Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

MITWPU
UNIT I - A.C. CIRCUITS
Contents

A.C. Circuits: Generation of alternating EMF, Equation of

alternating quantity, waveforms, phasor representation,
Concept of impedance, admittance and power triangle, series
RL, RC, RLC circuits, Series resonance, parallel circuits, Single
Phase Transformer: Working principle, Construction, Types,
Equivalent circuit, Losses, Efficiency, Regulation (10L)

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 Reference Book

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Topics
■ Generation of alternating EMF
Khan Academy you tube Link: https://youtu.be/FpzlZq_wDL4 (Hindi)
https://youtu.be/Ylgb8FFMgd4 (English)
■ Equation of alternating quantity, Waveforms, phasor representation
■ Concept of impedance and admittance and power triangle
■ Series RL, RC, RLC circuits
■ Series resonance
■ Parallel circuits

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Alternating systems
■ Alternating current can be abbreviated to a.c., hence a system with such an
alternating current is known as an a.c. system. The curves relating current to
time are known as waveforms.

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
3D animation link- https://youtu.be/gQyamjPrw-U

Fig. Generation of an alternating e.m.f. Fig. EMF in rotating coil

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Explanation
■ The Figure shows a loop AB carried by a spindle DD rotated at a constant speed in an
anticlockwise direction in a uniform magnetic field due to poles NS.
■ The ends of the loop are brought out to two slip-rings C1 and C2,attached to but insulated from
DD.
■ Bearing on these rings are carbon brushes E1 and E2, which are connected to an external
resistor R.
■ Since the coil sides are moving in opposite directions, the e.m.f.s act in opposite directions, as
shown by the dot and cross notation.
■ However, they do act in the same direction around the coil so that the e.m.f. which appears at
the brushes is twice that which is induced in a coil side.

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 Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ In Fig. (a), coil AB is shown after it has rotated
through an angle θ from the horizontal
position, namely the position of zero e.m.f.
■ Suppose the peripheral velocity of each side of
the loop to be u metres per second; then at
the instant shown in Fig., this peripheral
velocity can be represented by the length of a
line AL drawn at right angles to the plane of
the loop.
■ We can resolve AL into two components, AM
and AN, perpendicular and parallel respectively
to the direction of the magnetic flux, as shown
in Fig. (b).
■ The e.m.f. generated in A is due entirely to the Fig. Instantaneous value of generated
component of the velocity perpendicular to e.m.f.
the magnetic field. (AM=usinθ)

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.

■ Hence, if B is the flux density in tesla and if l is the length in metres of each of
the parallel sides A and B of the loop,
Then, e.m.f. generated in one side of loop is

i.e. the generated e.m.f. is proportional to sin θ

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ When θ = 90°, the plane of the loop is vertical and both sides of the loop are
cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate, so that the generated e.m.f.
is then at its maximum value Em.
when θ = 90°, Em = 2Blu volts.

■ If b is the breadth of the loop in metres, and n the speed of rotation in

revolutions per second, then u is πbn metres per second and

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ If the loop is replaced by a coil of N turns in series, each turn having an area of A
square metres, maximum value of e.m.f. generated in coil is

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Instantaneous value of generated e.m.f.
■ Em - maximum value of the e.m.f.
■ e - value after the loop has rotated through an angle θ from the position of
zero e.m.f.
■ e.m.f. is positive while θ is varying between 0 and 180°.
■ It is negative while θ is varying between 180° and 360°.

Fig. Sine wave of e.m.f.

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Waveform terms and definitions
■ Waveform: The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current shown on a graph to a base of
time or rotation is a waveform.
■ Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is termed a cycle.
■ Period: The duration of one cycle is termed its period. (Cycles and periods need not commence
when a waveform is zero. Figure illustrates a variety of situations in which the cycle and period
have identical values.)
■ Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time (or position of
rotation). Instantaneous values are denoted by lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.
■ Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value is known as its
peak value.
■ Peak-to-peak value: The maximum variation between the maximum positive instantaneous
value and the maximum negative instantaneous value is the
peak-to-peak value. For a sinusoidal waveform, this is twice the peak value. The peak-to-peak
value is Epp or Vpp or Ipp.

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Definitions
■ Peak amplitude: The maximum instantaneous value measured from the mean value of a
waveform is the peak amplitude. For most sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents the
mean value is zero.
The peak amplitude is Em or Vm or Im. The peak amplitude is generally described as the
maximum value, hence the maximum voltage has the symbol Vm.
■ Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the frequency of that
quantity. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
Frequency f is related to the period T by the relation
f = 1/ T
where f is the frequency in hertz(Hz) and T is the period in seconds.

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Fig. Cycles and periods,
Effect on waveforms
by varying frequency

The diagrams assume frequencies of 1000 Hz (1 kHz), 2000 Hz (2 kHz) and 2500 Hz (2.5 kHz).

Fig. Peak values

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Example 1

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Average and r.m.s. values of sinusoidal currents and voltages

■ If Im is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally, the instantaneous value i is
represented by,
i = Im sinθ
where θ is the angle in radians from instant of zero current.
■ Therefore, total area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is,

■ Average value of current over a half-cycle is, ■ RMS value of current over a half-cycle is,

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Example 2

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Example 2

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Representation of an alternating quantity by a phasor
Animation at: https://youtu.be/fPdWyek8wQ4

AB and AC are drawn perpendicular to the horizontal and vertical axes respectively:
OC = AB = OA sinθ
= Im sinθ
=i
i is the value of the current at that instant

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Representation of an alternating quantity by a phasor

If f is the frequency in hertz, then OA rotates through f revolutions of 2π f radians in 1 s. Hence

the angular velocity of OA is 2π f radians per second and is denoted by the symbol ω (omega),
i.e.

If the time taken by OA to rotate through an angle θ radians is t seconds, then

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Phasor representation of quantities differing in phase

If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by

i = Im sinθ

then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by

v = Vm sin (θ + φ)
where Im = OA and Vm = OB

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit
■ Consider a circuit having a resistance R ohms connected across the terminals of an a.c.
generator G, as in Fig. and suppose the alternating voltage to be represented by the sine wave

■ If the value of the voltage at any instant is v volts, the value of the current at that instant is given
by

■ If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and current respectively, it follows that

---------------[1]

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit
But the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum value, so that
RMS value of voltage = V = 0.707Vm
and RMS value of current = I = 0.707Im
Substituting for Im and Vm in equation [1] we have

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit

Hence Ohm’s law can be applied without any modification to an

a.c. circuit possessing resistance only.
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by

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Alternating current in an inductive circuit
■ Let us consider the effect of a sinusoidal current flowing through a coil having an inductance of L
henrys and a negligible resistance, as in Fig. the e.m.f., in volts, induced in a coil is

e = L × rate of change of current in amperes per second

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 Current and voltage in an inductive circuit
■ Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through a coil having inductance L henrys and
negligible resistance to be represented by

where t is the time, in seconds, after the current has passed through zero from negative to
positive values
■ Suppose the current to increase by di amperes in dt seconds, then instantaneous value of
induced e.m.f. is

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Current and voltage in an inductive circuit

■ Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of the applied voltage is
equal to the induced e.m.f.,

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Current and voltage in an inductive circuit
The maximum value Vm of the applied voltage is 2πfLIm, i.e.

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Current and voltage in an inductive circuit
■ The inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and the current produced by a given
voltage is inversely proportional to the frequency as shown in Fig. 10.8
■ The phasor diagram for a purely inductive circuit is given in Fig.10.9 where E represents the
r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in the circuit, and V, equal to E, represents the r.m.s. value of
the applied voltage.

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Resistance and inductance in series
■ Effect of Resistance and inductance connected in series.

(a) Circuit diagram; (b) phasor diagram; (c) instantaneous phasor diagram; (d) wave diagram
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Resistance and inductance in series
The current is taken as reference since it is common to all the elements of a series circuit. The circuit voltage
may then be derived from the following relations:

Also,

• Here Z is termed the impedance of

the circuit.
• However, for any given frequency, the
impedance is constant and hence
Ohm’s law also applies to a.c. circuit
analysis.

• Impedance Symbol: Z
• Unit: ohm (Ω)
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Resistance and inductance in series
Phase angle is represented by φ.

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Example 4

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Alternating current in a capacitive circuit
■ Figure shows a capacitor C connected in series with an ammeter A across the terminals of an a.c.
source;
■ The alternating voltage applied to C is positive when it makes plate D positive relative to plate E.
■ If the capacitance is C farads, the charging current i is given by
i = C ⋅ rate of change of p.d.

Fig. 10.18 Voltage and current waveforms

for a purely capacitive circuit
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Current and voltage in a capacitive circuit
Suppose that the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to a capacitor having capacitance C
farads is represented by

If the applied voltage increases by dv volts in dt seconds

then, instantaneous value of current is

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Current and voltage in a capacitive circuit

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Example 5

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Resistance and capacitance in series
• The effect of connecting resistance and capacitance in series is illustrated in Fig.
• The current is again taken as reference.

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Resistance and capacitance in series

• The circuit voltage is derived from the following relations:

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Resistance and capacitance in series

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Example 6
■ A capacitor of 8.0 μF takes a current of 1.0 A when the alternating voltage applied across it is
230 V. Calculate:
(a) the frequency of the applied voltage;
(b) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to reduce the current in the circuit to
0.5 A at the same frequency;

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Series R-L-C circuit

■ Phase difference between current thru the cct and voltages across
each component
■ Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance values will decide the
phase difference
■ XL= XC , When two reactances are equal, I is maximum in the cct,
only resistive network
■ At Resonance , XL= XC at resonant frequency , fr=1/2.pi.Root(L.C)

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Alternating current in an RLC circuit

= inductive reactance − capacitive reactance

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Example 7- RL circuit
■ A coil having a resistance of 12 Ω and an inductance of 0.1 H is connected across a
100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the reactance and the impedance of the coil;
(b) the current;

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Example 7- RL circuit problem solution

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Example 8
■ A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 μF in
series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;

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Example 8

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Simple Parallel Circuits

In the resistive branch, the current is

given by

Fig. (a) Circuit diagram; (b) phasor diagram

The total supply current I is obtained

by adding the branch currents

I = IR + IL (phasor sum)

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Simple Parallel Circuits

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the phase angle φ is a lagging angle.

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 Simple Parallel Circuits
■ Resistance and capacitance in parallel.

In the resistive branch, the current is given by

(a) Circuit diagram; (b) phasor diagram

The phasor diagram is constructed in the usual manner
based on the relation

I = I R + IC (phasor sum)

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Simple Parallel Circuits
■ The phase angle φ is a leading angle. It follows that
parallel circuits behave in a similar fashion to series
circuits in that the combination of resistance with
inductance produces a lagging circuit while the
combination of resistance with capacitance gives rise
to a leading circuit.

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Example 9
■ A circuit consists of a 115 Ω resistor in parallel with a 41.5 μF capacitor and is connected to a 230
V, 50 Hz supply (Fig. 11.3). Calculate:
(a) the branch currents and the supply current;
(b) the circuit phase angle;
(c) the circuit impedance.

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 Example 10
■ Three branches, possessing a resistance of 50 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of
100 μF respectively, are connected in parallel across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current in each branch;
(b) the supply current;
(c) the phase angle between the
supply current and the supply voltage.

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Example 10

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Practice problem

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Summary of formulae

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Admittance and conductance (1/R)
■ When resistors having resistances R1, R2, etc. are in parallel, the equivalent resistance R is given by

■ In d.c. work the reciprocal of the resistance is known as conductance. It is represented by symbol
G and the unit of conductance is the siemens. Hence, if circuits having conductances G1, G2, etc.
are in parallel, the total conductance G is given by
G = G1 + G2 + . . .
■ In a.c. work the conductance is the reciprocal of the resistance only when the circuit possesses no
reactance.

■ If circuits having impedances Z1, Z2, etc. are connected in parallel across a supply voltage V, then

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 Admittance(1/Z), conductance
■ If Z is the equivalent impedance of Z1, Z2, etc. in parallel and if I is the resultant current, then,
using complex notation, we have
I = I1 + I2 + . . .

■ The reciprocal of impedance is termed admittance and is represented by the symbol Y, the unit
being again the siemens (abbreviation, S). Hence,

Y = Y1 + Y2 + . . .

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RL series circuit admittance

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RC series circuit admittance

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Parallel admittance
(a) Inductive reactance

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Power and voltamperes
■ The voltage drop across the resistor is in phase with the current and equal to VR = IR.
■ The voltage drop across the inductor is equal to the current multiplied by the reactance of the
inductor. The current lags this voltage drop by 90°.
■ The reactance of the inductor is given by XL = 2πfL
■ hence the magnitude of the voltage across the inductor is VL = IXL.
■ The impedance of the inductor is ZL = jXL; the phasor representing the voltage across the
inductor is therefore the current phasor multiplied by the impedance, i.e. VL = jXLI. The j term
produces a rotation of 90° in the complex plane; the voltage across the inductor therefore
leads the current by 90°.

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Power and voltamperes

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Frequency variation in a series RLC circuit
The impedance Z of this circuit is given by

The value of the reactance X of the circuit

ωL − 1/(ωC) (i.e. inductive reactance − capacitive reactance) will
depend on frequency.
For the inductive reactance:
|XL| = ωL = 2π fL
which will increase with frequency.
For the capacitive reactance:

which is largest at low frequencies.

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Frequency variation in a series RLC circuit
• at frequency fr, |XL| = |XC | so the impedance Z, is purely resistive;
• below fr, |XL| < |XC | so the circuit is capacitive;
• above fr, |XL| > |XC | so the circuit is inductive.

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Frequency variation in a series RLC circuit

AC=AB at Fr

Fig. 14.5 Effect of frequency variation on

Fig. 14.4 Variation of reactance voltages across R, L and C and current
and impedance with frequency
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The resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit

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 Single Phase Transformer
A static device which transfers electrical energy from one ac
circuit to another with the desired change in voltage or current
and without any change in frequency
■ AC device
■ Voltage/current can be amplified or reduced
■ Step-up and step-down transformer
■ Step-up: Step up to higher voltages for the transmission lines.
■ Step-down: To step the voltage down to values suitable for
motors, lamps, heaters, etc.
■ Single phase transformer and three phase transformer
■ Symbol of Transformer -

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 Working Principal of Single Phase Transformer

• A steel core C consists of laminated sheets, about 0.35–0.7

mm thick, insulated from one another.
• Coil P is connected to the supply and is therefore termed
the primary; coil S is connected to the load and is termed
the secondary.
• The magnetic flux forms the connecting link between the
primary and secondary circuits

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 Working Principal of Single Phase Transformer
■ An alternating voltage applied to P circulates an alternating current
through P and this current produces an alternating flux in the steel core
■ If the whole of the flux produced by P passes through S, the e.m.f. induced
in each turn is the same for P and S.
■ Hence, if N1 and N2 are the number of turns on P and S respectively,

Primary and secondary power factors are nearly equal,

Current ratio is given by:

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EMF equation of a transformer
■ The maximum value of the flux to be Φm webers and the frequency to be
f hertz. From Fig. 34.3, the flux has to change from +Φm to −Φm in half a
cycle, namely 1/2f in seconds.

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 EMF equation of a transformer

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Numerical Problems
1. A single phase transformer of 50 Hz, has a maximum flux in the core of 0.021 Wb, the number of
primary being 460 and secondary 52. Calculate the emf induced in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer.

