ENHANCING CAREER READINESS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

THROUGH WORK-BASED LEARNING: A QUALITATIVE NARRATIVE STUDY

by

Gay Patrice Huggins-Dickey

Copyright 2023

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Educational Leadership

University of Phoenix



      

The Dissertation Committee for Gay Patrice Huggins-Dickey certifies approval of the
following dissertation:

ENHANCING CAREER READINESS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

THROUGH WORK-BASED LEARNING: A QUALITATIVE NARRATIVE STUDY

Committee:

Tiffani Bateman, EdD, Chair

Cheryl Anderson, PhD, University Research Methodologist

Angela Larson, PhD, Panel Validator

_________________________
Tiffani Bateman

________
___________________
__
_________________________
Cheryl Anderson

_________________________
Angela Larson

_____________ _____________
_________________________
Hinrich Eylers
Eylers, PhD
Vice Provost, College of Doctoral Studies
University of Phoenix

Date Approved: __11/3/2023_

 ABSTRACT

This qualitative narrative inquiry aimed to learn about the experiences associated with

adapting to post-secondary life when students graduate from high school with work-

related skills. A narrative inquiry was used to interview graduates who participated in a

work-based learning program while attending a public high school in the coastal

Northeast region. The study was based on three research inquiries that explored

participant narratives through temporality, sociality, and spatiality to understand their

work-based learning experiences. The sampling technique employed a combination of

purposive sampling and snowball sampling methodologies. Four public graduates shared

their high school work-based learning experiences through in-depth interviews. The data

analysis used an interpretive strategy and uncovered three emerging themes:

communication and real-world experience, cultural awareness, networking and career

exploration, and self-discovery. The results of this study provided empirical evidence for

suggestions to leaders and educators within public school districts to actively promote

work-based learning programs for all students. The findings further underscored the

significance of work-based learning programs to help students acquire the essential work

skills necessary for success in their future careers and make informed decisions about

post-secondary education.

iii
 DEDICATION

Glory belongs to God, whose power is at work in us. He can do infinitely more than we
can ask or imagine by this power.
—Ephesians 3:20 GW

I would be remiss if I did not begin by giving honor to my God —Thank You! I

could not have completed this without your grace and mercy. I dedicate this to my dad,

the first person I spoke with about taking this leap, and he said, “If that is what you want

to do, go for it.” He passed away in 2015 from prostate cancer. I know he is proudly

watching his baby girl cross the finish line to her Doctoral degree.

I also dedicate this to my husband, Willie. Thank you for the ongoing support.

You were there for the tears, and when I was ready to throw in the towel, you pushed and

encouraged — thank you, my Love. You are indeed my ride-or-die. Now we can go on

vacations without a computer.

Thank you, Mom, for your love, support, and encouragement to keep pressing. To

my daughter, Olivia, and son, Zachary, when we place our full trust in Christ nothing is

impossible To my brother, Greg, thank you for the prayers, love, and for going the extra

mile when I could not. To Tony, my big brother in heaven, I miss you but I know you

were with me. Last but not least, my Creed, a pleasant distraction, love you Boo-Boo.

Thanks to my sister, Tracey, and cousin, Shana, for the constant encouragement

and cousins Dr. Iris and Dr. Courtney Campbell for giving the occasional heads up. A

final thanks for the needed prayers from my Christ Church sisters Glenda and Elrika, and

to David B, for the laughter.

You are my refuge and my fortress, my God in whom I trust.

—Psalm 91:2 GW

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank my committee and everyone willing to take this ride with me. There were

many twists and turns, but we persevered until we reached the finish line.

Dr. Tiffani Bateman, I was privileged to have your assistance in navigating the

process as I vacillated between various designs and the nature of the study. I appreciated

your collaborative approach and responses to the incessant inquiries during meetings,

texts, and emails. You are unparalleled in your generosity and support; your words will

perpetually remain felt.

Moreover, despite an initial period of challenges, I want to express my growing

admiration for Dr. Gail Williams. I have come to recognize and value your passion and

determination for success. Your performance surpassed my initial expectations, and I am

immensely grateful.

Furthermore, I sincerely thank Dr. Angela Larson for her remarkable patience and

prompt replies to the abundance of my inquiries and emails. Your attention to the details

only partially apparent in the APA manual is greatly appreciated. You significantly

contributed to crossing the finish line.

Dr. Cheryl Anderson, your assistance, acceptance and faith in the work. I

appreciated your ‘yes’ as the URM in the eleventh hour.

Thank you, Dr. Frolow, Dr. Anna Wheatley, and the Research Club for providing

a monthly support group for the University of Phoenix Doctoral students.

History has its eyes on me

—Hamilton, the Musical

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents ....................................................................................................................Page

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... xii

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Problem ...................................................................................... 2

Career Experience and Exploration ..................................................................... 5

Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 6

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................. 7

Population and Sample.............................................................................................. 8

Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 11

Nature of the Study ................................................................................................. 12

Method Appropriateness .................................................................................... 13

Design Appropriateness ..................................................................................... 14

Potential Design.................................................................................................. 15

Data Collection Instrument ................................................................................ 16

Data Analysis Management ............................................................................... 17

Research Questions ............................................................................................ 18

Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................... 19

Experiential Learning Theory ............................................................................ 19

Social Cognitive Career Theory ......................................................................... 20

Sociocultural Theory .......................................................................................... 21

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................. 21

vi
 Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ........................................................ 24

Chapter Summary.................................................................................................... 26

Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 29

Title Searches and Documentation ......................................................................... 30

Historical Content ................................................................................................... 32

Vocational Education ......................................................................................... 32

Internships ........................................................................................................... 33

Work-based Learning ......................................................................................... 34

Elements of Work-based Learning .............................................................. 34

Context of Work-based Learning....................................................................... 35

Work-based Learning Advantages .............................................................. 36

Advantages for Students .............................................................................. 37

Employer Advantages .................................................................................. 39

Industry Benefits .......................................................................................... 41

School to Work ................................................................................................... 42

Youth Apprenticeships ....................................................................................... 42

Legislative Efforts .............................................................................................. 44

Integral Legislation ...................................................................................... 45

No Child Left Behind Act ............................................................................ 46

Workforce Innovation Opportunity Act ...................................................... 47

Every Student Succeeds Act ........................................................................ 48

Career and Technical Education .................................................................. 49

Underpinnings of the Carl D. Perkins Act................................................... 52

vii
 Modifications to Perkins .............................................................................. 53

Current Content ....................................................................................................... 57

Perspectives on Work-based Learning ............................................................ 58

Current Legislations ........................................................................................... 58

Improvements to Perkins ............................................................................. 59

State Trends in Work-based Learning ......................................................... 60

Current Educational Trends ............................................................................... 61

Social Emotional Learning .......................................................................... 61

School to Work Movement .......................................................................... 62

School-based Enterprises ............................................................................. 62

Conceptual Framework Literature .......................................................................... 63

Influential Theorists............................................................................................ 64

Social Cognitive Career Theory .................................................................. 66

Sociocultural Theory .................................................................................... 67

Experiential Learning Theory ...................................................................... 68

Conceptual Model ........................................................................................ 69

Methodology Literature .......................................................................................... 73

Research Methodologies .................................................................................... 74

Mixed Methods ............................................................................................ 74

