively as wellas inductively (transformer action). The voltage transformation
ratio K of an ideal autotransformer is

V, N , I , t a t u e
Note that in an autotransforner, secondary and primary
voltages are related in the same way
as in a 2-winding transformer.
 N
V, N,
N

b
Slep-up autotranstormer
Step-down autotranstormer
(i)
()
Fig.(7.36) autotransformer.
Fig. (7.37) shows the connections of a loaded step-down as well as step-up Regardless of
current.
In cach case, I; is the input current and I is the output or load
winding
autotransformer connection (step-up or step-down), the current in the portion of the currents
between these
that is common to both the primary and the secondary is the difference
(i and lT). The relative direction of the current through the common portion of the winding
depends upon the connections of the autotransformer. It is because the type of connection
deternines whether input current I, or output current I2 is larger. For step-down
autotransforner l, > i(as for 2-winding transformer) so that l> -IË current flows through the
Common portion of the winding. For step-up autotransformer, Ih<I. Therefore, IË - Ih current
flews in the common portion of the winding.

2
V2LoadV,
L
Step-dowm autotranstormer Step-up autotransformer

In an ideal autotransformer, exciting current and losses are neglected. For such an
autotransformer, as Kapproaches 1, the value of current in the common portion ( - I or I -
) of the winding approaches zero. Therefore, for value of K near unity, the common portion
of the winding can be wound with wire of smaller cross-sectional arca. For this reason, an
autotransformer requires less copper.