2. A single phase transformer of 50 Hz, has 300 primary turns and 750 secondary turns. The net
cross sectional area of the core is 64 sq. cm. If the primary induced emf is 440 V find:
a. maximum flux density in the core
b. Calculate the emf induced in the secondary winding of the transformer.

3. A 250 kVA, 11 000 V/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 80 turns on the secondary.
Calculate:
(a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary currents;
(b) the approximate number of primary turns;
(c) the maximum value of the flux.

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 Numerical 3
A 250 KVA, 11 000 V/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 80 turns on
the secondary. Calculate:
(a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary currents;
(b) the approximate number of primary turns;
(c) the maximum value of the flux.

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 Construction of Single Phase Transformer

■ A simple two-winding transformer construction consists of each winding

being wound on a separate soft iron limb or core which provides the
necessary magnetic circuit
■ This magnetic circuit, known more commonly as the “transformer core” is
designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is
necessary for induction of the voltage between the two windings.
■ The core is designed to reduce “eddy currents”, which cause heating and
energy losses within the core decreasing the transformers efficiency.
■ To reduce these unwanted power losses, transformer core is constructed
from thin steel laminations.

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 Construction of Single Phase Transformer
• The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are
the Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.
• In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and
secondary windings are wound outside and surround the core ring.
• In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary
windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown below.

Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

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 Construction of Single Phase Transformer
Core Construction:
• The central iron core is constructed from of a highly
permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations
• These thin laminations are assembled together to provide the
required magnetic path with the minimum of magnetic losses
• Typically 0.35 to 0.7 mm thick

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 Construction of Single Phase Transformer

Laminations:
• The individual laminations are stamped out from larger steel sheets and
formed into strips of thin steel resembling the letters “E”s, “L”s, “U”s and
“I”s as shown below

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 Comparison

Core Shell
1. Winding encircles the core 1. Core encircles most of the windings
2. Single magnetic circuit 2. Double magnetic circuit
3. Core has two limbs 3. Core has three limbs
4. Cylindrical coils are used 4. Sandwich type coils are used
5. Windings are distributed on two 5. Windings are surrounded by the core
limbs hence natural cooling is hence no natural cooling
effective
6. Coils can be easily removed for
6. Coils cannot be removed easily
maintenance
7. For high voltage transformers
7. For low MITWPU
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voltage transformers 81
 Types of Transformer

Transformer Types based on Voltage Level:

■ Depending on the voltage level of the primary side and secondary side,
the transformer has three categories.
✔ Step Down
✔ Step Up
✔ Isolation Transformer.

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 Types of Transformer
1. Step-Down Transformer:
■ A step-down transformer converts the primary voltage level to a lower
voltage across the secondary output.
■ This is achieved by the ratio of primary and secondary windings.
■ For step-down transformers the number of windings is higher across the
primary side than the secondary side. Therefore, the overall winding ratio
of primary and secondary always remains more than 1.

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 Types of Transformer
2. Step-Up Transformer:
■ Step Up transformer is exactly opposite of the step-down transformer.
■ Step up transformer increase the low primary voltage to a high secondary
voltage.
■ It is achieved by the ratio of primary and secondary winding ratio.
■ For the Step Up transformer, the ratio of the primary winding and the
Secondary winding remains less than 1. That means the number turns in
secondary winding is higher than the primary winding.

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 Types of Transformer
3. Isolation Transformer:
■ Isolation transformer does not convert any voltage levels. The Primary
voltage and the secondary voltage of an isolation transformer always remain
the same.
■ This is because the primary and the secondary winding ratio is always equal
to the 1.
■ That means the number of turns in primary and secondary winding is same in
isolation transformer.
■ The transformer does not have any electrical connections between primary
and secondary, it is also used as an isolation barrier where the conduction
happens only with the magnetic flux. It is used for safety purpose and to
cancel noise transfer from primary to secondary or vice-versa.

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 Types of Transformer
Transformer Types based on Core material:
✔ Iron Core Transformer
✔ Ferrite Core Transformer
✔ Air-core Transformer

1. Iron Core Transformer:

■ Iron core transformer uses multiple soft iron plates as the core
material.
■ Due to the excellent magnetic properties of iron, the flux linkage of
the iron core transformer is very high. Thus, the efficiency of the
iron core transformer is also high.

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 Types of Transformer
2. Ferrite Core Transformer:
■ A ferrite core transformer uses a ferrite core due to high magnetic permeability.
■ This type of transformer offers very low losses in the high-frequency application.
■ Due to this, ferrite core transformers are used in high-frequency application such as in switch
mode power supply (SMPS), RF related applications, etc.

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 Types of Transformer
4. Air Core transformer:
■ Air Core transformer does not use any physical magnetic core as
the core material. The flux linkage of the air-core transformer is
made entirely using the air.
■ In air core transformer, the primary coil is supplied with alternating
current which produces an electromagnetic field around it. When a
secondary coil is placed inside the magnetic field, the secondary
coil is induced with a magnetic field which further is used to power
the load.
■ However, air core transformer produces low mutual inductance
compared to physical core material such as iron or ferrite core.

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 Types of Transformer

Transformer Types based on usage:

✔ Power transformers
✔ Measurement Transformers
✔ Distribution Transformers
1. Power transformers :
■ The Power transformers are used in high
power transfer applications for both step-up and step-down applications,
where the operating voltages are more than 33KV.
■ These are usually big in size depending upon the power handling
capacity and its application.
■ These transformers are available in three phase or single phase type.
■ As these transformers are bulky, they are placed in large open area.

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 Types of Transformer
2. Measurement Transformers:
■ The Measurement transformers are used for measuring high voltage and high currents.
■ These are mostly helpful in isolating the circuits from them.
■ These are mainly of two types, Current transformers and Voltage transformers.

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 Types of Transformer
3. Distribution Transformers:
■ The Distribution transformers are used for distribution of electrical energy
at end-user level.
■ The operating voltages are around 33KV for industrial purposes and
440v-220v for domestic purposes.

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 Types of Transformer

Transformer Types based on supply used:

✔ Single phase transformer
✔ Three phase transformer

1. Single phase transformer

A normal transformer is a single phase transformer. It has a primary and a
secondary winding and it is operated to either decrease or increase the
secondary voltage.
2. Three phase transformer
For a three phase transformer, three primary windings are connected
together and three secondary windings are connected together.

8/1/2022 MITWPU 92
 Types of Transformer

8/1/2022 MITWPU 93
Equivalent circuit of a transformer
■ The behaviour of a transformer may be conveniently considered by assuming it to be equivalent
to an ideal transformer, i.e. a transformer having no losses and no magnetic leakage and a
ferromagnetic core of infinite permeability requiring no magnetizing current, and

■ Then allowing for the imperfections of the actual transformer by means of additional circuits or
impedances inserted between the supply and the primary winding and between the secondary
and the load.

8/1/2022 MITWPU 94
8/1/2022 MITWPU 95
Effect of leakage flux in Equivalent Circuit
■ The leakage flux is proportional to the primary and secondary currents and its effect is to induce
e.m.f.s of self-induction in the windings.

■ Consequently the effect of leakage flux can be considered as equivalent to inductive reactors X1
and X2 connected in series with a transformer having no leakage flux

8/1/2022 MITWPU 96
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
■ P and S represents the primary and secondary windings of the ideal
transformer
■ R1 and R2 are resistances equal to the resistances of the primary and
secondary windings of the actual transformer
■ Similarly, inductive reactance X1 and X2 represent the reactance of the
windings due to leakage flux in the actual transformer

Approximate equivalent circuit of a

8/1/2022 MITWPU
transformer 97
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
I2R2 = voltage drop due to secondary resistance

I2X2 = voltage drop due to secondary leakage reactance

and I2Z2 = voltage drop due to secondary impedance

I1R1 = voltage drop due to primary resistance

I1X1 = voltage drop due to primary leakage reactance

I1Z1 = voltage drop due to primary impedance

and V1 = E1 + I1Z1 = supply voltage

8/1/2022 MITWPU 98
Voltage regulation of a transformer
■ The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the variation of the secondary voltage
between no load and full load, expressed as either a per-unit or a percentage of the no-load
voltage, the primary voltage being assumed constant, i.e.

8/1/2022 MITWPU 99
 Voltage regulation of a transformer

Where, V2’ = V2 (N1/N2)

8/1/2022 MITWPU 100
Transformer losses

Transformer
Losses

Winding Loss Core Loss

Copper Losses Iron Losses
(variable) (Constant)

Eddy Currents Hysteresis Loss

Loss

8/1/2022 MITWPU 101

Transformer losses
■

8/1/2022 MITWPU 102

 Transformer losses

Eddy Currents Loss:

■

Where, t – thickness of laminations

Ke – constant
f - frequency in Hz
Bm – max flux density in tesla
v – volume of magnetic material in cubic meters
• These losses are reduced by thin laminations of silicon steel
8/1/2022 MITWPU 103
Eddy Currents

Eddy currents are loops Eddy currents (I, red) within a solid
of electrical current induced iron transformer core. (right) Making
within conductors by a the core out of thin laminations parallel
changing magnetic field in the to the field (B, green) with insulation
conductor according to Faraday's between them reduces the eddy
law of induction. Eddy currents currents. Although the field and
flow in closed loops within currents are shown in one direction,
conductors, in planes they actually reverse direction with the
perpendicular to the magnetic alternating current in the transformer
field. winding.
When graphed, these circular currents within a piece of metal look vaguely like
eddies or whirlpools in a liquid.
8/1/2022 MITWPU 104
Transformer losses
Hysteresis Loss:
■ The larger the loop the greater the energy required to create the magnetic field
■ This requirement of supplying energy to magnetize the core is known as the
hysteresis loss.
f - frequency in Hz
Ph = Kh Bm1.6 f v watts Bm – max flux density in tesla
v – volume of magnetic material
in cubic meters
Kh- constant
• These losses are nearly constant, independent of current

8/1/2022 Fig. Ideal BH curve Fig. Hysteresis loop

MITWPU 105
Hysteresis Loop

8/1/2022 MITWPU 106

 Efficiency of a transformer
■

Efficiency of a transformer is given by:

8/1/2022 MITWPU 107

Extra Learning resource:
■ https://youtu.be/fbu1Xji27vc

■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UchitHGF4n8

■ https://youtu.be/vh_aCAHThTQ

8/1/2022 MITWPU 108

Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
 UNIT II - D.C. CIRCUITS

9/26/2022 2
Course Objectives:

■ 1. To impart knowledge of Electric, Magnetic and

Electronic circuits
■ 2. To develop an understanding of the fundamentals of
AC and DC circuits
■ 3. To give exposure to analyze circuits of
semiconductor diodes and transistors.
■ 4. To equip the students with the ability to understand
IC technology with examples of analog and digital
circuits

9/26/2022 3
Course Outcomes:
■ After completion of this course students will be able to
■ 1. Understand AC signal generation and AC circuit
analysis (CLII)
■ 2. Apply DC circuit analysis techniques (CL III)
■ 3. Identify and understand basic electronic circuits
using diodes and transistors (CL-II)
■ 4. Develop simple OPAMP-based circuits and
combinational logic circuits (CL-III)

9/26/2022 4
Learning Resources:
Reference Books:
1. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronic Technology”, 10th Edition, Pearson
2. Cotton H., “Electrical Technology”, 7th Ed., C.B.S. Publication.
3. Theraja B.L., “Electrical Technology”, Vol. I and II, 2005, S. Chand
4. R.P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition,
2009
Supplementary Reading:
1. Nagrath I.J. and Kothari D.P., “Theory and Problems of Basic Electrical Engineering”,
2005, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd
2. Floyd Thomas, “Electronic Devices”, Prentice Hall, 9th Edition 2012
Links

https://legacy-uploads.ul.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/2016/02/Internet-of-Things-w
hite-paper_final.pdf.pdf

9/26/2022 5
Contents

D.C. Circuits: Basic active and passive circuit

elements, dependent and independent
sources, series, parallel, star to delta and
delta to star conversion, KCL, KVL,
Thevenin’s Theorem, Superposition Theorem
(10L)

9/26/2022 6
Learning Resources
■ DC series ccts- https://youtu.be/VV6tZ3Aqfuc
■ Dc parallel ccts- https://youtu.be/5uyJezQNSHw

9/26/2022 7
Circuit Elements

9/26/2022 MITWPU 8
Basic Passive Circuit Elements
■ A passive element is an electrical component that does
not generate power.
instead

■ dissipates, stores, and/or releases it

■ Passive elements include resistances, capacitors, and
coils (inductors).
■ In most circuits, they are connected to active elements,
typically semiconductor devices such as amplifiers and
digital logic chips.

9/26/2022 9
1. Resistance

• Resistance (R) : Property of an electric circuit tending to prevent

the flow of current and at the same time causes electrical
energy to be converted to heat is called resistance.
R = ρl/A
l - length in meters
ρ – Resistivity in ohms-meters
R-Resistance in ohms
A- cross-sectional area in square meters
Conductance (G): reciprocal of resistance, indication of ease
with which current can flow through the material, measured in
unit Siemens
Denoted as G = 1/R

9/26/2022 10
2. Inductor
• Inductance which has the symbol “L” and is measured in
Henries (H), is the element used for the storage of energy in
the form of an electromagnetic field.
• An inductor is a passive device that can store or deliver energy
but cannot generate it.
• An ideal inductor is lossless, meaning that it can store energy
indefinitely as no energy is lost as heat.
• Inductors present a low impedance path to DC current and a
high impedance path to AC current.
• The impedance of an inductor called inductive reactance
varies with frequency and in an ideal inductor the current of
the AC sine wave lags the voltage by 90o.

9/26/2022 11
3. Capacitor
■ A capacitor stores its energy electrostatically as a charge across its plates.
■ A capacitor is made up of two or more conducting plates which are
separated by a dielectric material.
■ Capacitance, “C” is the property of a capacitor which opposes any
changes in the voltage across it as defined by the constant of
proportionality as the current flowing through it is proportional to the
rate of change of voltage across it with respect to time.
■ Capacitors present a low impedance path to AC signals but will block DC.
■ The impedance of a capacitor called capacitive reactance varies with
frequency and in an ideal capacitor the voltage of the AC sine wave lags
the current by 90o.
■ Capacitance is always a positive value.

C=Q/V
.

9/26/2022 12
Basic Passive components

9/26/2022 13
 Dependent and Independent sources

■ Sources can be either independent or dependent of/upon

some other quantities.

■ Independent voltage (or current) source maintains a voltage

(or current) which is not affected by any other quantity.

There are two principal types of sources, namely voltage source

and current source.

9/26/2022 14
 Independent sources

Independent voltage source Independent current source

9/26/2022 15
Ideal Voltage Source
■ An ideal voltage source has no internal resistance.
■ It can produce as much current as is needed to provide
power to the rest of the circuit.
■ The voltage generated by the source never fluctuates
and is not affected by the amount of current drawn by
the circuit.

9/26/2022 16
Practical Voltage Source
Practical Voltage source:
■ A practical voltage source has internal resistance
■ Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and
it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.

9/26/2022 17
Ideal and Practical current sources
■ An Ideal current source in Figure C, is a two-terminal circuit
element which supplies the same current to any load
resistance connected across its terminals.
■ An ideal current source always generates its exact rated
current and is not affected by the characteristics of the
circuit to which it is connected.
■ A practical current source in Figure D, has large value of
internal resistance. Current varies with respect to the
voltage across the element.

9/26/2022 18
 Source Transformation
■ Current to Voltage and vice versa
■ Using Ohm’s Law : current through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points.