Qualitative Methods ..................................................................................... 76

Research Design Literature ..................................................................................... 78

Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 81

Chapter Summary.................................................................................................... 82

viii
Chapter 3: Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 84

Research Method and Design Appropriateness ..................................................... 85

Phenomenology .................................................................................................. 86

Grounded Theory................................................................................................ 86

Ethnography ........................................................................................................ 87

Narrative Inquiry ................................................................................................ 87

Analytic Frame ................................................................................................... 89

Temporality: Time........................................................................................ 89

Sociality: Interpersonal, Cultural ................................................................. 90

Spatiality: Location and Surroundings ........................................................ 90

Research Questions ................................................................................................. 90

Population and Sample............................................................................................ 91

Informed Consent and Confidentiality ................................................................... 94

Ethics................................................................................................................... 95

Instrumentation ........................................................................................................ 95

Researcher........................................................................................................... 99

Field Test ............................................................................................................... 102

Credibility and Transferability .............................................................................. 103

Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 104

Recruitment....................................................................................................... 105

Inclusion Criteria .............................................................................................. 107

Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................. 107

Member Checking ............................................................................................ 108

ix
 Primary Data ..................................................................................................... 108

Demographics ................................................................................................... 109

Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 109

Chapter Summary.................................................................................................. 110

Chapter 4: Analysis and Results........................................................................................ 112

Research Questions ............................................................................................... 112

Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 113

Demographics ........................................................................................................ 117

Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 117

Temporality....................................................................................................... 120

Sociality ............................................................................................................ 121

Spatiality ........................................................................................................... 121

Results ................................................................................................................... 121

Theme 1: Communication and Real-World Experience ................................. 122

Theme 2: Cultural Awareness, Mentorship, and Career Exploration ............. 124

Theme 3: Self-Discovery ................................................................................. 126

Chapter Summary.................................................................................................. 127

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................... 130

Research Questions ............................................................................................... 131

Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................... 131

Theme 1: Communication and Real-World Experience ................................. 132

Theme 2: Cultural Awareness, Mentorship, and Career Exploration ............. 134

Theme 3: Self-Discovery ................................................................................. 136

x
 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 138

Limitations ............................................................................................................. 141

Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners ................................................. 141

Partnerships....................................................................................................... 142

Communications ............................................................................................... 143

Policymakers..................................................................................................... 144

Educational Leaders ......................................................................................... 145

Work-based Learning Task Force ............................................................. 145

Recommendations for Future Research................................................................ 147

Contribution to the Body of Knowledge.......................................................... 149

Chapter Summary.................................................................................................. 150

References ..................................................................................................................... 154

Appendix A: Recruitment Email ....................................................................................... 192

Appendix B: Informed Consent ........................................................................................ 194

Appendix C: Interview Guide ........................................................................................... 198

Appendix D: Interview Questions ..................................................................................... 200

xi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Summary of Literature Obtained to Support the Study .................................... 31

Table 2: National Career Clusters ................................................................................... 50

Table 3: Research Questions and Interview Alignment ............................................... 100

Table 4: Demographic Data .......................................................................................... 117

Table 5: Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 119

Table 6: Additional Data ............................................................................................... 120

Table 7: Employability Skills ....................................................................................... 140

Table 8: Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners ........................................... 146

xii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Experiential Learning Model........................................................................... 70

Figure 2: Sociocultural Theory Process .......................................................................... 71

Figure 3: Social Cognitive Career Theory ...................................................................... 72

Figure 4: Conceptual Model ........................................................................................... 72

Figure 5: Data Collection Process................................................................................. 114

Figure 6: Data Analysis Process ................................................................................... 118

Figure 7: Worksite Skills .............................................................................................. 144

xiii
 Chapter 1

Introduction

Employers were acutely aware of the level of preparedness exhibited by recent

graduates, as only 11% acknowledged the presence of essential personal and professional

development skills (Ball & Warner, 2019). As mentioned, the assertion suggested the

necessity of high school students planning to postpone college enrollment to gain

employable skills before graduation (Goldberg, 2021; Mann et al., 2020; Ross et al.,

2020; Thessin et al., 2018). Literature, in conjunction with high intervention rates and

low college completion rates, has indicated that traditional high school curricula offer

few opportunities for students to engage in work-based learning experiences which could

have adequately prepared them for post-graduation employment (Ball & Warner, 2019).

According to experts, internships and other work-based learning programs could provide

many high school and college students with significant educational and career

advancement opportunities (Baker, 2020; Bangser, 2008; Dobbs-Oates, 2019; Hudson,

2020).

The absence of practical learning experiences could result in a deficiency of

awareness among high school students regarding the necessary qualifications and skills

demanded by various occupations (Mann et al., 2020; Ross et al., 2020). According to a

report published by the U.S. Department of Education (2013), the provision of work-

based learning opportunities, including both paid and unpaid internships, guest lectures

from members of the business community, career days, youth apprenticeships, school-

based companies, and job shadowing experiences, could potentially introduce learners to

future career routes (Plasman & Thompson, 2023; Ross et at., 2020). Work-based

1
learning opportunities could improve student motivation, retention rates, and

employability (Symonds et al., 2011).

Chapter 1 presented a comprehensive overview and a succinct analysis of the

contextual background of the topic as well as the specific problem addressed in the study.

Chapter 1 addressed the purpose, significance, and nature of the problem. A description

of how the conceptual framework assisted researchers and readers in understanding how

the study contributes to the body of knowledge on the topic, how aspects of the study

align, and how the design and methodology of the study adhere to rigorous research

standards are included in Chapter 1. The study’s findings could assist administrators,

teachers, career counselors, and the business industry in ensuring all students receive

real-world learning for career acquisition through work-based learning opportunities.

Background of the Problem

Transitioning from the K–12 educational system to a prosperous adult career has

been a challenging experience for many adolescents (Plasman & Thompson, 2023; Ross

et al., 2020). High school is the last widely available free educational option, and when

students leave or graduate, the next step is not always obvious (Bailey et al., 2003;

Johnson et al., 2018). Few agreed-upon standards between students and employers

specify how to acquire or meet the skill requirements for industries and occupations

(Cahill, 2016; Ross et al., 2020). The labor market has exhibited a notable frequency of

heightened unemployment rates and a proclivity for workers to transition between

various employment opportunities. Despite encountering challenges in identifying

individuals possessing the requisite skills and expertise, organizations persevered in

2
observing the perpetuation of unskilled workers moving from job to job (Bailey et al.,

2003; Johnson et al., 2018; Ross et al., 2020).

Preparing learners for the 21st century requires real-world learning experiences

focused on career readiness and work-based learning (Alfeld et al., 2013; Jimenez, 2020).

Opportunities for work-based learning could facilitate knowledge acquisition by bridging

the gap between traditional classroom instruction and practical application in real-world

settings (Advance CTE, 2016; Donovan et al., 2022; Hoffman, 2016). Advocates of

work-based learning (GPSEd Partners, 2021; Grob-Zakhary & Hjarrand, 2017; Stasz &

Brewer, 1998) argued that individuals who possess a wide variety of knowledge, skills,

and talents and are well-prepared are more likely to obtain better employment

opportunities and engage in more active civic participation (Jimenez, 2020).