Current to Voltage transformation Voltage to Current transformation

9/26/2022 19
 Dependent sources

■ A dependent source is a voltage source or a current

source whose value depends on a voltage or current
somewhere else in the network.
■ In general, dependent source is represented by a diamond
shaped symbol as not to confuse it with an independent
source. One can classify dependent voltage and current
sources into four types of sources as shown in fig.
■ Examples: A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) can be modeled
as a dependent current source whose magnitude depends on
the magnitude of the current fed into its controlling base
terminal.
■ An operational amplifier (OpAmp) can be described as a
voltage source dependent on the differential input voltage
between its input terminals
9/26/2022 20
 Dependent sources
■ Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS):
The source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the dependent element
In the VCVS dependent source μ is voltage gain because it’s the ratio of the
voltage output to the voltage input.
■ Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS):
The source delivers the voltage as per the current of the dependent element
In the CCVS dependent source, the proportionality constant r is called the
transresistance because its input-output relationship takes the form of Ohm’s
law: v = iR. V2/V1= µ Or V2= r I1

9/26/2022 21
 Dependent sources
■ Voltage-controlled current source(VCCS):
The source delivers the current as per the voltage of the dependent element
Similarly, the VCCS dependent source has a proportionality constant g, called
the transconductance, following a variation of Ohm’s law: i = Gv (where the
conductance G = 1/R).
■ Current-controlled current source(CCCS):
The source delivers the current as per the current of the dependent element
For the CCCS dependent source, you can think of the proportionality constant
β as the current gain because it’s the ratio of current output to current input.

9/26/2022 22
Series Networks
Volt drops in a series circuit:
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Since, in general, V = IR, then V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 =
IR3, the current I being the same in each resistor.
Substituting in equation
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
For the complete circuit, the effective resistance of
the load R represents the
ratio of the supply voltage to the circuit current
whence
V = IR
but V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
hence IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
and R = R1 + R2 + R3
9/26/2022 23
Series Networks
■ Calculate for each of the circuits shown in Fig. the
current flowing in the circuit given that R = 3 kΩ.

9/26/2022 24
Series Networks
■ Calculate the voltage across each of the resistors shown
in Fig. and hence calculate the supply voltage V.

V1 = IR1 = 1.5 × 2 = 3.0 V

V2 = IR2 = 1.5 × 3 = 4.5 V
V3 = IR3 = 1.5 × 8 = 12.0 V
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 3.0 + 4.5 + 12.0 = 19.5 V

9/26/2022 25
 Series Networks
Voltage division between two resistors:
The total resistance of the circuit is

The ratio of the voltages therefore depends on the ratio of the resistances.
This permits a rapid determination of the division of volt drops in a simple
series circuit and the arrangement is called a voltage divider.
9/26/2022 26
Series Networks
■ A voltage divider is to give an output voltage of 10 V
from an input voltage of 30 V as indicated in Fig. Given
that R2 = 100 Ω, calculate the resistance of R1.

9/26/2022 27
Parallel networks
Currents in a parallel network:

9/26/2022 28
Parallel networks
■ Calculate the supply current to the network shown in
Fig.

9/26/2022 29
Parallel networks
■ For the network shown in Fig. 3.20, calculate the
effective resistance and hence the supply current.

9/26/2022 30
 Parallel networks
For the combination of two resistors in parallel, as shown in Fig. the
effective resistance R is given by

Two parallel resistors share a supply

current.

The current in one resistor is that portion of the total given by the ratio of the other
resistance
9/26/2022 to the sum of the resistances. 31
Parallel networks
■ A current of 8 A is shared between two resistors in the network
shown in Fig. Calculate the current in the 2 Ω resistor, given that
(a) R1 = 2 Ω;
(b) R1 = 4 Ω.

From this, it is seen that equal resistances

share the current equally.

The lesser resistance which takes the greater

part of the supply current.
9/26/2022 32
Series and Parallel network Summery
Series network Parallel network

Current The current is the same in all

parts of the circuit
I = I1 = I2 = I3

Voltage The total voltage equals the

sum of the voltages across the
different parts of the circuit
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance The total resistance equals
the sum of the separate
resistances
R = R1 + R2 + R3
9/26/2022 33
Kirchhoff’s Current(first) Law
■ Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that: ‘the algebraic sum of
currents at a node is zero’.
Or
■ The sum of currents entering the junction is thus equal
to the sum of currents leaving

a) A ‘node’ is the technical term

for a junction in a circuit, where
two or more branches are joined
together.

b) The phrase ‘algebraic sum’

reminds us that we have to
take account of the current
direction, as well as
magnitude, when applying
Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
9/26/2022 34
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
For the network junction shown in Fig., calculate the current I3, given
that I1 = 3 A, I2 = 4 A and I4 = 2 A.

9/26/2022 35
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
■ With reference to the network shown in Fig. determine
the relationship between the currents I1, I2, I4 and I5.

Kirchhoff ’s Current (first)

law need not only apply
to a junction but may
also apply to a section of
a network.

9/26/2022 36
Kirchhoff’s Voltage(second) Law
■ ‘The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed circuit
loop is zero’.
■ There’s the phrase ‘algebraic sum’ again, so we must
recognize that the direction of voltages matters when
using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Apply KVL :
10 – Vr1 – Vr2 – Vr3 = 0

9/26/2022 37
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ For the network shown in Fig. determine the voltages V1
and V3.

9/26/2022 38
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ Figure shows a network with two sources of e.m.f.
Calculate the voltage V1 and the e.m.f. E2.

9/26/2022 39
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ Figure shows a network with two sources of e.m.f.
Calculate the voltage V1 and the e.m.f. E2.

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the

left-hand loop,
E1 = V1 + V2
V1 = E1 − V2 = 10 − 6 = 4 V

The right-hand loop gives

−E2 = −V2 − V3
E2 = V2 + V3 = 6 + 8 = 14 V

These results may be checked by considering the outside loop

E1 − E2 = V1 − V3
10 − 14 = 4 − 8
which confirms the earlier results.
9/26/2022 40
Numerical 1
■ Calculate the currents in the network shown in Figure.

9/26/2022 41
Numerical 1
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop 1:
10 = 1I1 + 18(I1 + I2)
10 = 19I1 + 18I2 (a)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop 2:
20 = 2I2 + 18(I1 + I2)
20 = 18I1 + 20I2 (b)
(a) × 10: 100 = 190I1 + 180I2 (c)
(b) × 9: 180 = 162I1 + 180I2 (d)
(d) − (c): 80 = −28I1
I1 = −2.85 A
Substituting in (a)
10 = −54.34 + 18I2
I2 = 3.57 A
Current in 18 Ω resistor is
3.57 − 2.85 = 0.72 A
9/26/2022 42
Numerical 2
■ For the network shown in Fig. determine the supply
current and the source e.m.f.
EMF (ϵ) is the amount of energy (E) provided by the battery to each
coulomb of charge (Q) passing through.
Since R3 and R4 are in parallel
V3 = I4R4 = 3 × 8 = 24 V = I3R3 = I3 × 16
I3= 24/16 =1.5 A

By Kirchhoff’s first law

I = I3 + I4 = 1.5 + 3 = 4.5 A
Also V1 = IR1 = 4.5 × 8 = 36 V
V2 = IR2 = 4.5 × 6 = 27 V
By Kirchhoff’s second law
E = V1 + V2 + V3 = 36 + 27 + 24 = 87 V
9/26/2022 43
Numerical 3
■ Given the network shown in Fig. determine I1, E, I3 and I.

9/26/2022 44
Numerical 4
■ Calculate the currents in the network shown in Fig.

Current in 18 Ω resistor is
20/18 = 1.1 A
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the outside loop:
20 − 10 = −I1 × 1
I1 = −10 A
I2 = −(−10) + 1.1 = 11.1 A

9/26/2022 45
Superposition theorem

■ The Superposition theorem states that, the response in a

particular branch of the network when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same time is
equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each
independent source acting at a time.
■ The current in, or the potential difference across, any
branch can be found by considering each source
separately and adding their effects
■ Omitted sources of e.m.f. are replaced by resistances
equal to their internal resistances.

9/26/2022 46
Superposition theorem
■ By means of the Superposition theorem, calculate the
currents in the network shown in Figure.

9/26/2022 47
 Superposition theorem
Because there are two sources of e.m.f. in the network, then two
separate networks need to be considered, each having one source of
e.m.f.

9/26/2022 48
Superposition theorem
■

9/26/2022 49
Superposition theorem

I2c + I1c = 6.78 − 6.42 = 0.36 A

Thus I1 = I1b + I1c = 3.57 − 6.42 = −2.85 A

and I2 = I2b + I2c = −3.21 + 6.78 = 3.57 A

also I1 + I2 = −2.85 + 3.57 = 0.72 A

9/26/2022 50
Numerical 2
■ Find the current through 2Ω resistor using superposition
theorem in the given circuit

9/26/2022 51
Numerical 2
Step 1
■ At first, find the current through 2Ω resistor with 48V source acting
alone. Hence replace the 24 V source by a short circuit.
■ To find the current I2, find the total current supplied by the source
(I1) with its total resistance. Then apply current division rule and
find the current through 2Ω resistor with 48V source acting alone.
■ Calculations for this step is as follows:

■ Here, the current supplied by the 48V source is 6.86 Amperes.

9/26/2022 52
Numerical 2
Step 2
■ Now consider the 24V source alone and replace 48 V source by a
short circuit.
■ Now find the total resistance of the circuit and find the total current
supplied by the source.
■ Then apply current division rule at node ‘A’ and by find the current
through 2 Ω resistor while 24V source acting alone.

■ Here, the current supplied by the 24V source is 1.71 Amperes.

9/26/2022 53
Numerical 2
Step 3
■ Finally, add the two currents considering their direction.
■ Here the two currents are flowing into the 2Ω resistor with the
same direction. So the total current flowing through 2Ω will be
the algebraic sum of I2 due to 48V and I2 due to 24V .

■ Finally, the current through the 2Ω resistor is 8.57 amperes.

9/26/2022 54
Numerical 3
■ Find the current through 20Ω resistor using
superposition theorem.

9/26/2022 55
Numerical 3

9/26/2022 56
Numerical 3

9/26/2022 57
Numerical 4
■ Find the current through branch AB using superposition
theorem.

9/26/2022 58
Numerical 4

9/26/2022 59
Numerical 4

9/26/2022 60
Numerical 5
■ Find the current through 10 Ω resistance in the given
network by using superposition theorem?

9/26/2022 61
Numerical 5
Step 1: Activating ‘16V’ source at a time, other will be
deactivated.
I1a I2a
> >

9/26/2022 62
 Numerical 5
Step 2:After deactivation of ‘16V’ voltage source by short
circuit

So, current in 10Ω resistor- I1 = 4 A.

Resultant current through 10 ohms = 0.5-4= 3.5 A (right to left)
9/26/2022 63
Numerical 5
■ Direction of current when single source is active and other is deactivated
through 10Ω resistance will be shown with their value, as shown below

■ Finally, the current through 10Ω resistance is 3.5A

9/26/2022 64
Thevenin’s theorem
■ Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify
any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and
series resistance connected to a load.

■ Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily

removing the load resistance from the original circuit
and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit
composed of a single voltage source and series
resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected
to this “Thevenin equivalent circuit” and calculations
carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a
simple series circuit.

9/26/2022 65
Thevenin’s theorem
■ The current through a resistor R connected across any two
points A and B of an active linear network [i.e. a network
containing one or more sources of e.m.f.] is obtained by
dividing the potential difference between A and B, with R
disconnected, by (R + r), where r is the resistance of the
network measured between points A and B with R
disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their
internal resistances.
OR
■ An active network having two terminals A and B can be
replaced by a constant-voltage source having an e.m.f. E and
an internal resistance r.
■ The value of E is equal to the open-circuit potential
difference between A and B, and r is the resistance of the
network measured between A and B with the load
disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their
internal resistances.
9/26/2022 66
Thevenin’s theorem
■ Suppose A and B in Fig. (a) to be the two terminals of a network
consisting of resistors having resistances R2 and R3 and a battery
having an e.m.f. E1 and an internal resistance R1. It is required to
determine the current through a load of resistance R connected across
AB. With the load disconnected as in Fig. (b),

9/26/2022 67
Thevenin’s theorem
Since there is no current through R2, potential difference across AB is

Figure (c) shows the network with the load disconnected and the battery
replaced by its internal resistance R1. Resistance of network between A and
B is

Thevenin’s theorem merely states that the active network enclosed by the
dotted line in Fig. (a) can be replaced by the very simple circuit enclosed by
the dotted line in Fig. (d) and consisting of a source having an e.m.f. E equal
to the open-circuit potential difference V between A and B, and an internal
resistance r, where V and r have the values determined above. Hence

9/26/2022 68
Numerical 1
( Same as Numerical 4 with Superposition Thm,
slide 54)
■ In Fig. (a) C and D represent the two terminals of an
active network. Calculate the current through R3 using
Thevenin’s theorem

9/26/2022 69
Numerical 1 Solution- Step 1
■ With R3 disconnected, as in Fig. (b),

E1-E2-I1*R2 – I1*R1=0

OR E = E2 + (0.4 * 3) = 5.2V

9/26/2022 70
Numerical 1 Solution –Step 2
■ When the e.m.f.s are removed, as in Fig. (c), total resistance
between C and D is

■ Hence the network in Fig. (a) can be replaced by a single source

having an e.m.f. of 5.2 V and an internal resistance of 1.2 Ω, as in
Fig. (d); consequently the current thru’ R3 is

9/26/2022 71
Numerical 2

■ Calculate the current through 40Ω resistor using

Thevenin’s theorem

9/26/2022 72
Numerical 2 -Solution- step 1
Find the Equivalent Voltage:
■ Remove the center 40Ω load resistor connected across the
terminals A-B
Applying KVL
20- I* 20 – I * 10 – 10 =0

■ The voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be
calculated as:
VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.
9/26/2022 73
Numerical 2 Solution- Step 2

Find the Equivalent Resistance:

■ Remove any internal resistance associated with the
voltage source(s).

9/26/2022 74
Numerical 2 Solution- Step 3
■ Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a
series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of 13.33 V.
With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we
get:

9/26/2022 75
Numerical 3
■ Calculate the current through 16Ω resistor using
Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 3- Solution

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 4
■ Calculate the current through 10Ω resistor using
Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Numerical 4

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Delta–star transformation
■ Figure (a) shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected
in a closed mesh or delta to three terminals A, B and C,
their numerical subscripts 1, 2 and 3 being opposite to
the terminals A, B and C respectively.
■ It is possible to replace these delta-connected resistors
by three resistors Ra, Rb and Rc connected respectively
between the same terminals A, B and C and a common
point S, as in Fig. (b). Such an arrangement is said to be
star-connected.

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Why?

Calculation of equivalent resistance using

delta to star (Wye) conversion

Delta

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Delta–star transformation
For Fig. (a), we have

----------- [1]

For Fig. (b), we have

RAB = Ra + Rb ----------- [2]
In order that the networks of Fig. (a) and (b) may be equivalent to each
other, the values of RAB represented by expressions [1] and [2] must be
equal.

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Delta–star transformation

----------- [3]
■ ----------- [1]

----------- [4]

----------- [5]

Subtracting equation [4] from [3], we have

----------- [6]

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Delta–star transformation
Adding equations [5] and [6] and dividing by 2, we have

----------- [7]

----------- [8]

----------- [9]

These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent star

resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the
two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the
sum of the delta resistances.