Conversely, apprehensions existed regarding the insufficient acquisition of

requisite competencies within the workforce. The absence of specific skills could hinder

an employer’s hiring of candidates with the requisite talents and inhibit economic

progress (Cahill, 2016; Doyle, 2022; GPSEd Partners, 2021). Another factor considered

is the potential existence of skill discrepancies between the current workforce and future

labor demands, which could be identified as the primary reason for unemployment

(Donovan et al., 2022). Career exploration and preparation are often not incorporated into

academic curricula (Greenfield et al., 2018). The absence of opportunities for vocational

exploration could hinder the efficacy of secondary students' educational experiences

(Greenfield et al., 2018; Hoffman, 2016).

In numerous businesses, employer reports of unfilled job openings owing to

insufficiently qualified applicants have been widespread for decades. Members of

3
Congress were concerned about the economic ramifications of a potential disconnect

between the abilities of the existing workers and those required by companies. According

to the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act

[IIJA], 2021), graduates may fail to see employment options established by the $1 trillion

(about $3,100 per person in the US) if they do not acquire work-based skills and

knowledge during their schooling.

The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) conducted a

comprehensive study in 2019, which presented empirical evidence indicating an absence

of necessary skills within the labor market. In the 2019 State of the Workplace (2019),

51% of respondents expressed the view that educational institutions had made minimal or

no effort to address the disparity in the acquisition of employability skills. According to

the literature, the most insufficient soft skills included problem-solving, critical thinking,

innovation, creativity, and competency to deal with ambiguity and complexity, and

communication (Beardmore, 2019; Ross et al., 2020; Sander, 2017; Wilkie, 2020).

Integrating work-based learning opportunities could mitigate the gaps between

academics and employment, giving students the essential skills and knowledge for the

forthcoming workforce (Barfield, 2022; Beardmore, 2019; JFF, 2018). By combining

preparation and opportunity, programs could provide learners with real-world experience

while still in high school, enhance students' academic, technical, and employability skills,

and enable graduates to meet emergent infrastructural demands (Barfield, 2022; IIJA,

2021; JFF, 2018, 2021a). Educators and employers should determine which systemic

enhancements produced the most seamless transitions from educational institutions and

training programs to future work opportunities (Carnevale et al., 2015; Jimenez, 2020).

4
Career Experience and Exploration

Career education could be expanded beyond the classroom through work-based

learning to hasten career advancement (Kobes et al., 2018; Sander, 2017). According to

the U.S. Department of Labor (1991), all high school students need to learn new

competencies and fundamental skills to live a productive, complete, and meaningful life

(Donovan et al., 2022). Inquiry into the capacity of our educational system to prioritize

work preparation was prompted by federal law, placing more emphasis on enhancing

education through the incorporation of academic rigor and the provision of adequate

readiness for students' post-secondary endeavors (Darling-Hammond et al., 2016).

Engaging in various activities, gaining exposure, actively practicing, and receiving

constructive feedback could assist in the development of employability skills among

students (Jimenez, 2020).

Including a career exploration, career exposure and career experience component

in work-based learning has prompted the application of experiential theory, social

cognitive theory, and social cognitive career theory to gain a deeper understanding of the

characteristics that could facilitate post-secondary employment achievement. According

to the experiential learning theory, social knowledge is established through experiences

(Bergsteiner et al., 2010; Kolb, 1984). Societal factors influence human development, as

posited by social culture theory (Vygotsky, 1978). Social cognitive career theory uses

three guiding principles: interest development, decision-making about education and

careers, and vocational contexts (Conklin et al., 2012). Educators should enhance their

awareness of the significance of work-based learning opportunities for learners in

5
secondary schools. Establishing the school-to-career element could contribute to the

revitalization of the economy (Jimenez, 2020).

Problem Statement

Americans seeking employment sometimes confront a conundrum: relevant work

experience is a requirement for many positions, but challenges exist with obtaining the

necessary experience without being employed (Cahill & Jackson, 2015; Ross et al., 2020;

Symonds et al., 2011). In addition, most high school graduates lack abilities such as oral

and written communication, critical thinking, and professionalism (Symonds et al., 2011).

If the trend continues, too many people may be excluded from the labor market in the

future (Jimenez & Sargrad, 2018). In stark contrast to the contemporary labor market,

employment prospects increasingly demand technical expertise and practical experience,

which might require something other than a college degree (Hoffman, 2016). The

problem is when high school graduates have not developed a work-related skill base, the

result is they have challenges adapting to post-secondary life (Baker, 2020; Boone, 2019;

Ross et al., 2020).

High school course options frequently restrict student growth in critical thinking,

technical, problem-solving, organizational, leadership, and communication skills

necessary to compete in today's changing workforce (Jimenez, 2020; Kay & Boss, 2021).

Increasing the visibility of career navigation in K-12 and post-secondary institutions

could assist more students in understanding how their academic, co-curricular, and part-

time employment experiences relate to their larger career aspirations (JFF, 2018, 2021a,

2021b). Incorporating work-based learning opportunities into existing educational

programs, such as career pathways (CTE), could help students develop realistic, in-

6
demand skills, paving the way for burgeoning middle- and upper-level career

opportunities. Work-based learning programs have the potential to benefit all students,

according to research published by JFF in 2018.

Purpose of the Study

In 2021, the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States reported 9.3 million

vacant positions (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). Many firms nationwide reported

a skills gap for middle-skilled professions, with inadequate applicants possessing the

qualifications, training, or education required to fill those positions (Barfield, 2022;

Donovan et al., 2022; IIJA, 2021). The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to

learn about the experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast

through their stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in high school

(Baker, 2020; Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020).

While high school graduation rates have increased annually across the United

States (Plasman & Thompson, 2023), the measure has not translated into achievement in

higher learning or the job market. Multiple bodies of research suggest how educational

institutions fail to sufficiently equip pupils with the necessary skills and knowledge to

navigate post-secondary challenges (Mathers, 2019; Ross et al., 2020; Symonds et al.,

2011). Clarifying how opportunities for work-based learning could alter the trajectory of

learners is essential.

Each interview explored the stories of the work-based learning process from high

school participants to learn if administration, educators, and current learning strategies

contributed to skill attainment and employment after graduating high school. The

research identified themes highlighting possible development areas by studying the

7
provided narratives. The study results could offer valuable insights for district officials,

educators, and career exploration providers. The insights could enhance the ability of

schools to equip learners with the necessary skills for a successful transition into a career

and college.

Population and Sample

The region’s public school district consists of six elementary, one middle, and one

high school (NCES, 2022). Site permission was not requested from the school district

because the snowball sampling strategy was used to recruit participants (Naderifar et al.,

2017). The sample for the study consisted of high school graduates between 18 and 23

years of age who participated in a work-based learning program during high school

within a dense suburban school district in the Northeast region.

A deliberate attempt was made to recruit a limited number of participants to

accurately represent students' perspectives on their course and work-based learning

experiences. The sample identified participants who contributed significantly to achieving

the research's objectives (Boddy, 2016; Naderifar et al., 2017). The research began with

one initial contact who met the research criteria and was invited to participate. The initial

participant who agreed to participate was asked to recommend others who fulfilled the

criteria for the study (Nikolopoulou, 2022; Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023; Snowball

Sampling, 2020). The final snowball sample for the study consisted of four high school

graduates between 18 and 23 years of age who participated in a work-based learning

program during high school within a public school district in the Northeast.

The snowball sampling technique was chosen to reduce the population to a

manageable sample size and identify participants for the study. Purposive sampling

8
criteria were also beneficial in identifying the sample of participants. Snowball sampling

is the selection of participants based on referrals from previously identified individuals

(Korstjens & Moser, 2017, 2018; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Snowball Sampling, 2020). The

combination of snowball and purposeful sampling techniques helped identify a sample of

high school graduates from a specific Northeastern public high school district who

participated in a work-based learning program while in high school. Snowball sampling

was beneficial for locating participants who had met the criteria and may have otherwise

been difficult to locate (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Palinkas et al., 2015; Sadler et al.,

2010).

Qualitative research methods are often concerned with gaining an in-depth

understanding of a phenomenon or meaning, often oriented on the how and why of a

particular issue, process, scenario, subculture, scene, or collection of social interactions

(Dworkin, 2012). Three criteria were used to select the participants. Participants had to

have completed their secondary education at a public high school district in the coastal

Northeast as the initial eligibility requirement. Individuals must be between the ages of 18

and 23 (Dworkin, 2012; Marshall, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Sim et al., 2018)

constituted the second selection criterion. Lastly, participants must also have participated

in a work-based learning program while attending the specific public high school in the

coastal Northeast.

The fundamental attributes of networking and recommendation play a pivotal role

in the snowball sampling approach, which is widely recognized as one of the

predominant qualitative sampling methodologies (Naderifar et al., 2017; Nikolopoulou,

2022; Simkus, 2023). Snowball sampling entails gradually acquiring a sample group by

9
identifying and recruiting individuals through referrals. Following the inclusion of the

initial subject in the sample, recommendations are made for the succeeding individual

until the predetermined number of individuals to be studied has been reached (Naderifar

et al., 2017; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023; Snowball Sampling,

2020). The smaller sample size (Creswell, 2008, 2013; Patton, 1980, 2002) emphasized

comprehension, analysis, and an in-depth representation of each participant's experiences

(Demarrais & Lapan, 2003; Miles & Huberman, 1994).

The snowball sampling technique was chosen to limit the population to a feasible

sample size and locate suitable volunteers for the study (Snowball Sampling, 2020).

Using purposive sampling criteria proved auspicious in identifying the sample of

participants (Hesse-Biber et al., 2019; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The snowball sampling

technique was advantageous because participants were likely to know others with similar

study-relevant characteristics (Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023; Snowball Sampling,

2020). Snowball sampling proved to be an efficient and cost-effective method for

accessing persons who presented difficulties regarding accessibility and location

(Naderifar et al., 2017; Snowball Sampling, 2020).

The lack of random participant selection in the study limited the generalizability

of the findings to similar populations when employing snowball or chain sampling

(Snowball Sampling, 2020). Researchers could utilize strategies to address problems

caused by snowball sampling. The study utilized a methodological strategy involving

comprehensively representing the sample (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018; Palinkas et al.,

2015). The use of qualitative methodological strategies facilitated the ability of other

researchers and readers to draw conclusions and generalizations about the larger

10
population. Chapter 4 contains a detailed description of the work-based learning sample

and information on how the data was collected (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). The findings

could assist school educators, administrators, and superintendents in constructing work-

based learning programs for all students.

Significance of the Study

Too many young people need more knowledge and skills for future success and

the current economy, as indicated by the skills divide in the United States labor market

(Carnevale et al., 2015, 2020; Loera et al., 2013; Ross et al., 2020; Symonds et al., 2011).

Conversely, the United States offered significantly less structure and assistance to young

people transitioning from school to full-time employment than other industrialized

countries (Ross et al., 2020). Work-based learning could improve engagement,

graduation rates, career growth, and motivation (Davis & Snyder, 2009). By focusing on

the experiences of high school students through their narratives, the study offered a novel

approach to comprehending the advantages of work-based learning.

Extant academic literature has substantially contributed to comprehending work-

based learning programs at the post-secondary level. However, comparable initiatives in

secondary schools, which either lack or share similar characteristics, have received

comparatively less attention (Boone, 2019; Hudson, 2020; Jimenez, 2020; Papadimitriou,

2014). Although students are the focal point of education, studies do not consider their

narrative. Similarly, legislators and other stakeholders frequently make crucial decisions

regarding the financing and future of work-based learning without considering student

experience. Through work-based learning opportunities, the study’s research could

11
generate replicable elements to enhance student development and college and career

readiness (Baker, 2020).

The research could influence the perspectives of educational and workforce

leaders toward career-ready initiatives, including work-based learning programs (JFF,

2021a, 2021b; Knepler & Zapata-Gietl, 2019). The research results provided insights for

educational administrators regarding pedagogical practices that could improve high

school graduates' self-assurance regarding their preparedness to enter the labor market

immediately following graduation. Employers may benefit most from the study, as

schools could enhance curricula and better prepare tomorrow's workforce (Bangser,

2008; Deke & Haimson, 2006; OECD, 2012). The findings of the study could also be

helpful to scholars and inspire future exploration into the long-term effects of work-

based learning on students.

Nature of the Study

Narrative scholars seek to comprehend and present actual experiences (Clandinin

& Connelly, 2004; Creswell, 2007). The narrative approach allows for detailed

descriptions of the experiences and explorations of their meanings. According to Trahar

(2013), narrative inquiry serves to amplify the voices of those who may otherwise be

marginalized or overlooked. Expanding the scope of communication is achieved by using

narrative techniques to effectively transmit the lived experiences of individuals to a

broader range of recipients (Haydon & Van Der Riet, 2016; McGrath et al., 2019).

Qualitative exploratory narrative inquiry appropriately supported the study's

purpose. The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the

experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast through their

12
stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in high school (Baker, 2020;

Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020). The study's findings could aid district leaders,

instructors, and industry partners in preparing students for the workforce after graduating

high school. Leaders and educators could enhance instruction to assist learners in

acquiring the critical skills for success (ASA, 2020, 2021a, 2021b; Holzer & Lerman,

2014; JFF, 2021a, 2021b).

Method Appropriateness

Since this narrative inquiry endeavored to comprehend the viewpoints of high

school graduates participating in a work-based learning program, a qualitative rather than

quantitative research methodology was the best choice. The qualitative research

conducted for the study yielded insights into the governing decision-making process of

human behavior (Yilmaz, 2021). The research offered valuable insights into the firsthand

experiences of secondary school pupils regarding work-based learning. The qualitative

methodology was chosen to capture the participants' collective experiences through

narratives containing abundant data.

Narrative researchers used narrative inquiry to understand unique people and their

decisions, drawing on a flexible definition of narrative. According to Chase (2008),

narratives may manifest in written or spoken form and may be detected or perceived

during informal discussions, interviews, or field research. Standard definitions included a

short story, an in-depth account, or a narrative encompassing a person's life (Chase, 2008;

Ntinda, 2018; Polkinghorne, 1995).

Using qualitative data-collection methodologies allowed the researcher to explore

a high school work-based learning program in depth. Primarily from the participant's

13
vantage point, this qualitative narrative inquiry could answer questions concerning

experience, significance, and views (Creswell, 2013; Given, 2008; Meraz et al., 2019).