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Star–delta transformation
■ Let us next consider how to replace the star-connected
network of Fig. (b) by the equivalent delta-connected
network of Fig. (a).
Dividing equation [7] by equation [8], we have

Similarly, dividing equation [7] by equation [9], we have

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Star–delta transformation
Substituting for R2 and R3 in equation [7], we have

--------- [10]

--------- [11]

--------- [12]
These relationships may be expressed thus as: the equivalent delta resistance
between two terminals is the sum of the two star resistances connected to
those terminals plus the product of the same two star resistances divided by
the third star resistance.

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Star to Delta Transformation

R12= 17.5 Ohms

R31=70 Ohms
R23=35 ohms
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Numerical 1
■ Convert given delta into star

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 Numerical 1-Solution
■ Convert given delta into star

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 Numerical 2
■ Convert given star into its equivalent Delta

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 Numerical 2
■ Convert given star into its equivalent Delta

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Numerical 3
■ Determine the resistance between the terminals X and Y
for the circuit shown below.

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 4
■ Calculate resistance between terminal AB

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Find R between A and B

Ans:
RAB=9.07 Ohms

Ans:
RAB=

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9/26/2022 102
9/26/2022 103
9/26/2022 104
Extra Resources
■ Multisim cct analysis
https://youtu.be/2SOyJYQQflU

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Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code:

1
 UNIT-IV

Introduction to Integrated Circuits

2
Contents:
Introduction to Integrated Circuits: Analog Integrated
circuits, Basics of OPAMP: study of parameters of IC
741, inverting and non-inverting amplifier, Digital
integrated circuits: Logic Gates, Boolean algebra,
Combinational logic Circuits, De-Morgan’s theorems,
SOP, POS, K- map, Half Adder, Full Adder,
flip-flops: RS flip flop, J-K flip flop, D flip flop, shift
registers (12L)

3
IC- Integrated circuit

•ICs have three key advantages over digital circuits built from
discrete components

•Small size
•ICs are much smaller, both transistors and wires are
shrunk to micrometer sizes, compared to the
centimeter scales of discrete components
•High speed
•Communication within a chip is faster than
communication between chips on a PCB (Printed
Circuit Board)
•Low power consumption
•Logic operations within a chip take much less power
4
 Integrated Circuits

It is called Integrated circuit or IC or microchip or chip

It is a microscopic electronic circuit array formed by the

fabrication of various electronic components

Components (resistors, capacitors, transistors,)are

placed on semiconductor material (silicon) wafer

It can perform operations similar to the large discrete

electronic circuits made of discrete electronic
components 5
Different Types of Integrated Circuits

Classification of Integrated Circuits is done based on

various criteria.

Based on the intended application, the ICs are

classified as:

Analog integrated circuits

Digital integrated circuits

Mixed integrated circuits

6
Discrete Circuits

Disadvantages of Discrete Circuits

∙ Assembling and wiring of all individual discrete
components take more time and occupies a larger
space on PCB
∙ Replacement of a failed component is complicated in
an existing circuit or system.
∙ The circuit elements are connected using soldering
process that may cause less reliability.
∙ To overcome these problems of reliability and space
conservation, integrated circuits are developed.
7
 Analog Integrated Circuits
The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range
of signal are called as Analog ICs.

These are subdivided as linear Integrated Circuits (Linear

ICs) and Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs).

The frequently used analog IC is an operational amplifier

or simply called as an op-amp -IC 741

It consists of very less number of transistors compared to

the digital ICs.

8
 Digital Integrated Circuits
The integrated circuits that operate only at a few defined
levels instead of operating over all levels of signal
amplitude are called as Digital ICs.

These ICs using multiple number of digital logic gates,

multiplexers, flip flops and other electronic components of
circuits.

These logic gates work with binary input data or digital

input data.

Such as 0 (low or false or logic 0) and 1 (high or true or

logic 1).

9
 Digital Integrated Circuits

These digital ICs are frequently used in the computers,

microprocessors, digital signal, processors, computer networks
etc.

There are different types of Digital Integrated Circuits.

Programmable ICs, memory chips, logic ICs, power management

ICs and interface ICs.

10
 Mixed Integrated Circuits

It is the combination of analog and digital ICs on a single chip are

called as Mixed ICs.

These ICs functions as Digital to Analog converters, Analog to

Digital converters and clock/timing ICs.

This mixed-signal Systems-on-a-chip is a result of advances in

the integration technology.

It enabled to integrate digital, multiple analog and RF functions

on a single chip.

11
 IC Packaging
Basic types of IC packages

• The metal can or transistor pack: chip is encapsulated in a metal

or plastic case. Available with 3,5,8,10 or 12 pins
• LM117 (voltage regulator) has 3 pins
• Power op-amps, audio power amplifiers have 5 pins
• General purpose op-amps come in 8,10 or 12 pins

• The flat pack : the chip is enclosed in a rectangular ceramic case

with terminal leads extending through the sides and ends.
Comes with 8, 10, 14 or 16 pins

• The dual-in-line package (DIP): chip is mounted inside a plastic

or ceramic case
• Most widely used
• Available in 12, 14, 16 and 20 pins
12
 SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI Packages

ICs are classified according to the number of components integrated

on the same chip;

• Small scale integration < 10 components

e.g. gate circuits

• Medium Scale integration < 100 components

e.g. LICs and Combinational Logic Circuits

• Large scale integration > 100 components

e.g. Sequential Logic Circuits

• Very Large Scale integration > 1000 components

e.g. Microprocessor IC
13
Manufacturer’s Designation for ICs

14
Example of Analog IC

Operational Amplifier

15
Operational Amplifier: OP-AMP
•Linear Integrated Circuit
•Linear– Output signal varies according to the input signal
•Integrated – all components are fabricated on a single chip

•Direct coupled high gain amplifier

•Versatile device – amplifies ac as well as dc signals
•Originally designed for computing mathematical functions as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, hence the
name
• Used for a variety of applications such as ac and dc signal
amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators,
regulators, etc.
16
Symbol of Op-Amp

17
Op-amp IC Pinout diagram

18
Block diagram of op-amp

19
Block Diagram of OP-AMP

20
Internal Diagram of Op-Amp

21
 Stages of internal block diagram
•Input Stage - The input stage is a Dual input balanced output
differential amplifier. The two amplifiers are applied at
inverting or non inverting terminals. This stage provides most
of voltage gain of the op-amp and decides input resistance
value R1.

•Intermediate Stage - It is driven by output of the input stage.

This stage is dual input unbalanced output differential amp.
This stage provides additional voltage gain to the input signals.

22
 Stages of internal block diagram
•Level shifting stage - This is third stage in the block diagram of
op-amp. Due to direct coupling between first two stage the input of
level shifting stage is an amplifying system with non-zero DC level.
Level shifting stage is used to bring this DC level to a zero volt with
respect to ground.

•Output Stage - This is normally complementary output stage. It

increases magnitude of voltage and rises the current supplying
capacity of the op-amp. It also provides low output resistance. The
output stage is a push pull of two transistors.

23
 Op Amps Input Modes
Single Ended Mode
Signal is applied to inverting terminal

Signal is applied to non-inverting terminal

24
 Op Amps Input Modes
Differential Mode

Common Mode

25
Input Signal Modes

26
Ideal Op-amp and Practical Op-amp Circuit

27
Op-Amp Parameters
•1. Open-loop voltage gain, Go
•2. Input impedance, Zin(Ω)
•3. Output impedance, Zo(Ω)
•4. Input Offset current, Ios (nA)
•5. Input Bias current, IBIAS (nA)
•6. Input Offset voltage, Vos (mV)
•7. Slew rate, SR (V/μs)
•8. CMRR
•9. SVRR / PSRR
•10 Gain Bandwidth product

28
 Op-Amp Parameters
Maximum Output Voltage Swing (VO(p-p))

•With no input signal, the output of an opamp is ideally 0 V.

•When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the
peak-to-peak output signal are Vcc.
•In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never
reached. It varies with the load connected to the op-amp and
increases directly with load resistance.
•For example, the Fairchild KA741 datasheet shows a typical
Vo(p-p) of 13V for Vcc = 15V when RL = 2KΩ and
Vo(p-p) increases to 14V when RL = 10KΩ.

29
 Op-Amp Parameters

Open-loop voltage gain

•The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal

voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components.
•The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal
design.
•Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB)
and is not a well-controlled parameter.
•Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the
large-signal voltage gain.

30
 Op-Amp Parameters
Input offset voltage

•The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
•In a practical op-amp, however, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error),
appears at the output when no differential input voltage is
applied.
•Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter
voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an op-amp.
•The input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc voltage
required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts.
•Typical values of input offset voltage are in the range of 2 mV
or less. In the ideal case, it is 0 V.

31
 Op-Amp Parameters
Input bias current
•The input terminals of a bipolar differential amplifier are the
transistor bases and, therefore, the input currents are the base
currents.
•The input bias current is the dc current required by the inputs of
the amplifier to properly operate the first stage.
•By definition, the input bias current is the average of both input
currents and is calculated as follows:

32
 Op-Amp Parameters
Input offset current

•Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their
difference is zero.
•In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly
equal.
•The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the input bias
currents, expressed as an absolute value.

IOS = | I1 – I2 |

•Typical value is 200 nA

33
 Op-Amp Parameters

Input Impedance

•The differential input impedance is the total resistance between

the inverting and the noninverting inputs, as illustrated in Figure
•It is measured by determining the change in bias current for a
given change in differential input voltage.

34
 Op-Amp Parameters
Output Impedance

•The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output

terminal of the op-amp, as indicated in Figure

35
 Op-Amp Parameters
Slew rate

•The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage

for a step input voltage.
•The slew rate makes the output voltage to change at a slower
rate than the applied input.
•Max rate of change of output voltage with time. i.e. dv/dt (max)
or ΔV/Δt max expressed in (volts/µs) .
•Slew rate is usually measured in the unity gain non-inverting
amplifier configuration
•Typically it is 0.5 V/μs

36
Slew rate

37
Slew Rate Numerical

38
 Op-Amp Parameters
SVRR (Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio) or
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)

•Power-supply rejection ratio PSRR is the ratio of the change in

input offset voltage to the corresponding change in
power-supply.
•The PSRR is expressed in mV/V or dB

PSRR = ΔVos / ΔV

39
 Op-Amp Parameters
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

•The output signal due to the common mode input voltage is zero,
but it is nonzero in a practical device.
•CMRR is the measure of the amplifier's ability to reject common
mode signals
•The output voltage is proportional to the difference between the
voltages applied to its two input terminals.
•When the two input voltages are equal, ideally the output voltage
should be zero.
•It is a metric used to quantify the ability of the device to reject
common-mode signals, i.e. those that appear simultaneously and
in-phase on both inputs.

40
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
•A signal applied to both input terminals of the op-amp is called
as common-mode signal. Usually it is an unwanted noise
voltage.
•CMRR is defined as the ratio of the open loop differential
voltage gain Aol to the common mode voltage gain Acm

CMRR = Aol / Acm

CMRR=20 log[Aol / Acm] dB

41
CMRR Example

42
 Op-Amp Parameters

Gain Bandwidth Product

• It is the bandwidth of the op-amp when the voltage gain is 1
• Typically it is 1 MHz
• Also called closed-loop bandwidth, unity gain bandwidth and
small-signal bandwidth
GBP=Av × f
Where:
GBP = op amp gain bandwidth product
Av = voltage gain
f = cutoff frequency (Hz)

43
Frequency Response of OP-AMP and Bandwidth

44
45
 Op Amp Parameters
Parameter values for op-amps IDEAL PRACTICAL

1. Open-loop voltage gain, Go(V/V) INF 2,00,000

2. Input impedance, Zin(Ω) INF 2 MΩ

3. Output impedance, Zo(Ω) 0 75 Ω

4. Input Offset current, Ios (nA) 0 20 nA

5. Input Bias current, IBIAS (nA) 0 80 nA

6. Input Offset voltage, Vos (mV) 0 2 mV

7. Slew rate, SR (V/μs) INF 0.5 V/microsec

8. CMRR INF 90 dB

9. SVRR / PSRR INF 96 dB

10 Gain Bandwidth product INF 1 MHz 46

Comparison of Parameters

47
What is negative feedback?
•Negative feedback is the most useful concepts in OPAMP
applications.

•It is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of

an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes the input signal.

48
Negative Feedback / Closed Loop configuration
Negative feedback is illustrated in the Figure.

The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180°

out of phase with the input signal.

49
Why Use Negative Feedback?
• The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very
high (usually greater than 100,000).
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp
into its saturated output states.
• In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp can drive it
into saturation.
• For example, assume Vin = 1 mV and Aol = 100,000. Then:
VinAol = (1 mV)(100,000) = 100 V
• Since the output level of an op-amp can never reach 100 V, it is
driven deep into saturation and the output is limited to its
maximum output levels, i. e. Vcc.
• With negative feedback, the closed loop voltage gain (Acl) can be
reduced and controlled so that the op-amp can function as a linear
amplifier.
• In addition to providing a controlled, stable voltage gain, negative
feedback also provides for control of the input and output
impedances and amplifier bandwidth.
50
Why Use Negative Feedback?

Without negative feedback, a small input voltage drives

the op-amp to its output limits and it becomes nonlinear.

Positive Saturation

Negative Saturation

51
Effects of negative feedback on op-amp
performance

52
Closed-Loop Voltage Gain, Acl

•The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an

external negative feedback circuit that connects the output to
the inverting input.

•The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an

op-amp with external feedback.

•The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external

component values and can be precisely controlled by them.

53
 Virtual short and Virtual ground
•

54
Virtual Ground
• If the non-inverting (+) terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground, then
due to the "virtual short" existing between the two input terminals, the
inverting (-) terminal also be at ground potential. hence it is said to be as
"virtual ground".
• The input impedance (Ri) of an OP-AMP is ideally infinite. Hence current
"I" flowing from one input terminal to the other will be zero.

55
Inverting Amplifier
•An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier with a
controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure
•The input signal is applied through a series input resistor Ri to
the inverting (-) input.
•Also, the output is fed back through Rf to the same input. The
noninverting (+) input is grounded.

56
Inverting Amplifier
•Since there is no current at the inverting input, the current
through Ri and the current through Rf are equal, as shown in
Figure
Iin = If

FIGURE: Virtual ground concept and closed loop voltage gain

development for the inverting amplifier. 57
Inverting Amplifier

58
The closed-loop gain is independent of the op-amp’s internal open-loop gain.
Numerical

59
Exercise

Acl = -12.5

60
 Voltage-Follower
• The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input
by a straight connection, as shown in Figure.
• The straight feedback connection has a voltage gain of 1 (which means
there is no gain).
• Since B = 1 for a voltage-follower, the closed-loop voltage gain of the
voltage-follower is 1/B

Acl(VF) = 1

• The most important features of the voltage-follower

configuration are its very high input impedance and
its very low output impedance.

• These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier

for interfacing high-impedance sources and
low-impedance loads.
61
 Noninverting Amplifier
• An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a noninverting
amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure.
• The input signal is applied to the noninverting (+) input.
• The output is applied back to the inverting input through the feedback
circuit (closed loop) formed by the input resistor Ri and the feedback
resistor Rf.
• This creates negative feedback as: Resistors Ri and Rf form a
voltage-divider circuit, which reduces Vout and connects the reduced
voltage Vf to the inverting input.