The qualitative narrative inquiry for this study employed structured open-ended questions

to comprehend and capture the perspectives of others rather than pre-selecting survey

questions for pre-determining such viewpoints (Butina, 2015; Patton, 1980, 2002; Weller

et al., 2018). Qualitative research includes interviews and a review of relevant literature

(Creswell & Poth, 2016; Yin, 2003). The problem of the study was best addressed from a

qualitative standpoint, as the interviews were utilized to learn from the participants’ real-

world experiences (Hesse-Biber et al., 2019).

Quantitative approaches emphasize objectives and the statistical, scientific, or

numerical analysis of information garnered from polls, questionnaires, and surveys or by

modifying previously collected statistical data with computational tools (Babbie, 2010).

The development of a hypothesis, a description of the expected result, and an explanation

or correlation with the intended outcome are all essential components of quantitative

research. Inadequate use of quantitative methodology occurred primarily because of the

researcher's failure to assess the theory.

Design Appropriateness

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the

experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast through their

stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in high school (Baker, 2020;

Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020) Narrative research includes methodologies dependent

on written or spoken words and visual renderings of people's experiences (Clandinin,

2006, 2013; Haydon & Van Der Reit, 2016; LibApps, 2021). A narrative inquiry

14
methodology revolves around individuals' perspectives and verbal expressions as they

recount personal experiences and events (Birt et al., 2016; Creswell, 1998).

The study examined how high school graduates recalled their experiences with a

work-based learning program and the factors influencing their decisions concerning post-

secondary education and professional paths. Narrative inquiry involves a story’s ‘what’

and ‘how.’ Narrative research could yield profoundly insightful data using observations

and interviews (O’Toole, 2018). Examining first-person narratives of events could

provide a larger view of knowledge and allow the researcher to explore the personal

effects more clearly than other design models (Bantjes & Swartz, 2019; Tracy, 2020).

Potential Designs

Three qualitative designs were under consideration for the study. The first was

phenomenology. The primary aim of phenomenology is to clarify the fundamental

character of a phenomenon through the reduction of specific experiences to a universal

description. Under the phenomenological method, the investigator must gather data from

participants of the occurrence and construct a composite depiction of the essence of the

experience (Moustakas, 1994). While phenomenology seemed suitable for the

investigation, the design lacked a viable conceptual framework to allow future research to

ascertain the methods and motivations behind the study (Butina, 2015).

Grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the investigator

develops a general explanation of a process, activity, or interaction based on the

perspectives of many participants (Creswell, 2013; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss &

Corbin, 1998). Grounded theory and narrative inquiry share similarities in examining

participants' perspectives on a singular and collective matter. Grounded theory

15
necessitates interviews with many participants as the principal method of data collecting

to assure data saturation (Harris, 2014). A study in grounded theory aims to promote

theories rather than establish facts.

In a grounded theory endeavor, the investigator must be meticulous in their

methodology and study design to attain the research's objectives. Harris (2014)

highlighted the theory's origins and design concept to help navigate the connection

between data, coding, and theory construction. Ultimately, a researcher conducting a

grounded theory study aims to develop a new theory based on the occurrence of events

and incidents rather than individual behavior (Tie et al., 2019). Grounded theory diverges

from the norm and is subsequently deemed unacceptable since the generation of original

concepts was not within the scope of the inquiry.

The inclusion of ethnography was an additional consideration. Qualitative

research methodology ethnography is employed to delineate and interpret acquired and

shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, values, language, and customs within a culturally

exchanged society (Caulfield, 2022). Extensive group observations and active

engagement in the participants' daily lives are essential to ethnography. Given the

reflective nature of the study, an extended duration was not deemed necessary to attain

research findings.

Data Collection Instrument

Direct interviews with each participant served as the instrument for data

collection (McGrath et al., 2019; Stake, 2010; Sutton & Austin, 2015). Each participant

had a privately scheduled meeting held and recorded on Microsoft Teams. The interviews

were conducted to explore the attitudes, perspectives, knowledge, and concerns related to

16
the study's objective. Specifically, the interview participants were high school graduates

who had engaged in work-based learning throughout high school (McGrath et al., 2019).

Scheduled and executed virtual one-on-one interviews helped produce a precise, tangible,

and complete description of participant experiences. Demographic information was

informally collected during the individual Microsoft Teams interviews and included one

male and three females between 18 and 23 years of age.

Data Analysis Management

The study safeguarded the privacy of any personally identifying information or

data, and pseudonyms accompany direct quotations. All collected information was stored

on an encrypted, password-protected USB drive. The USB drive was deposited in a

secure location. Digital transcripts were collected, stored on a USB drive, and placed in a

separate but secure location.

After each participant reviewed the transcripts, all recordings were erased,

retaining only the approved digital transcript. Since the study is a narrative inquiry, data

analysis followed a modified version of the van Kaam method described by Moustakas

(1994). The modified van Kaam analysis consists of the following seven steps: (1) listing

and grouping relevant responses made by study participants; (2) reduction and

elimination; (3) grouping similar codes into themes; (4) testing themes against the

transcript for explicit expression or compatibility; (5) constructing an individual textural

description; (6) constructing a description of the phenomenon; and (7) descriptions based

on the transcriptions.

17
 Research Questions

In studies of educational experience, narrative inquiry is becoming increasingly

popular. Narrative inquiry has a long intellectual history within and outside the

educational establishment (Clandinin, 2006, 2013; Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). Humans

have a natural propensity for narration, one of the primary reasons for incorporating

narrative elements into academic research. Humans individually and collectively

experience and navigate their lives through the lens of stories. Without study narratives,

the investigation would have to depend solely on textual mechanisms and interpretive

analysis to derive findings. The outcome of narrative inquiry studies could enhance how

individuals perceive the world (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004).

Narrative inquiry has traditionally been situated within the qualitative research

matrix on account of its focus on documenting the lived experiences of individuals in the

realms of education and life (Barone, 2009; Caldwell, 2013). Narrative inquiry implicitly

aligns with qualitatively oriented education researchers in experiential philosophy,

psychology, critical theory, curriculum studies, and anthropology (Bhandari, 2020;

Chase, 2008; Clandinin, 2006, 2013; Eisner, 1988) review. The narratives of one's life

could also provide the context for making sense of school situations (Clandinin, 2013;

Clandinin & Rosiek, 2007). The present study was guided by three qualitative narrative

inquiry questions:

R1: How do participants characterize the relationship between work-based

learning experiences and chances for post-secondary employment? (Temporality)

R2: How do participants characterize interrelationships with others involved in

the work-based learning experience? (Sociality)

18
 R3: How does involvement in a work-based learning program in high school

translate to life beyond graduation? (Spatiality)

Conceptual Framework

Several existing theoretical frameworks supported the study. The study's

conceptual framework was based on a synthesis of social cognitive career theory

(Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1999; Butler, 1998; Cherry & Morin, 2022; IResearch, 2016),

sociocultural theory (Cherry & Morin, 2022; Vygotsky, 1978) and experiential learning

theory (Bergsteiner et al., 2010; Kolb, 1984; Kolb & Fry, 1975; Mcleod, 2017; Virtanen,

2023). Developing a combination of technical, academic, and employability skills is the

most successful strategy for preparing students for in-demand and well-paying

occupations (Orrell, 2018, 2021).

Experiential Learning Theory

Work-based learning places the students in real-world learning. Participants in

work-based learning could participate in activities parallel to professional practices, such

as educator-guided projects and hands-on experiences. Education is a social process

based on the premise that experience development occurs through interaction (Kolb,

1984; Virtanen, 2023). Experiential learning theory posits that knowledge is socially

constructed based on experiences (Bergsteiner et al., 2010; Kolb, 1984).

Experiential learning theory (Bergsteiner et al., 2010; Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023)

describes learning as transforming experience into knowledge. Experiential learning

theory describes two sociologically connected modes of grasping understanding and two

ways of transforming experience (Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023). The primary component

of experiential learning theory is the quality of the experience. After completing the

19
experience, learners will have acquired knowledge and the ability to apply what they

have learned in various situations. Each piece of new knowledge is created, placing the

learner at a different level of readiness for the continued acquisition and construction of

added knowledge (Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023). The knowledge could be contextualized

through real-world experiences and tailored to learners' capabilities and readiness.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Another theory supporting work-based learning is social cognitive career theory

(Butler, 1998; Cherry & Morin, 2022; IResearch, 2016; Lent et al., 1994, 2000). Bandura

(1977, 1986, 1999) developed the social cognitive career theory as a conceptual

framework for academic and career development. Social cognitive career theory

incorporates elements identified by earlier career theorists such as Super, Holland,

Krumboltz, Lofquist, and Dawis (Lent et al., 1994). Social cognitive career theory aims

to construct a cohesive conceptual structure that elucidates how individuals cultivate

vocational interests, select occupations, attain diverse degrees of career stability and

success, encounter workplace satisfaction or well-being, and navigate work and life

circumstances, including role balancing and decision-making (Brown & Lent, 2005; Lent

et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2022). Education has been recognized by scholars as an

intrinsically social process in which interaction shapes experiences (Cherry, 2020;

Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978).

Based on the framework of social cognitive career theory, the acquisition of

knowledge and skills by individuals is a social process wherein the engagement with

persons possessing more expertise exerts an influence on cognitive processes (Cherry &

Morin, 2022). According to the tenets of social cognitive career theory, educators and

20
parents play a significant role in shaping the psychological development of individuals.

Cherry and Morin (2022) stated that values and beliefs are acquired through engagement

in cultural activities and interactions within social collectives. By implementing work-

based learning, students participate in activities that align with established professional

standards. Work-based learning encompasses a range of activities involving educator-led

initiatives and industry-specific practical experiences.

Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural learning theory of Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the significance of

social interaction and the formation of solid partnerships with industries for cognitive

development. According to sociocultural theory, social determinants significantly impact

human learning, with educators and guardians as pivotal figures in promoting

psychological growth. A scenario involves development and progress, in which students

engage in cooperative exchanges with different people, objects, and occurrences.

Cognitive development, indicated by Vygotsky's theory (1978), is confined to a zone of

proximal development. Although students possess cognitive competence within this zone,

they still require support and social interaction to achieve optimal progress. Learners are

encouraged to finish tasks within their zone of proximal development through

scaffolding, discourse, collaborative learning, and modeling techniques (Cherry & Morin,

2022; McLeod, 2023; Vygotsky, 1978).

Definition of Terms

Several terms used in this study may have multiple definitions and be applied

differently depending on the user. The subsequent phrases enumerated below are

21
commonly employed in this research study and have been explicated to mitigate the

likelihood of errors and enhance comprehensibility.

Employability Skills: personal attributes that facilitate job acquisition and career

support, including technical, higher-order thinking, personal, social, generic, and self-

perceived skills (Fajaryati et al., 2020; Flanigan, 2019).

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): ESSA is the reauthorized version of

Elementary and Secondary Education Act, signed into law in 2015. The primary

objective of Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is to ensure that every child has access

to a comprehensive, impartial, and excellent education, while also addressing and

eliminating disparities in educational success. ESSA gives states and school systems

authority to develop and adopt innovative approaches to accountability for school

performance (ASA, 2021b. 2021d; OESE, 2020, Young et al., 2017).

Experiential Learning Theory: Experiential learning is a process in which

students are actively engaged and learn by doing (Kolb & Fry, 1975)

Internships: A short-term (typically one to three months) experience where

students gain entry-level general work experience (Dobbs-Oates, 2019; Taylor, 2018).

Job shadowing: A structured career exploration activity in which a student is

paired with and observes the workday of a business partner, interacts with their clients or

customers, and attends meetings and other appointments with the person they are

shadowing (Buzzeo & Cifci, 2017; Department of Education, 2021).

Perkins Act: Perkins aims to support the development of high standards to

prepare students for occupations; integrate academic career and technical education;

increase state flexibility to design and implement programming; conduct and disseminate

22
research on best practices; provide technical assistance; support partnerships among

institutions; provide individuals with education and training opportunities across their

lifetimes, and increase employment opportunities for unemployed and underemployed

populations (“Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006: An

Overview,” 2016)

School-based Enterprise: An industry or business simulation (e.g., a restaurant)

or real-life industry or business (e.g., a school store) activity organized by an educational

institution to impart entrepreneurship knowledge, facilitate the application of classroom

knowledge, foster students' personal growth, and promote economic development in the

community. (ASA, 2021b; Clark et al., 2018; Nothdurft, 1990).

Service Learning: A term used to characterize a wide array of experiential

education endeavors, from volunteering and community service projects to field studies

and internship programs (Hoffman et al., 2016).

Social Cognitive Career Theory: Emphasizes the complex connections between

social cognitive variables (e.g., self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals) and personal

and environmental influences (e.g., gender, ethnicity, family, social supports) to

understand better how people develop vocational interests, make vocational choices, and

succeed in their careers (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1999; Brown & Lent, 2005; Lent et al.,

1994, 2000).

Social Cognitive Theory: Theoretical framework that helps to explain and

predict human behavior and decision-making (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1999).

23
 Sociocultural Theory: A social process in which learning, and development are

embedded in social events and emerge as a learner interacts with other individuals,

objects, and events in a collaborative setting (Mcleod, 2022; Vygotsky, 1978).

Work-based Learning: Any educational activity comprised of meaningful

workplace experiences that facilitate academic, technical, and employability skill

development to support entry or advancement along a career pathway (ASA, 2022;

Bailey et al., 2003; Giffin et al., 2018).

Youth Apprenticeships: Programs tailored for high school-aged students and

combine academic and technical classroom instruction with work experience through a

registered apprenticeship program. Work-based learning provides the foundation for

students to choose among multiple pathways after high school, enroll in college, enter an

apprenticeship program, begin full-time employment, or combine (ASA, 2021b, 2021c;

JFF, 2018; U.S. Department of Labor, 2017).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions, limits, and delimitations assist researchers in detecting potential

constraints and limitations. Assumptions are circumstances beyond the researcher’s

control (Simon & Goes, 2011). The first assumption held that high school graduates were

inadequately equipped to navigate life's challenges after secondary education. The second

assumption posited that the inability of employers to complete positions was attributable

to a dearth of employability competencies within the labor force. A third assumption was

that the research would make a scholarly contribution to the knowledge concerning

secondary school students who engage in work-based learning initiatives.