The feedback voltage is expressed as

62
 Noninverting Amplifier

Then applying basic algebra,

Fig. Differential input, Vin -

63
V f.
 Noninverting Amplifier
Since the overall voltage gain of the amplifier in is Vout/Vin, it can be
expressed as

64
Closed loop Gain
• Notice that the closed-loop voltage gain is not at all
dependent on the op-amp’s open-loop voltage gain under the
condition Aol B >> 1
• Example : Aol= 100000 , B<1

• The closed-loop gain can be set by selecting values of Ri

and Rf

65
Numerical

Practice problem: Find Ri to get gain as 30 with the same value of Rf.
66
 Exercise
Determine closed loop gain of each amplifier

Ans. 11 101 47.8 23

67
Exercise
Find Rf Value for the each op amp.

Ans. 49K 3M 84K 165K

68
Exercise
If signal voltage is 10mVrms, find the output voltage.

Ans. a)10mVrms, in phase b) -10mVrms,out of phase

c) 223 mVrms, in phase d) -100 mVrms, out of phase

69
Exercise
In the circuit given below, if R2 = 1 K & R1= 10 K & input in 0.1V
what will be the output

Ans. Acl = - R1/R2 = 10

Vout = Vin * Acl
Vou = -1V, out of phase

70
Exercise
Calculate the input voltage for this circuit if Vo = –11 V.

Ans. Vin = 1.1 V

71
Exercise

An OP-AMP is used in inverting mode with R1= 1K Ω and RF = 15KΩ.

Vcc = +/- 15V. Calculate the output voltage for i) Vi= 150 mV ii) Vi= 1V

Solution:

A= -RF/R1= -(15 KΩ / 1KΩ) = -15

i) Vi= 150 mV
Vo= (-15 × 150 mV) = -0.225V

ii) Vi= 1V
Vo= (-15 × 1V) = -15V

72
Advantages of Digital signals

•Data transmission is more effective and reliable

•Digital data has a great advantage when storage is
necessary
•Digital data is more accurate and precise
•Its ripple free or noise free
A System Using analog and Digital
Methods
 Mechatronics

• The interdisciplinary field that comprises both mechanical and

electronic components is known as mechatronics
• Both digital and analog electronics are used in the control of
various mechanical systems.
Digital Electronics

•It uses Binary Digits 0 and 1

•Each of the two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, is called a
bit, Two different voltage levels are used to represent the two
bits.
•1 - is represented by the higher voltage, which will be referred
as a HIGH,
•0 - is represented by the lower voltage level, which will be
referred as a LOW.
•This is called positive logic and will be used throughout the
topic.
Logic Level ranges or Voltage for a
digital circuits
Logic Levels

•Positive Logic levels

 Examples of digital waveforms
(a) Periodic (square wave)

(b) Non-periodic

▪ An important characteristic of a periodic digital waveform is its duty

cycle, which is the Ratio of the pulse width (tW) to the period (T). It can
be expressed as a percentage
Digital waveforms
Digital Data Transfer
 Decimal Number System

▪ The decimal number system has a base of 10.

▪ The position of each digit in a decimal number indicates the
magnitude of the quantity represented and can be assigned a
weight.
▪ The weights for whole numbers are positive powers of ten
that increase from right to left, beginning with 100 = 1.
 Binary Numbers
▪ Binary system has only two
digits.
▪ Binary system with its two digits
is a base-two system.
▪ The two binary digits (bits) are 1
and 0.
▪ The position of a 1 or 0 in a
binary number indicates its
weight, or value within the
number, just as the position of a
decimal digit determines the
value of that digit.
▪ The weights in a binary number
are based on powers of two.
Binary Numbers
 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
▪ The decimal value of any binary number can be found by
adding the weights of all bits that are 1 and discarding the
weights of all bits that are 0.

▪ Convert the binary whole number 11011001 to decimal.

▪ Determine the weight of each bit that is a 1, and then find the
sum of the weights to get the decimal number.
Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
Steps for Decimal to Binary Conversion

Step – 1 Divide the decimal number which is to be converted by two

Step – 2 The remainder which is obtained from step 1 is the least

significant bit of the binary number.

Step – 3 Divide the quotient which is obtained from the step 2 and
the remainder obtained from this is the second least significant bit of
the binary number.

Step – 4 Repeat the process until the quotient remains zero.

Step – 5 The last remainder obtained from the division is the most
significant bit of the binary number. Hence arrange the number from
most significant bit to the least significant bit (i.e., from bottom to
top).
Binary-to-Decimal Conversion

Convert decimal 25 to binary

Binary-to-Decimal Conversion

Remainder

Binary Number = 10100000

Binary Addition

•The four basic rules for adding binary digits (bits) are as
follows:

In binary 1 + 1 = 10, not 2.

Ex. Addition of 11 + 1:
Answer: 100
Basic Logic Functions
• In the 1850s, the Irish logician and mathematician George Boole developed a
mathematical system for formulating logic statements with symbols so that problems can
be written and solved in a manner similar to ordinary algebra
• The term logic is applied to digital circuits used to implement logic functions.
• Three basic logic functions - NOT, AND, and OR
• Logic functions are indicated by standard symbols shown below
• The inputs are on the left of each symbol and the output is on the right.
• A circuit that performs a specified logic function (AND, OR) is called a logic gate.
• AND and OR gates can have any number of inputs.

The basic logic functions and symbols

 Logic Functions
• In logic functions, the true/false conditions are represented by a HIGH (true) and
a LOW (false).

1. NOT function/NOT Gate

Logic Expression for an Inverter :

An Application of Inverter
•Figure shows a circuit for producing the 1’s complement of
an 8-bit binary number.
Logic Functions (AND)
2. AND function/ AND Gate
The AND function produces a HIGH output only when all the inputs are
HIGH, as indicated in Figure for the case of two inputs.
• When one input is HIGH and the other input is HIGH, the output is HIGH.
• When any or all inputs are LOW, the output is LOW.
• The AND function is implemented by a logic circuit known as an AND
gate.
AND Gate
The total number of possible combinations of binary inputs to a gate is
determined by the following formula:

N = 2n
Logic Expression for AND gate : X = A • B = AB

Example of AND gate operation with a timing

diagram showing input and output relationships.
 Example 1
Determine output X: Write logical expression and output waveform
Example 1 Solution
Example 2

Determine output X: Write logical expression and output waveform

Logic Functions (OR)
3. OR function/ OR Gate
• The OR function produces a HIGH output when one or more inputs are
HIGH, as indicated in Figure for the case of two inputs.
• When one input is HIGH or the other input is HIGH or both inputs are HIGH,
the output is HIGH.
• When both inputs are LOW, the output is LOW.
• The OR function is implemented by a logic circuit known as an OR gate.
OR Gate

Logic Expression OR gate X = A + B

Example of OR gate operation with a timing

diagram showing input and output relationships.
OR Gate
Logic Function NAND
The NAND gate is the same as the AND gate with the inverted output.

The Boolean expression for the output of a 2-input NAND gate is

Example NAND Gate
NOR Gate

Logic Expressions for a NOR Gate: ->

Example NOR gate
 EX-OR Gate
There are two special gates, i.e., Ex-OR and Ex-NOR. These
gates are not basic gates in their own and are constructed by
combining with other logic gates.

Truth
Table

Logic Expressions for a XOR Gate:

EX-OR Gate
 EX-NOR Gate

Truth
Table

Logic Expressions for a XOR Gate:

EX-NOR Gate
Determine the output waveform for XOR and XNOR gate for given
input waveforms A and B
OR Gate

AND Gate
NOT Gate

NOR Gate
NAND Gate

XOR Gate
 Digital Circuits
Basically, Digital Circuits are divided into two broad
categories
✔ Combinational circuits
• Combinational Circuit is the type of circuit in which
output depend upon the input present at that
particular instant.

✔ Sequential circuits
• Sequential circuit is the type of circuit where output at
any instant of time depend upon the current input as
well as on the previous input/output.
• It consists of memory element
Combinational Logic Circuit Representation
Combinational Logic Circuits
•Combinational logic circuits have no feedback, and any changes
to the signals being applied to their inputs will immediately
have an effect at the output.
•It has no “memory”, “timing” or “feedback loops”.
•The three main ways of specifying the function of a
combinational logic circuit are:
• Boolean Expression – This forms the algebraic expression
showing the operation of the logic circuit
• Truth Table – Shows all the output states in tabular form
for each possible combination of input variable
• Logic Diagram – This is a graphical representation of a
logic circuit
Combinational Logic Circuit
Boolean expression
A(B + C)

Truth Table

Logic Diagram
Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is the mathematics of digital logic

Commutative Laws :

• The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as

• The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is

Associative Laws

• The associative law of logical addition is written as follows for three

variables:

• The associative law of logical multiplication is written as follows for three

variables
Distributive Law

•The distributive law is written for three variables as follows:

A(B + C) = A.B + A.C (OR Distributive Law)

A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C) (AND Distributive Law)
Basic rules of Boolean algebra

Rule 1

Rule 2
Rule 3

Rule 4

Rule 5

Rule 6

Rule 7

Rule 8
Rule 9

Equivalence
Equivalence
 De Morgan’s theorem
1. The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the complements
of the variables.
OR
The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent to the OR of the
complements of the individual variables.

2. The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the

complements of the variables.
OR
The complement of two or more ORed variables is equivalent to the AND of the
complements of the individual variables.
De Morgan’s Theorem 1

A·B =A +
B

EQUAL

NAND = Bubbled OR
De Morgan’s Theorem 2
A + B = A · B

EQUAL

NOR = Bubbled AND

De Morgan’s Law
Summary

• NAND is the same as OR with complemented inputs

• NOR is the same as AND with complemented inputs

NAND gate as universal logic gate
OR gate using NAND gate

A + B= A + B = A · B
NOR gate as universal logic gate
Exercise
Exercise- Solution

= X .Y . Z

=W+X+Y+Z

=(A+B+C) + D = A B C + D
=A B C . D E F = (A + B + C) . ( D + E + F )
Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
1. Sum-of-products form (SOP)
2. Product-of-sums form (POS)

The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form:

• An SOP expression can be implemented with one OR gate and two or
more AND gates.
The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form

• When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting

expression is a product-of-sums (POS).
• Implementing the POS expression simply requires AND ing the
outputs of two or more OR gates
Combinational Circuit Realization

Realization of logic expression (3 level ):

Combinational Circuit realization (SOP)

SOP form:

2 level realization
SOP realization using only one type of gate(NAND)

SOP realized using NAND gates only

Boolean Algebra Rules
Combinational Circuit Realization(POS)
POS realization using only one type of gate(NOR)
Construct SOP form expression from a Truth Table
Construct POS form expression from a Truth Table

F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
Canonical SOP form and POS form

•Each individual term in canonical SOP form is called as

minterm and in canonical POS form as maxterm
Shorthand form of canonical SOP using minterms

F = m1 + m3 + m5

F = Σm (1, 3, 5)
Shorthand form of canonical POS using maxterms

F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)

F = M0 M2 M4 M6 M7

F = Π M (0, 2, 4, 6, 7)
A B C D
0 0 0 0 0
Four Variables
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 15
Complementary Property of minterms and
maxterms
Simplification of Boolean expression
•The required Boolean results are transferred from a truth
table onto a two-dimensional grid where, in Karnaugh maps,
the cells are ordered in Gray code,[6][4] and each cell position
represents one combination of input conditions, while each
cell value represents the corresponding output value.
Optimal groups of 1s or 0s are identified, which represent
the terms of a canonical form of the logic in the original
truth table.[7] These terms can be used to write a minimal
Boolean expression representing the required logic.
The Karnaugh Map( K map) Technique

• A Karnaugh map technique provides a graphical, systematic

method for simplifying Boolean/ logic expressions

• Karnaugh map is an array of cells in which each cell represents

a binary value of the input variables

• K-map produce the simplest SOP or POS expression possible,

known as the minimum expression

• The information contained in the truth table or available in

SOP/ POS form is represented on K map

• Karnaugh maps can be used easily used as a tool to simplify

expressions with two, three, four , five variables
K-maps

• K-maps adjacencies wrap around

edges
• Wrap from first to last column
• Wrap top row to bottom row

• Numbering scheme is based on

Gray–code (only a single bit
changes in code for adjacent map
cells

• K-maps are hard to draw and

visualize for more than 4
dimensions, and
virtually impossible for more than
6 dimensions
 minterms/ maxterms written inside the
corresponding cell in the K-map

Two variable K-map

minterms Maxterms

Three variable K-map

Minterms and maxterms for each cell in
Four Variable K-map
 Procedure for Obtaining Simplified Boolean equation from
K-map

1. Identify adjacent ones for grouping (Group size 2, 4, 8 )

2. See the values of the variables associated with these cells
3. Only one variable will be different and it gets eliminated
4. Other variables will appear in ANDed form in the term, it will be in
the uncomplemented form if it is 1 and in complemented form if it
is 0.
5. Determine the term corresponding to each group of adjacent
ones.
6. These terms are ORed to get the simplified equation in SOP form.
K-map examples (2 variable)

A’ is A bar and B’ is B bar

K Map – 2 variables examples
K Map – 2 variables examples
K Map – 2 variables examples
A 0 1
B
0 1 1 Find the Boolean expression
1 0 0
K-map examples (3 variable)

X
YZ
K-map examples (3 variable)

Solution is : F = yz + xz + xy
• YZ
• X
• 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

F=1
K-map examples (3 variable)
Example:
F = x’y’z + x’yz + x’yz’ + xy’z’ + xy’z + xyz
Solution:
The equation has six minterms. So, enter 1’s at appropriate positions in the
K-Map

Solution is: F = z + x’y + xy’

K-map examples (3 variable)

Adjacent cells for grouping

K-map examples (3 variable)
Redundant Groups

• A redundant group is one whose all the 1’s have been consumed by other
groups. So, there is no need to form such group. Whenever you see that
all 1’s of a group have been exhausted, simply ignore that group.

xy’

y = x’z + xy’
K-map examples (3 variable)

1. F = Σm( 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 )

F = Y’ + X Z’

2. F = Σm( 1, 2, 5, 7 )

F = X’ Y Z’ + X Z + Y’ Z
K-map examples (4 variable)
K-map examples (4 variable)

F(W,X,Y,Z) = Σm(1,3,4,5,6,7,9,11,12,13,14,15)

Grouping 8 adjacent
binary ones

Simplified expression is F = x + z
K-map examples (4 variable)

F(A,B,C,D) = Σm(0,2,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,14,15)

F= + A’BD + B’D’
C
AB
A
CD 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0
D
1 1 1 1
C
1 1 1 1
B
K-map examples (4 variable)
Simplify the expression
K map is given, Find the truth table, Boolean expression in
SOP and POS forms

How many variables in the expression?

How many SOP terms in the expression?

How many POS terms in the expression?

How many groupings for simplification?

How many terms in the simplified expression

Truth Table
Logical expression in canonical SOP and POS
forms
Simplified Boolean Expression will have five
terms

F=
A’B’C’D’
+
A’BD
+
BCD+

ABD’
+
AB’CD’
Arithmetic Circuits: Half Adder
•A half-adder is an arithmetic circuit block that can be
used to add two 1 bit numbers. Such a circuit thus has
two inputs that represent the two bits to be added and
two outputs, with one producing the SUM output and
the other producing the CARRY.
•Possible input combinations and the corresponding
outputs are as given in the truth table.
•The Boolean expressions for the SUM and CARRY
outputs are given by the following equations.
Half Adder Truth Table , Kmap, Realization
Sum = S
Input Output

A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1
Carry = C
Full Adder

•A full adder circuit is an arithmetic circuit block that

can be used to add three bits to produce a SUM and a
CARRY output.
•Such a building block is needed in order to add binary
numbers with a large number of bits.
•The full adder circuit overcomes the limitation of the
half-adder, which can be used to add two bits only
Full Adder
Sum = S

S = A’B’C + A’BC’+AB’C’+ABC
= A’(B’C + BC’) + A(B’C’ + BC)
= A (B C) + A (B C )
=A B C

Carry = CR

S = ∑m(1,2,4,7)
C = ∑m(3,5,6,7) CR = AB + BC + AC
Full Adder
0
1

0
1

S C
Sequential Logic Circuit
• Sequential logic is a type of logic circuit whose output depends not only on the
present value of its input signals but on the sequence of past inputs, the input
history.
• Sequential logic is combinational logic with memory.