24
 Another set of assumptions was that participants would speak honestly about their

involvement, ideas, and feelings with their work-based learning program experience,

consequently allowing transferability. Another assumption was that each participant

would not withdraw from the study. A further assumption was that each participant

completed the forms without assistance. A final assumption was that the study's findings

might be applied to various settings, times, and populations and benefit an audience

(Korstjens & Moser, 2018; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Limitations are possible defects or research concerns beyond the researcher's

control and can limit the scope of a study (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Disclosing

limitations was to give the reader valuable and informative insights. The study's rigor was

directly related to the participant's level of honesty in revealing the facts they selected to

provide.

The first limitation was the study specifically focused on learning about the

experiences of the graduates of one public high school. The study was limited to one

region in the Northeast. Participants were also required to have completed a work-based

learning program at a particular secondary school, which constituted a separate limitation

(Baker, 2020; Bishop & Mane, 2004; Cahill, 2016; Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020). The

potential lack of representation of work-based learning programs in other coastal

Northeastern institutions or geographic regions further limited the population sample.

Qualitative research typically requires at least a 1-year field stay, if not more

(Creswell, 2007). However, an extended time was not essential because the study was

retrospective. Member checking could be a limitation if the participant has difficulty

speaking, auditory, or literacy challenges (Carlson, 2010). Access to reliable Wi-Fi could

25
be considered a limitation of the study. The study's conclusions could not be extrapolated

to other school districts or institutions in the United States.

The delimitations of the study, which establish the restrictions, focused on high

school graduates. Participants were required to fall within the range of 18 to 23 years of

age, reflecting a distinct delimitation. One region was designated as the study's delimiter.

The research was restricted to participants in work-based learning programs at a

secondary school level. Prerequisites for participation included a high school diploma

from the educational institution in the study, which was another delimiter.

The trustworthiness of the research findings depended on the honesty of the

participants. Since the study design did not require a large sample population (Creswell,

2013), the final delimitation was that the sample population of learners from a single

school district could bind the data collection. Data obtained from all high school

graduates in the district or a wide selection could compromise the quality of narrative

inquiry. Interviews were the primary means of data collection; surveys and questionnaires

were not used. The eleven questions used in the interview were open-ended and focused

on identifying the shared experiences that influenced each participant in their post-

secondary decisions (Moustakas, 1994).

Chapter Summary

The study explored how work-based learning programs could help prepare high

school students for post-secondary life. Although studies have been conducted, few have

documented the stories of students who participated in work-based learning during high

school and the post-secondary benefits of the experience. A gap exists in the literature for

26
which the study could provide valuable information and enhance efforts to provide all

high school students with a more effective work-based learning program.

America's labor market exhibits a skills gap, with a disproportionate number of

young people lacking requisite capabilities for present-day industries (Carnevale et al.,

2020; Loera et al., 2013; Ross et al., 2020; Symonds et al., 2011). Basic classroom

instruction in secondary schools may also not adequately prepare graduates for

immediate employment (Ross et al., 2020). The study generated relevant aspects to

replicate all work-based learning opportunities to enhance student progress and career

readiness (Baker, 2020). Work-based learning programs could help prepare students for

the workforce after graduating high school (Baker, 2020; Bishop & Mane, 2004; Cahill,

2016; Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020). Similarly, work-based learning opportunities

could enable students to investigate careers without financial burden.

A detailed explanation of the study’s rationale was included in the first chapter of

the study. The rationale included the research question, the purpose of the study, the

research questions, the research design, definitions, limitations, and assumptions. The

study's findings could benefit a range of decision-makers, administration, instructors,

students (JFF, 2021b; Knepler & Zapata-Gietl, 2019), industry, and, most importantly,

the future employment of high school students entering the workforce after graduating

(Bangser, 2008; Deke & Haimson, 2006; OECD, 2012).

Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive and historically progressing examination of

the literature directly associated with work-based learning and its benefits. A review of

the literature could provide a foundation for the study. Chapter 2 explored past and

27
present legislation, work-based learning programs, supporting frameworks, underlying

philosophical principles, and research design.

28
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

Chapter 1 introduced the study's context, problem, objective, and relevance. A

work-based learning program provides students with career exploration experiences and

relevant learning opportunities beyond the classroom (Kobes et al., 2018). According to

the research, many adolescents may find it challenging to transition from the K–12

educational system to a flourishing adult career (Ross et al., 2020). A greater emphasis on

career readiness and work-based learning through authentic learning experiences could

prepare students for the 21st century (Jimenez, 2020). In Chapter 1, the research

serving as the impetus for the study was expounded upon, along with the imposed

assumptions, limitations, and delimitations (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008; Simon & Goes,

2011). The literature review for the study included examining existing education

literature concerning the options and benefits of work-based learning (Baker, 2020).

Chapter 2 synthesized relevant current and historical literature and presented a

conceptual perspective and overview of work-based learning. The purpose of this

qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the experiences of graduates of a public

high school district in the Northeast through their stories of work-based learning

opportunities while they were in high school. The literature connected with the following

questions and was examined in Chapter 2:

R1: How did participants characterize the relationship between work-based

learning experiences and chances for post-secondary employment? (Temporality)

R2: How did participants characterize interrelationships with others involved in

the work-based learning experience? (Sociality)

29
 R3: How did involvement in a work-based learning program in high school

translate to life beyond graduation? (Spatiality)

The literature review assessed concepts and determinants that established overarching

patterns and actions pertinent to the research inquiries and the underlying conclusions.

Title Searches and Documentation

The primary sources for the study were position papers from the Southern

Regional Education Board (SREB), the Pathways to Metropolitan Policy Program, and

the National Research Center for Career and Technical Education (Table 1). EBSCOhost,

ProQuest, Sage Publications, and Gale were a few of the databases utilized. Other

materials were discovered using trusted government databases such as the Bureau of

Labor Statistics and the Library of Congress.

Additional sources consisted of dissertations and reports whose individual focus

provided a historical context and justification for the study. The resources were

discovered using the University of Phoenix's ProQuest Dissertations. Furthermore, the

methodology section of the study involved an examination of various publications

authored and edited by renowned experts in the domain of formal research.

Instead of more commercial, less professional search engines such as Google, title

searches for the research were conducted through the University of Phoenix Library

search engine. The following keywords were used in the investigations: work-based

learning, work-based learning, high school internships, post-secondary readiness, career

preparedness for high school graduates, school-to-work, high school internships, high

school apprenticeships, work-based learning for high school students, case study,

narrative inquiry, qualitative and exploratory (Table 1). The searches frequently used

30
combinations of no more than five terms to locate resources demonstrating the

interconnectedness and relevance of the terminology.

Table 1

Summary of Literature Obtained to Support the Study

Area of Research Literature Theories Methodology/

Review Design

Peer Reviewed Journals 21 1 18

Books 1 1

Non-Peer-Reviewed 33 2 10

Doctoral Dissertations 8 3 5

Professional Websites 40

Government Publications 33

Videos 6 3

Total 142 6 34

The following strategy of repeated database searches provided access to academic

peer-reviewed articles to accomplish the outlined objectives. Online databases

EBSCOhost, ERIC, ProQuest, and Educational Resource Information Center were used

to find articles from scholarly journals. While the reliability and relevance of the

information found were primary considerations, the selected academic papers covered the

availability of work-based learning programs in high schools and student engagement

31
through real-world learning in the classroom. Articles with no relevant data on work-

based learning for high school students were omitted.