• Sequential logic circuits are classified in 2 categories

✔Synchronous
✔Asynchronous
Clock Pulse-
CK =0 or CK=1
• A Synchronization is achieved by the timing device known as
system clock which generates a periodic train of clock pulses
shown in figure.
• The outputs are affected with the application of clock pulse, CK.
SR latch, SR flipflop resources
•https://youtu.be/kt8d3CYWGH4
•https://youtu.be/HZg7fNu-l24
SR Latch (1-Bit Memory Cell )
Basic SR Flip-flop
• The simplest way to make any basic single bit set-reset SR flip-flop is to
connect together a pair of cross-coupled 2-input NAND gates as shown
• There is feedback from each output to one of the other NAND gate inputs.
This device consists of two inputs, one called the Set, S and the other called
the Reset, R with two corresponding outputs Q and its inverse or
complement Q (not-Q) as shown below.
Clocked SR Flip-Flop

1 0 1

1
SR Flip-Flop
Block diagram

Race Around
SR Flip flop Operation
S.N. Condition Operation

1 S = R = 0 , CK=1 If S = R = 0 then output of NAND gates 3 and 4 are

forced to become 1.
Hence R' and S' both will be equal to 1. Since S'
and R' are the input of the basic S-R latch using
NAND gates, there will be no change in the state of
outputs.
2 S = 0, R = 1, CK = Since S = 0, output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 1 and CK =
1 1 the output of NAND-4 i.e. S' = 0.
Hence Qn+1 = 0 and Qn+1 bar = 1. This is reset
condition.

3 S = 1, R = 0, CK = Output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 0 and output of NAND-4

1 i.e. S' = 1.
Hence output of S-R NAND latch is Qn+1 = 1 and
Qn+1 bar = 0. This is the set condition.

4 S = 1, R = 1, CK = As S = 1, R = 1 and E = 1, the output of NAND

1 gates 3 and 4 both are 0 i.e. S' = R' = 0.
Hence the Race condition will occur in the basic
NAND latch.
 J-K Flip-Flop

Uncertainty in the state of SR flip-flop when S=R=1 can be eliminated by

converting it into JK flip-flop

Asynchronous inputs-
Active low
Pr= Preset
Cr= Clear
Truth Table of JK flip flop
Truth Table of J-K Flip-Flop
Fig: Block Diagram
 D Flip-Flop
• If we use only middle two rows of SR or JK flip-flop, We obtain D Flip-flop.
Operation of D Flip-Flop

S. Condition Operation
No.

1 E=0 Latch is disabled. Hence no change in output.

2 E = 1 and D = 0 If E = 1 and D = 0 then S = 0 and R = 1.

Hence irrespective of the present state, the next
state is Qn+1 = 0 and Qn+1 bar = 1. This is the
reset condition.

3 E = 1 and D = 1 If E = 1 and D = 1, then S = 1 and R = 0.

This will set the latch and Qn+1 = 1 and Qn+1 bar =
0 irrespective of the present state.
T Flip-Flop
• In JK flip-flop, if J=K, the resulting Flip-flop is called as T Flip-flop.
Operation of T Flip-Flop

S.N Condition Operation

.
1 T = 0, J = K = The output Q and Q bar won't change
0

2 T = 1, J = K = Output will toggle corresponding to every

1 leading edge of clock signal.
Shift Register
• Register is a digital circuit with two basic functions:
1. Data storage
2. Data Movement
• A register can consist of one or more flip flops used to store and shift data
• Shift Registers are an important Flip-Flop configuration with a wide range of
applications, including:
❖ Computer and Data Communications
❖ Serial and Parallel Communications
❖ Multi-bit number storage
❖ Sequencing
❖ Basic arithmetic such as scaling (a serial shift to the left or right will
change the value of a binary number a power of 2)
❖ Logical operations
Parallel versus Serial Communication
•Serial communications: provides a binary number as a
sequence of binary digits, one after another, through one
data line.

•Parallel communications: provides a binary number as

binary digits through multiple data lines at the same time.
Application of Flip flop- Shift Registers
• Shift Registers are devices that store and move data bits in serial fashion (to
the left or the right),

• In parallel fashion

• A combination of serial and parallel fashion

 Data Transfer Methods/ Modes
1. SISO: Serial In, Serial Out 3. PISO: Parallel In, Serial Out

10110
10110 10110

2n-1 clock cycle 10110

n clock cycle

2. SIPO: Serial In, Parallel Out 4. PIPO: Parallel In, Parallel Out
10110
10110

1 clock cycle
10110

n clock cycle 10110

How many clock edges are required for each operation?

SISO Flip-Flop Shift Register
•A Serial In Serial Out shift register has a single input and a
single output

Input D Q D Q D Q Output
CLK Q Q Q
SIPO Flip-Flop Shift Register
•Serial In Parallel Out shift register has a single input and access
to all outputs

Output Output Output

Input D Q D Q D Q

CLK Q Q Q
PIPO Flip-Flop Shift Register
•Parallel In Parallel Out register has the simplest configuration. It
represents a memory device.

Input Input Input

D Q D Q D Q

CLK Q Q Q

Output Output Output

PISO Flip-Flop Shift Register
• Parallel In Serial Out shift register requires additional gates,
and the parallel input must revert to logic low.

Input Input Input

Output
D Q D Q
D Q 1
0
0 Q
Q
Q
Universal Shift Registers
•Universal Shift Registers can be configured to
operate in a variety of modes. For instance, they can
be configured to have either Serial or Parallel
Input/Output.

•Mode of Operations
•SISO
•SIPO
•PISO
•PIPO
Additional links for more information:

•http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/CAL/digital-logic/gates
func/
•https://www.electronicshub.org/half-adder-and-full-adder-c
ircuits/
THANK YOU

208
Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code:
Contents
Semiconductor Devices: PN Junction Diode
characteristics, Diode Types: Zener and Light Emitting
diodes (LED), Diode Applications: Rectifiers, half wave
and full wave, Zener diode as a voltage regulator,
regulated power supply, Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT): Working principle, operation, Common Emitter
(CE), Common Base(CB), Common Collector (CC)
Configurations, VI characteristics, biasing circuits (13L)

2
Topic1: Semiconductor Diodes
• Semiconductor Diode Characteristics

• Rectifiers : Half wave Rectifiers, Full wave Rectifiers

• Rectifier with Capacitor filters

• Zener diode & its applications

• LEDs and applications

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-
semiconductor-devices/ee-diode/v/ee-diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 3
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
•Two types of semiconducting materials Silicon and
Germanium are used in electronic devices
•Both have four valance electrons- tetravalent
•When Silicon and Germanium atoms combine into
molecules to form a solid material they arrange
themselves in fixed pattern called a crystal/lattice
•Atoms within the crystal structure are held together
by covalent bonds
•An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 4
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
•In an intrinsic semiconductor there are very few
free electrons
•Pure semiconductor materials are neither good
conductor nor good insulators
•Intrinsic semiconductor material must be modified
by increasing the free electrons and holes to
increase its conductivity and make it useful for
electronic devices
•By adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductor material can be produced

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 5
 Bohr diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 6
Silicon and Germanium atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 7
 Covalent bonds in silicon

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 8
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal

21-Aug-21
An intrinsic Silicon crystal
MITWPU 9
Electron and Hole Current

Electron current in intrinsic

silicon is produced by the
movement of thermally
generated free electrons

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 10
 Modified Semiconductor material
•Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconducting
materials to increase and control conductivity within the material

✔ N-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5 valance

electrons) impurity atoms such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and
antimony (Sb).
• electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
• holes are called minority carrier in n-type material

✔ P-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valance electrons)

impurity atoms such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium(Ga)
• holes are called majority carriers in n-type material
• electrons are called minority carrier in n-type material

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 11
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

N-Type Semiconductor P-Type

Semiconductor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 12
 PN Junction
• A block of Si is doped with a trivalent impurity in half part and the other half part doped
with pentavalent impurity, a boundary called PN junction is formed.
✔ Yellow line shows PN junction
✔ Electrons near PN junction diffuses across the junction and combines with holes, a
positive charge is left in the n region and a negative charge is created in the p
region, forming a Depletion Region.
✔ Region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due
to diffusion across the junction.
✔ Depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n region
and p region.
✔ This action continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further diffusion.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 13
 PN Junction
• Forces between the opposite charges form an electric field
(blue arrows)
•The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
•This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
•To overcome the barrier potential, a certain amount of
voltage equal to the barrier potential and with the proper
polarity must be applied across a PN junction before
electrons will begin to flow across the junction.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 14
 Energy Diagrams of PN Junction
An energy diagram for a pn junction at the instant of formation
• Valence and conduction bands in the n region are at lower energy levels than those in
the p region (trivalent impurities exert lower forces on the outer shell electrons than the
pentavalent)
• Lower forces in P-type means, electron orbits are slightly larger hence have greater
energy than electrons in n-type.
• There is a significant amount of overlapping also.
• Free electrons in the n region occupy the upper part of the conduction band in terms of
their energy can easily diffuse across the junction (they do not have to gain additional
energy)
• These electrons temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the p-region
conduction band.
• After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall into the holes in the
p-region valence band as indicated in the figure

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 15
 The PN Junction Diode
• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually
silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n
region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.

• Two terminal device: Anode and Cathode

Diode
Image

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 16
Forward Biased Diode Requirements

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 17
Forward Biased Diode Requirements

• Rlimit – current limiting resistance, VBIAS – must be greater than

barrier potential
• Effect of Forward Bias : Depletion Region becomes narrow
• Effect of Barrier Potential During FB: Free electrons overcome
the barrier potential and give up an amount of energy
equivalent to barrier potential.
• Voltage drop across PN junction is for Si=0.7 V and Ge=0.3 V
• An additional small voltage drop occurs across p and n regions
due to internal resistance of the material (dynamic resistance)
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 18
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 19
 Reverse Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 20
 Reverse Bias

• The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased

diode is due to the minority carriers from thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
• If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value
called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
• The multiplication of conduction electrons is known as the
avalanche effect.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 21
V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 22
 V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias
• Forward current (IF) - cathode to anode (flow of electrons).
• Conventional current flow (due to holes) - high potential to low potential
(opposite of IF).
• Forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential
• R limits forward current, so that overheating and damage of diode is
avoided.
• VBIAS= 0, IF = 0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS : IF and voltage across the diode VF start
increasing gradually
• A portion of forward-bias voltage is dropped across R
• VBIAS increased: VF = approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward
current begins to increase rapidly.
• Further increase in VBIAS : IF increases very rapidly, but the voltage across
the diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V.
• Voltage drop across diode is above 0.7 V due to the voltage drop across
the internal dynamic resistance of the semiconducting material.
• rd=ΔVF/ΔIF
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 23
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
• Extremely small reverse current (IR) flow through
the pn junction.
• VBIAS=0,IR=0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS - very small reverse
current flow and the voltage across the diode
increases.

• When VBIAS is increased: VR = breakdown value

(VBR), the reverse current increases rapidly.
• Further increase in VBIAS- current increases very
rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases
very little above VBR.
• Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal
mode of operation for most pn junction devices.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 24
The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve of a
diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 25
 Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 26
 The Ideal Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 27
 Diode Approximations
The Practical Diode Model

Barrier potential for Si diode= 0.7 V

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 28
 The Practical Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 29
 Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 30
The Complete Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 31
Diode Current Equation
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 32
Example 1
•Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode
in Figure below for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage
across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume at the
determined value of forward current. Assume r’d=10 ohms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 33
Example 1

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 34
 Applications of Diode
•Used as RECTIFIERS to convert AC to DC
Pls visit- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

•Rectifiers are found in all DC power supplies

•Diodes are used as switches in some applications

•Zener diodes are used as Voltage regulators

•Reverse Current Protection Circuits

•Voltage Multipliers
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 35
Regulated DC Power Supply
• Rectification- a process of converting AC voltage into the corresponding DC
voltage
• DC power supply - one of the most commonly used circuit
• Voltage produced is used to power all types of electronic circuits i.e. consumer
electronics, computers, industrial controllers, and most laboratory
instrumentation systems and equipment
• The DC voltage level required depends on the application, but most applications
require relatively low voltages

230 V, 50 Hz

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 36
Building blocks of a DC power supply
✔ Step down Transformer
• Reduces the ac voltage to a tolerable level

✔ Rectifier
• Converts ac to pulsating dc

✔ Filter
• Converts rectifier output to steady
ripple-free voltage which is close to pure dc
(ac part is removed)

✔ Regulator
• Keeps the dc output constant even if the
input or load fluctuates.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 37
 Rectifier
• An electronic device used for converting AC voltage/current
into a unidirectional DC voltage/current.
• Diodes are used in rectifiers because of their ability to conduct
current in only one direction and block current in the other
direction.
• Rectifiers are used in several electronic devices we come
across in our daily life, eg. TV, Radio, PC, adaptors, mobile
chargers etc.
• Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power supplies and
battery charging circuits.
• Energy Star program provides information on the energy
consumption of products and devices using different
standardized methods
• Power supplies to comply with the Energy Star requirements,
must have a minimum 80% efficiency rating for all rated
power output.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 38
Classification of Rectifiers

Rectifier
Circuits

Half Wave
Full Wave
Rectifier
Rectifier (FWR)
(HWR)
FWR with
center tapped
transformer

Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 39
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
HWR animation can be seen at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

• A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor, RL, This forms a

half-wave rectifier.
• All ground symbols represent the same point electrically.
• Considering the diode as ideal diode, during +ve half cycle of the input
voltage , input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor.
• The current produces an output voltage across the load RL, which has the
same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 40
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit contd..

• When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the
diode is reverse-biased.
• There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V.
• The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage
appear across the load.
• Output does not change polarity, hence it is a pulsating dc voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 41
Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

• During positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential
before the diode becomes forward-biased.
• This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than the
peak value of the input.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 42
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output
Voltage
•Output voltage = value measured on a dc voltmeter.
•Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the
curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure, then dividing by
the number of radians in a full cycle.
• Equation shows that VAVG is approx= 31.8% of Vp for a
half-wave rectified voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 43
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• PIV occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input voltage when the
diode is reverse-biased.
• Diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse
voltage.
• PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input voltage
when the diode is reverse-biased.
• A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 44
Half-wave Rectifier with Transformer coupled input
voltage.
Transformer coupling provides two advantages:
Allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed.
Ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit.

Fuse

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 45
Diode datasheet

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 46
Waveforms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 47
Operation of the circuit

Circuit during positive half cycle Circuit during negative half cycle

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 48
Parameters of HWR
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 49
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

mean value of the current (neglecting the reverse current) = Idc

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 50
RMS means: Squaring, Finding mean, & Finding Square root

Also called effective value of the load current

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 51
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 52
DC/Average and RMS Value Load Voltage
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 53
Rectifier efficiency for HWR
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the percentage of ac input power, actually
converted into the average load power.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 54
Ripple Factor
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 55
TUF (Transformer Utilization Factor)
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 56
Advantages of HWR

•Simple construction, Small size

•Less number of components are required

Applications of HWR
•In the eliminators for pocket radios or eliminators for Walkman or
in the low cost power supplies.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 57
Disadvantages of HWR
•Ripple factor is high (1.21)
•Low rectification efficiency (40%)
•Low TUF(only 28%) which shows that transformer is not
utilized effectively.
•Low DC output voltage and current.
•Larger filter components are required.
•Because of these disadvantages HWR is not normally used in
practice.
•Possibility of core saturation due to unidirectional current
flow through transformer. To avoid this size of transformer
should be increased.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 58
Examples- Homework

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 59
Examples- Answers

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?
VAVG=60/3.14=19.1 V

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

Vsec=n x Vpri
=0.5 x 170 =85V

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 60
FWR- Full Wave Rectifiers
• FWR is the most commonly used rectifier type in dc power supplies.
• A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the
load during the entire input cycle.
• A half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-half of
the cycle.
• The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency
twice the input frequency
• Two types of full-wave rectifiers are :
Center-tapped FWR
Full wave bridge rectifier.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 61
Full Wave Rectifiers

• The average value (value measured on a dc voltmeter) for a full-wave

rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave
• VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

• A centre-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two
diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer.
• The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
center-tapped secondary.
• Half of the total secondary voltage appears between the center tap and
each end of the secondary winding as shown.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 62
Full Wave Rectifiers
Center-tapped(CT) FWR

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 63
 Operation of CT FWR-
D1 ON

(a) During positive half-cycles, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.

D2 ON
(b)During negative half-cycles, D2 is forward-biased and D1 is reverse-biased
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 64
 Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage
• If the transformer’s turns
ratio is= 1
Vsec = Vpri

• Voltage across each half of

the secondary is equal to
Vpri /2

• To obtain an output voltage

with a peak equal to the input
peak (less the diode drop), a
step-up transformer with a
turns ratio of n = 2 must be
used.
• Vsec = 2Vpri
• Voltage across each half of
the secondary is equal to Vpri
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 65
 Full Wave Rectifiers
• In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always
one-half of the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the
turns ratio.

Center Tapped FWR with AC input source:

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 66
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately
forward-biased and then reverse-biased.
•The maximum reverse voltage that each diode must
withstand is the peak secondary voltage Vp(sec).

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 67
 PIV in FWR (Center tapped)

multiplying each term by 2 and transposing,

By substitution, the peak inverse voltage across either diode in a full-wave center-tapped
rectifier is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 68
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 69
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 70
Full Wave Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 71
 EXAMPLE 3
(a) Draw the voltage waveforms across each half of the secondary winding and
across RL when a 100 V peak sine wave is applied to the primary winding in
Figure 2–36.

(b) What minimum PIV rating must the diodes have?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 72
EXAMPLE 3- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 73
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 74
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 75
• Positive half-cycle of the
total secondary voltage:
D1 and D2 are
forward-biased.
• Neglecting the diode
drops, the secondary
voltage appears across the
load resistor.
• The same is true when D3
and D4 are forward-biased
during the negative
half-cycle.

• In FW bridge rectifier, two

diodes are always in series
with the load resistor during
both the positive and
negative half-cycles.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 76
 Peak Inverse Voltage(full wave bridge rectifier)
• Ideal Model: D1 and D2 are
forward-biased and examine the
reverse voltage across D3 and D4.
• D1 and D2 as shorts (ideal model),
• D3 and D4 have a peak inverse voltage
equal to the peak secondary voltage.
• Since the output voltage is ideally
equal to the secondary voltage
• PIV = Vp(out)

• Practical model : Including

forward-biased diode drops
• PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7
• PIV rating of the bridge diodes is less
than that required for the
center-tapped configuration.
• Neglecting diode drops, bridge
rectifier requires diodes with half the
PIV rating of those in a center-tapped
rectifier for the same output voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 77
DC or Average Load Current (Idc) and RMS load
current

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 78
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 79
Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 80
EXAMPLE 4
•Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure.
Assuming the practical model, what PIV rating is required for the
diodes?
•The transformer is specified to have a 12 V rms secondary voltage
for the standard 120 V across the primary winding. What is the turns
ratio of transformer?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 81
EXAMPLE 4- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 82
Comparison of Rectifier circuits
Parameter Centre tapped
Half-wave Bridge
s Full-wave
No of Diodes 1 2 4
Rectifier
Efficiency
40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

Peak Inverse
Voltage
VM 2VM VM

Average / DC
load Current 2Im/π

2Vm/𝜋
Vdc (no load) Vm/𝜋 2Vm/𝜋

Output
Frequency
f 2f 2f

Transformer
Utilisation 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor

Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48

2 2 4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL 4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL
Pdc (Im / 𝜋 ) * RL

2 (Im2/ 2) * (RL + Rs +
21-Aug-21
2 (ImMITWPU
/ 2) * (RL + Rs + 83
Pac (Im / 4) * (RL + Rs + Rf ) 2Rf )
Filters
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 84
Filters

Ripple factor , r = 1/ 2fCR√3

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 85
Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing
Capacitor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 86
Ripple Comparison

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 87
Full-Wave Center tap Rectifier Circuits

* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 88
 Ripple Voltage

The period of a full-wave rectified

voltage is half that of a half-wave
rectified voltage. The output
frequency of a full-wave rectifier is
twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

Comparison of ripple voltages

for
half-wave and full-wave rectified
voltages with the same filter
capacitor and load and derived
from the same sinusoidal input
voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 89
Ripple Factor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 90
Problem- Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier with C
filter

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 91
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 92
HW Problem Data
•FWR bridge with Filter capacitor
•Vin=230 V RMS, 50 Hz
•Transformer turns ratio=0.1
•Load Resistance, RL=1000 Ohms
•Filter Capacitor, C= 470 microFarad

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 93
Special Purpose Diode- Zener Diode

Symbol Image of a Zener diode

Outline
▪ Introduction of Zener Diode

▪ Construction of Zener Diode

▪ Working of Zener Diode

▪ Application of Zener Diode

▪ Numericals of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 95
 Introduction
• The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that
differs from rectifier diodes because it is designed for
operation in the reverse-breakdown region. (Reverse
biased condition)
• The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
specific voltage across it’s terminals within given
limits of line or load change.
• Typically it is used for providing a stable reference
voltage for use in regulated power supplies and other
equipment.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 96
Datasheet of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 97
Regulated output voltage from unregulated
input voltage using Zener diode 1N4740

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 98
Construction of Zener
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are
avalanche and Zener.
• The avalanche break down occurs in both rectifier and zener
diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in a Zener diode at low reverse
voltages.
• A Zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown
voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region at the
junction.
• The Zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined
by the doping process during manufacturing

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 99
 Working of Zener Diode
This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a Zener
diode. Note that it’s forward characteristics is just like a normal diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 100

Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic
curve. As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse
current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown
effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance
(ZZ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 101

 Zener Breakdown
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
• Types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode: avalanche and zener.
• Avalanche Effect:
High reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region.
They collide with atoms with enough energy to knock valence
electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band.
The newly created conduction electrons are also high in energy and
repeat the process.
If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit
during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply.
As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they
have enough energy to go through the n region as conduction
electrons, rather than combining with holes
• The avalanche effect, occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a
sufficiently high reverse voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 102
Zener Breakdown

• Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.

• Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is intense enough
to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current.
• Zener Diodes with Vz < approx. 5 V operate predominately in
zener breakdown.
• Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V
operate predominately in avalanche breakdown.
• Both types are called zener diodes
• Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages from
less than 1 V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances from
1% to 20%.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 103

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 104
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ZENER AND AVALANCHE
BREAKDOWN
Sr. Zener Breakdown Avalanche breakdown
No.
1 This occurs at junction which being This occurs at junction which
heavily doped have narrow depletion being lightly doped have wide depletion layer.
layer
2 This breakdown voltage sets a Here electric field is not strong
very strong electric field across enough to produce Zener breakdown.
this narrow layer.
3 Here electric field is very strong Here minority carriers collide with semi
to rupture the covalent bonds conductor atoms, which breaks the covalent
thereby generating electron-hole bonds and electron-hole pairs are generated.
pairs. So even a small increase in Newly generated charge carriers are accelerated
reverse voltage is capable of producing by the electric field which results in more
Large number of current carriers. collision and generates avalanche of charge
carriers. This results in avalanche breakdown.
4 Zener diode exhibits negative temp. Avalanche diodes exhibits positive temp.
coefficient i.e. breakdown voltage coefficient i.e breakdown voltage increases with
decreases as temperature increases. increase in temperature.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 105

Ideal Model & Ideal Characteristic Curve of Zener
Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 106

Practical Model & Practical Characteristic Curve of Zener
Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 107

Application of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 108

Zener Diode Applications –
Zener Regulation with a Varying Input Voltage

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 109

Zener Diode Application:
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in
series with the input voltage VS
• The zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition.
• The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 110

Numerical on Zener Diode Impedance
A Zener diode exhibits a certain change in Vz for a certain
change in lz on a portion of the linear characteristic curve
between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the Zener
impedance Zz?

Zz= 50mV/5mA

= 10 Ohms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 111

 Example 1: Zener Regulator
• A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to
be produced from a 12V DC power supply
input source. The maximum power
rating Pz of the zener diode is 2W.

Using the zener regulator circuit calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the
zener diode.

b) The value of the series resistor, Rs, with no

load

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is

connected across the Zener diode.

d) The zener current Iz at full load

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 112

 Power dissipation in Zener diode, Pzmax=Izmax.Vz

(a) Iz =

Vin=Vs= VRS+VZ

(b)

(c)

(d)

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 113

114
Example 2

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 115

116
Homework Problem

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 117

Zener diode Summary
•A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition.
•A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the
load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current.
•The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting
resistor Rs connected in series with the input voltage Vs with
the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this
reverse biased condition.
•The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the
same as the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 118

 Special Type of diode
Light Emitting Diode: LED

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 119

LED Symbol and Structure

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 120

LED Operation

• When LED is forward-biased electrons cross the pn junction

from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the
p-type material.

• The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher

energy than the holes in the valence band. The Energy
difference between the electrons and the holes
corresponds to the energy of visible light.

• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons

release energy in the form of photons. The emitted light
tends to be monochromatic (one colour) that depends on the
band gap and impurities.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 121

Electroluminescence in LED
•The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of
energy is called electroluminescence.
•A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconducting
material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 122

Types of LEDs- Visible light & IR
•Various impurities are added during the doping process to
establish the wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength
determines the color of visible light. E.g 650 nm - red

•IR LEDs: Some LEDs emit photons that are not part of the visible
spectrum but have longer wavelengths and are in the infrared (IR)
portion of the spectrum (700 nm – 1700 nm).

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 123

Materials used for LED decide its colour

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red,
orange-red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 124

LED Biasing
• The forward voltage across an LED is considerably
greater than for a silicon diode.
• LED Cut-in voltage: Typically, the maximum VF for
LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the
material.
• Reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is much less
than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is
typical).
• The LED emits light in response to a sufficient
forward current, as shown in Figure. An increase in IF
corresponds proportionally to an increase in light
output.
• The light output (both intensity and color) is also
dependent on temperature. Light intensity goes
down with higher temperature as indicated in the
figure.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 125

Applications

•Seven Segment Display

•Infrared remote control
•Indicators

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 126

LED Seven Segment Display and types

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 127

 Bipolar Junction Transistor- BJT

11/7/2022 MITWPU 128

First – BJT (History)

The transistor was probably

the most important invention
of the 20th Century,

Shockley, Bardeen and

Brattain three shared a Nobel
Prize in 1955 for invention of
transistor.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 129

 Introduction

⚫ Bipolar transistors are one of the main

‘building-blocks’ in electronic systems
⚫ They are used in both analog and digital circuits
⚫ The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
consisting of two n-type and one p-type layers of
material or two p-type and one n-type layers of
material.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 130

 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
•Bipolar junction transistors or BJTs includes two PN
junctions
•The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
involve in the current flow.
•The BJT is analogous to a vacuum triode and is comparatively
smaller in size.
•It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in
digital circuit.
•It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other
modern communication system.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 131

 Basic models of BJT
npn transistor

Diode

Diode

pnp transistor

Diode

Diode

11/7/2022 MITWPU 132

NPN and PNP
B B

E N P N C E P N P C

NPN PNP

• The three sections of the transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector,
shown as E, B, and C, respectively.
• Emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers into the base.
• Base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes most of the injected charge
carriers from the emitter into the collector.
• Collector is moderately doped.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 133

Datasheet of transistor

11/7/2022 MITWPU 134

 Physical Structure PNP transistor

11/7/2022 MITWPU 135

NPN vs PNP

• NPN and PNP BJTs function the same way

• Power supply polarities are reversed
• Current direction is reversed
• NPN is more widely used

11/7/2022 MITWPU 136

Transistor biasing NPN Transistor biasing

NPN Transistor •PNP Transistor biasing

• biasing
The figure shows, usually the
emitter-base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
• Due to the forward bias on the
emitter-base junction, an emitter current
flows through the base into the
collector.
• Through the collector-base junction is
reverse biased, almost the entire emitter PNP Transistor biasing

current flows through the collector

11/7/2022 MITWPU 137
Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse biased Amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 138

Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)

Junction Junction
EB CB

+ - - - - +
Emitter + - - - - + collec
+ - - P - - +
N tor
N
+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +

R Deplet Deplet R
E ion ion C
region region
- + - +
Bas
VE e VC
E C
11/7/2022 MITWPU 139
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
P - - + N
- - +
- - +

RE Base electron
current

- + - +
Base
This constitutes the base current IB
Emitter electron Thus base current flows due to the VCC
current
11/7/2022 VEE RecombinationMITWPU
of electrons and holes 140
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
P - - + N
- - +
- - +

Collector electron
RE Base electron
current
current

- + - +
Base

Emitter electron VCC

current
11/7/2022 VEE MITWPU 141
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction IE = IC + IB
JEB JCB

Emitter collector
N P N

Electron emitted
Electron collected

RC
RE Direction
Direction Conventional Direction
Conventional Current IB Conventional
Current IE Current IC
- + - +
Base

Emitter electron
current
11/7/2022 VEE MITWPU
VCC 142
Transistor operation in the active region (PNP)
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

P N P

Emitter collector
N P

holes emitted
holes collected

RE RC
conventional
current
-
+ + -
Base

Conventional
current VEE VCC
11/7/2022
IE = IC + IB
MITWPU 143
Transistor currents:
•As discussed earlier, the electrons injected from emitter into
base constitute the emitter current (IE).

•Out of these electrons very few will combine with the holes in
the thin base region to constitute the base current (IB).

•The remaining electrons pass through to the collector region and

then to the positive end of Vcc to constitute the collector current
(IC).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 144

 C
Collector
Transistor currents:
• Therefore we can write that IC

IE = IC + IB IB

B
Base
IE
E
• Emitter current is always equal to the sum of collector Emitterand
current
base current.
• As IB is very small as compared to IE we can assume the collector
current to be nearly equal to the emitter current

IE ≈ IC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 145

Circuit symbols and Transistor Terminal Voltages

IC C

N IC

IB +
JC VCE
P B +
B IB -
JE
VBE
N
- IE
IE E

E N-P-N Transistor
11/7/2022 MITWPU 146
Circuit symbols and conventions of Transistor

IC C

P
IC
-
IB
JC VCE
N B -
B IB +
JE
VBE
P + IE
IE E
P-N-P Transistor
E

11/7/2022 MITWPU 147

Transistor Working

• https://youtu.be/7ukDKVHnac4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jKVPEIMybUg

11/7/2022 MITWPU 148

 Transistor configurations:
• Transistor is 3 terminal device, hence one of the three terminals “common”
to input and output port.
• Depending on which terminal is made common to input and output port,
there are three possible configurations of transistor, they are as follows:
1. Common Base(CB) configuration
2. Common Emitter(CE) configuration
3. Common Collector(CC) configuration
CE CB CC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 149

 Common-Emitter Configuration
⚫ It is called common-emitter configuration since :
- emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential.
⚫ CE configuration is used in amplifier circuits it provides the
high gain for current and voltage.
⚫ Two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the
behavior for CE; input (base terminal) and output (collector
terminal) parameters.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 150

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

Current gain (βdc): βdc = IC / IB

• In CE configuration, emitter acts as common terminal between input and output
ports.
• The bias voltage VBB is applied between base and emitter while bias voltage
VCC is applied between collector and emitter.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 151
 • Current relations:
For CE configuration, Collector current is given by

IC = βdc IB + ICEO

Current amplification factor or current gain (βdc):

The current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current to the
base current

⚫ Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE :

1. Input characteristics (base terminal)
2. Output characteristics (collector terminal).
11/7/2022 MITWPU 152
 Common Base Configuration

⚫ In this configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output

terminal and base is the common terminal.

⚫ The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals.

⚫ The output is taken between the collector and base terminals.

⚫ Used as current buffer as current gain is approximately one.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 153

Common-Base (CB) Configuration

a) NPN transistor b) PNP transistor

Current amplification factor (αdc): αdc = IC / IE

11/7/2022 MITWPU 154

• In CB configuration, base acts as common terminal between the input and
output ports.
• The input voltage VEB is applied between emitter and base while output
voltage VCB is taken between collector and base.

Current relations:
The output current IC is given by
IC = IC(INJ) + ICBO
where IC(INJ) = injected collector current
and ICBO = reverse saturation current of CB junction
As ICBO flows due to minority carriers, it is negligible as compared to IC(INJ),
∴ IC ≈ IC(INJ)

11/7/2022 MITWPU 155

 Common – Collector Configuration

•Also called emitter-follower (EF)

•It is called common-collector configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common
connection point.
•The input is applied between the base and collector terminals.
•The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
•It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has
high input impedance and low output impedance.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 156

 Common – Collector Configuration

Current amplification factor (Ƴdc): Ƴdc = IE / IB

11/7/2022 MITWPU 157

 Comparison of BJT circuit configurations
Sr. Parameter CB CE CC
No.
1. Input current IE IB IB
2. Output current IC IC IE
3. Current gain Less than 1 Medium Medium
αdc = IC / IE βdc = IC / IB γdc = IE / IB
4. Input voltage VEB VBE VBC
5. Output voltage VCB VCE VBC
6. Voltage gain Medium Medium Less than 1
7. Input resistance Very low (20 Ω) Moderate (1kΩ) High (500 kΩ)
8. Output resistance Very high (1MΩ) High (40 KΩ) Low (50 Ω)
9. Phase shift between 0⁰ 180⁰ 0⁰
input and output

10. Applications As preamplifier Audio amplifier For impedance

matching

11/7/2022 MITWPU 158

BJT Circuit Analysis
IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current

IC: dc collector current

VBE: dc voltage at base with respect

to emitter

VCB: dc voltage at collector with

respect to base

VCE: dc voltage at collector with

respect to emitter

11/7/2022 MITWPU 159

Input Characteristics

11/7/2022 MITWPU 160

•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 161

Numerical 1: DC biasing of CE configuration
Determine I , I , I , V , V , and V in the circuit shown
B C E BE CE CB

below. The transistor has a β = 150. DC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 162

Numerical 1 Solution

11/7/2022 MITWPU 163

Collector Characteristic – Output
Characteristics

11/7/2022 MITWPU 164

Collector Characteristic Curve
For IB
constant

11/7/2022 MITWPU 165

Family of Collector Characteristic Curves

11/7/2022 MITWPU 166

Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base Application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased Switch

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased Switch

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse biased Amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 167

Cutoff region

11/7/2022 MITWPU 168

Saturation region

11/7/2022 MITWPU 169

DC Load Line

11/7/2022 MITWPU 170

 Numerical 2
Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure is in saturation.
Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 171

 Numerical 2 Solution

This shows that with the specified betaDC, this base current is capable of
producing an IC greater than IC(sat). Therefore, the transistor is saturated, and
the collector current value of 11.5 mA is never reached. If you further
increase IB, the collector current remains at its saturation value of 9.8 mA.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 172

Homework problem
• Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure 4–16 is
saturated for the following values:
beta DC =125, VBB =1.5 V, RB =6.8 kohms,
RC =180ohms, and VCC= 12 V.

Answer: Transistor is not in saturation

11/7/2022 MITWPU 173

Numerical 3

•A base current of 50 µA is applied to the transistor in Figure,

and a voltage of 5 V is dropped across RC. Determine the βDC
of the transistor.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 174

Numerical 3 Solution
I C = VC / R C
= 5V / 1 KΩ
= 5 mA

βDC = IC / I B
= 5 mA / 50 µA
= 100

11/7/2022 MITWPU 175

Numerical 4
• Determine each current in Figure below. What is the βDC?

11/7/2022 MITWPU 176

Numerical 4 Solution
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 177

Numerical 5
• Assume that the transistor in the circuit below is having a βDC of 200.
Determine IB, IC, IE, and VCE given that VCC = 10 V and VBB = 3 V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 178

Quiz 1
1. Name the two types of BJTs according to their structure.

2. The BJT is a three-terminal device. Name the three terminals.

3. What separates the three regions in a BJT?

11/7/2022 MITWPU 179

Quiz 1

• The power gain of -------- configuration is the highest.

Ans - CE

• Voltage gain of -------------configuration is unity.

Ans - CC

• Current gain of -------------configuration is low;

Ans - CB

11/7/2022 MITWPU 180

DC Bias
Bias establishes the dc operating point or Q-point (Quiescent point ) for proper
linear operation of an amplifier.

FIGURE : Examples of linear and nonlinear operation of an inverting amplifier

(the triangle symbol).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 181

Quiescent point (Q point) or bias point or operating
point of CE amplifier:
▪ It is the point on the load line which represents the dc current
through a transistor (ICQ) and the voltage across it (VCEQ), when no
ac signal is applied.

▪ The dc load line is a set of infinite number of such operating points.

▪ If the transistor is being used for “amplification” purpose, then Q

point should be exactly at the center of load line.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 182

 Instability of Quiescent point

• Due to Temperature
• Due to gain βdc
• Device to device variation
• The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with
changes in temperature, since the transistor parameters — β,
ICO and VBE (where the symbols carry their usual
meaning)—are functions of temperature.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 183

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
We assign three values to IB and observe what happens to IC and VCE.

FIGURE : A dc-biased transistor circuit with variable bias voltage (VBB) for
generating the collector characteristic curves shown in part (b).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 184

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
First, VBB is adjusted to produce an IB of 200µA.
Since IC= βDCIB the collector current is 20 mA, as indicated, and

This Q-point is shown on the graph as Q1.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 185

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Next, VBB is increased to produce an IB of 300µA and an IC of 30
mA.

The Q-point for this condition is indicated by Q2 on the graph.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 186

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Finally, VBB is increased to give an IB of 400µA and an IC of 40
mA.

Q3 is the corresponding Q-point on the graph.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 187

DC Bias: DC Load Line

The point at which the load line intersects a characteristic curve

represents the Q-point for that particular value of IB.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 188
DC Bias: DC Load Line
Apply KVL to collector circuit to write,
VCC – VCE – IC RC = 0

Rearranging this equation we get,

IC = [-1 / RC] VCE + VCC/RC

Compare this equation with the general equation

of a straight line,
y = mx + C

From above equations

y = IC x = VCE
slope, m = -1/ RC C = VCC / RC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 189

A generic dc load line

Y -Intercept

11/7/2022 MITWPU 190

Linear Operation
The region along the load line including all points between saturation and cutoff
is generally known as the linear region of the transistor’s operation.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 191

Waveform Distortion due to improper
biasing

11/7/2022 MITWPU 192

Waveform Distortion due to improper biasing

11/7/2022 MITWPU 193

Waveform Distortion- Input signal too large

11/7/2022 MITWPU 194

Numerical 6
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 195

11/7/2022 MITWPU 196
11/7/2022 MITWPU 197
 Quiz 2

Question:
If a transistor operates at the middle of the dc load line, a decrease in
the base current will move the Q point ___________

A. off the load line

B. nowhere
C. Up
D. Down

Answer:D

11/7/2022 MITWPU 198

 Quiz 2

Question:
The end points of a DC load line drawn on a family of output curves
determine__________

A. saturation and cutoff

B. the operating point
C. the power curve
D. the amplification factor
Answer: A

11/7/2022 MITWPU 199

Quiz 2

Question 3
What are the upper and lower limits on a dc load line in terms of
VCE and IC?
1 IC=0, VCE=0
2 IC=IC sat, VCE=0 and IC=0, VCE=VCC
3 IC=0, VCE=VCC and IC=IC sat, VCE=0
4 IC=0,VCE=VCC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 200

DC Biasing and Q point

•Voltage-divider bias circuits

Voltage-divider bias is widely used because reasonably good
bias stability is achieved with a single supply voltage.
•Base-bias circuits
•Emitter-bias circuits
•Collector-feedback bias circuits
•Emitter-feedback bias circuits

11/7/2022 MITWPU 201

Voltage Divider Bias
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 202

Voltage Divider Bias
Once we know the base voltage, we can find the voltages and currents in
the circuit, as follows:

11/7/2022 MITWPU 203

Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit:
If IC increases due to change in temperature or βdc

Then IE increases

Hence drop across RE increases (VE = IE RE)

But VB is constant. Hence VBE decreases.

Hence IB decreases.

Hence IC also decreases. Thus compensation

for increase in IC is achieved.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 204
 Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit

⚫ This is the most commonly used arrangement for biasing as it

provide good bias stability.
⚫ The stability of the base bias network and therefore the
Q-point is generally assessed by considering the collector
current as a function of both Beta (β) and temperature.
⚫ In this arrangement the emitter resistance ‘RE’ provides
stabilization.
⚫ The net forward bias across the emitter base junction is equal
to VB- dc voltage drop across ‘RE’.
⚫ The base voltage is set by Vcc and R1 and R2. The dc bias circuit
is independent of transistor current gain.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 205

Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-Divider Bias

11/7/2022 MITWPU 206

Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-Divider Bias
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the equivalent base-emitter
loop gives

11/7/2022 MITWPU 207

Numerical 1
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 208

11/7/2022 MITWPU 209
 Numerical 2
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration with
voltage divider bias is shown in figure.
If Vcc=22.5V, Rc= 5.6KΩ, R1=90 KΩ, R2= 10 KΩ ,RE= 1 KΩ and β=55.
Find Q point.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 210

11/7/2022 MITWPU 211
 Numerical 3
Analyze the following circuit to find out D.C. parameters ICQ, VCEQ,
Assume VBE =0.6V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 212

11/7/2022 MITWPU 213
 Numerical 4
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration
with self bias is shown in figure.
Vcc=16V, Rc= 1.5KΩ, β=55
The quiescent point is chosen to be VCE= 8V, IC = 4mA.
Find R1,R2, RE.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 214

 8 =16 - 4mA ×(1.5K+RE ) Use VCE=VCC-IC(RE+ Rc)

RE = 0.5K=500Ω

VE = 0.5K×4mA=2V

VB = VE + VBE = 2.7V

VB= (R2/ R1+R2)×Vcc

Let R2= 1K Assumed value

So R1 = 4.92K

Nearest standard value for R1: 5.1K

11/7/2022 MITWPU 215

 Transistor as an Amplifier

• One of the primary uses of a transistor is to

amplify ac signals.
• DC load line -Active region operation
• This could be an audio signal (upto 20 KHz) or
perhaps some high frequency radio (MHz-GHz)
signal.
• No distortion in the amplified output

11/7/2022 MITWPU 216

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

• The region between cutoff and saturation is called

the linear region.
• A transistor which operates in the linear region is
called a linear amplifier.
• Only the ac component reaches the load because of
the capacitive coupling and that the output is 180º
out of phase with input.
• CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage gain and high
current gain and hence power gain.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 217

 The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• A linear amplifier provides amplification of a signal without any distortion so
that the output signal is an exact amplified replica of the input signal.
• A transistor always produces a phase inversion between the base voltage and
the collector voltage

(6.8/22+6.8)12=2.83V

11/7/2022 MITWPU 218

CE amplifier Circuit Components and their
Functions:
1. Resistors:
▪ Resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to bias the transistor in
active region by using voltage divider bias circuit.
▪ RC is collector resistor used to control collector current.
2. Input coupling capacitor C1:
▪ The input coupling capacitor C1 is used to couple the ac input
voltage VS to the base of the transistor.
▪ As capacitor block dc voltage , C1 couples only the ac
component of the input signal.
▪ This capacitor also ensures that the dc biasing conditions of
transistor remain unchanged even after applications of the
input signal.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 219
3. Bypass capacitor CE:
▪ As CE is connected in parallel with RE is called emitter bypass
capacitor CE.
▪ This capacitor offer a low reactance to the amplified ac signal,
therefore RE gets bypassed through CE for only the ac signals.
▪ This will increase the voltage gain of the amplifier.

4. Output coupling capacitor C2:

▪ This capacitor couples the amplifier output to the load or to the
next stage amplifier.
▪ It is used for blocking the dc part and passing only the ac part of
the amplified signal to the load.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 220

Phase Inversion in CE amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 221

 AC Q Point

Graphical ac load line operation of the amplifier showing the variation of the base
current, collector current, and collector-to-emitter voltage about their dc Q-point
values. Ib and Ic are on different scales.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 222

The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• Common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias and coupling
capacitors C1 and C3 on the input and output and a bypass capacitor, C2,
from emitter to ground.
• The input signal, Vin, is capacitively coupled to the base terminal, the
output signal, Vout, is capacitively coupled from the collector to the load.
• The amplified output is 180° out of phase with the input.
• Because the ac signal is applied to the base terminal as the input and
taken from the collector terminal as the output, the emitter is common to
both the input and output signals.
• There is no AC signal at the emitter because the bypass capacitor
effectively shorts the emitter to ground at the signal frequency.
• All amplifiers have a combination of both ac and dc operation, which
must be considered, but the common-emitter amplifier designation refers
to the ac operation.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 223

 Thank You !

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 224

Lab Experiments / Simulations
•Tinkarcad software – Circuits section
•Pls visit : https://www.tinkercad.com/dashboard
•Create your account/register using gmail id forTinkercad software
use
•Simple tutorials are available for practice

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 225

Basics of Tinkercad circuits

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 226

Lessons in Tinkercad

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 227

Simple circuit simulation designed in
Tinkercad
Components:
1. Red LED
2. Coin Battery 3V
3. Slide-switch
4. Resistor 220 Ohms
5. Connecting wires

Operation:
Switch position will
decide whether LED in
ON or OFF.

In simulation, LED
turning ON/OFF can be
seen by sliding the
switch.