Historical Content

During the 1990s, the United States economy enjoyed unprecedented growth and

low unemployment (Bailey et al., 2003). Education reformers argued that integrating

experiences outside of school with classroom learning effectively engaged students in

their studies and prepared them for life after high school (NCEE, 1990). Professionals

with no experience or who have yet to engage in work-based learning, according to

Bailey and Merritt (1997), were not considered skilled workers regardless of the

perceived quality of their education. The A Nation at Risk Report of 1983 highlighted the

needs of employers and the gap between graduates (Denning, 1983). The report

emphasized the concern that nationwide educational programs failed to integrate practical

skills and academic knowledge, resulting in an incompetent labor force (Denning, 1983).

Consequently, cultivating communication, adaptability, teamwork, and conflict-

resolution skills beyond the classroom became essential (Advance CTE, 2016; Saeger,

2017).

Vocational Education

Amidst the tumultuous era of industrialization, public institutions witnessed an

unprecedented influx of rural children and immigrants enrolled as students, resulting in a

personnel deficit for factory proprietors (Hillison, 1995). The high schools did not fit

farm-raised or immigrant children (Hanford, 2014; Hillison, 1995). Industrialization led

to a shift in the country, introducing new industries and technologies and increasing the

need for competent individuals to contribute effectively. Throughout most of the 20th

32
century, the prevailing belief was that people could be trained in a single profession and

depend on a single industry for lifelong employment (Hanford, 2014). The Smith-Hughes

Act of 1917 (Hillison, 1995) explicitly defined vocational education as preparation for

careers that do not require a bachelor's degree. Vocational institutions would capitalize on

their positive aspects, which included a history of hands-on learning and maintaining

essential competencies and concepts linked with technical ability, either in practical

teaching or proximity to allow literacy classes to act as a vocational anchor (Lewis et al.,

1995; Suarta et al., 2017; Super, 1957).

Internships

Following World War I, when medical school was an inadequate preparation for

practice, the intern became the phrase for a physician-in-training (Haire & Oloffson,

2009). In the 1960s, governments and businesses gradually adopted the word, thus

introducing internship and co-op programs on college campuses. Later, the term migrated

to politics as an alternative to apprentice, referring to persons interested in learning about

government employment (Haire & Oloffson, 2009). High school internships could help

improve instruction, differentiate the curriculum, and provide academic rigor. Internships

could be of great value for gifted and talented students (Templin et al., 1999) and

frequently result from authentic opportunities in real-world applications requiring

complex synthesis and problem-solving (Levine, 2010).

Internships are situations where students work for an employer for a set period to

learn about a specific industry or occupation (Stone & Aliaga, 2013). Paid or unpaid

activities could include sample tasks from various businesses, a focus on special projects,

or a single occupation. Students could gain valuable work-based learning experiences

33
within the walls of a school by running the school store, producing videos for the school,

designing websites, completing graphic design projects for paying customers, and

catering school events.

Student internship programs could foster career interest and assist students in

transitioning from school to the workforce (Kash, 2009; Papadimitriou, 2014).

Internships have the potential to offer genuine, practical experiences that may help

cultivate the growth and implementation of skill sets in authentic environments (Kash,

2009; Papadimitriou, 2014; Templin et al., 1999). Furthermore, participating students

could explore career options and form connections between practice and the classroom

(Kash, 2009; Papadimitriou, 2014; Roth et al., 2009).

Work-based Learning

As the twenty-first century's decade ends, alarming signals indicate the United

States’ failure to achieve a commitment to preparing millions of young individuals for the

future (NCEE, 1990; Symonds et al., 2011). Many young adults do not possess the

capacity and work ethic required for middle-class professions (Symonds et al., 2011).

Because the job market is constantly changing, teachers should consider teaching all

students how to be successful in the future (Bangser, 2008; Suarta et al., 2017). Work-

based learning offers numerous advantages to students as it actively involves authentic

tasks and resources, imparts essential employability skills, and demonstrates the practical

relevance of classroom education in real-life contexts (Alfeld et al., 2013).

Elements of Work-based Learning

Darche et al. (2009) distinguished career exploration activities (guest speakers,

tours, work shadowing) from more substantive ones by focusing on the aim of work-

34
based learning when identifying work-based learning programs (i.e., internship,

apprenticeship, and school-based enterprise). Accordingly, Fuller Hamilton (2015)

posited the essentiality of a work-based learning continuum to provide quality

preparation for college and careers for students. The continuum could include exposing

students to career information in the early elementary grades, continuing career

exploration throughout the middle school years, expanding into career preparation in the

early high school years, and providing specific career training in the late high school

years and beyond (Buzzeo & Cifci, 2017).

Context of Work-based Learning

Work-based learning is a contextual teaching and learning strategy in which the

workplace is a practical setting for structured work-based learning activities (Cahill,

2016; Chadd & Anderson, 2005). Work-based learning was defined by the School-to-

Work Opportunities Act (School to Work Opportunities Act [STWOA], 1994) as work

experience in conjunction with:

x a planned program of job training designed to help students gain pre-employment

and employment skills;

x obtaining certificates of competence through the completion of curricular courses

pertinent to their selected professional fields;

x mentoring within an organization; and

x workplace education incorporating guidance on all aspects of the industry, work

attitudes, employability, and soft skills (STWOA, 1994).

Students often participate in work-based learning opportunities to gain real-life or

simulated job experience (Bangser, 2008; Cahill, 2016). Work-based learning

35
opportunities are frequently credit-bearing activities that allow students to engage in

rigorous career and industry-related learning in and outside the typical classroom day

(Symonds et al., 2011). Work-based learning opportunities provide project- and problem-

centered teaching and learning instead of the more abstract and theoretical pedagogy and

learning that typically occurs in classrooms (Cahill & Jackson, 2015; Johnson et al.,

2018). Literature has divided the stated goals of work-based learning into three

categories:

x cognitive development, in which learning occurs through engagement with ideas

and objects;

x social/emotional development, in which learning occurs through building

relationships and exploring the surrounding environment; and

x career development, in which learning occurs through engagement with work

processes and places (Darche et al., 2009; Reinsberg, 2020)

Before committing thousands of dollars or countless hours to college and training,

students could explore various occupations through work-based learning, helping to build

a better post-secondary plan based on interests and long-term professional aspirations

(Advance CTE, 2016; Suarta et al., 2017).

Work-based Learning Advantages

For many students, college is not a choice based on interests and aptitudes but a

costly platform for investigating possibilities and professional paths (Gordon, 2015).

Work-based learning could help fill the gap between education and training in the

workplace (Suarta et al., 2017). Schools offering work-based learning opportunities could

positively affect career development and motivation and improve retention and

36
graduation rates (Advance CTE, 2016; Davis & Snyder, 2009). Work-based learning,

which occurs in a structured and coordinated manner, could allow students to gain

heightened practical experience while advancing in their academic pursuits (Cahill &

Jackson, 2015; Field). As the nature of work and employment evolves, work-based

learning could equip students to engage in active learning on the job and in the classroom

and build new abilities throughout their careers (Alfeld et al., 2013; Field et al., 2010).

In contrast to conventional educational settings, work-based learning

opportunities could allow students to cultivate innovative thought processes and

behaviors (Alfeld et al., 2013; Cahill, 2016). Such an opportunity could support learners

in acquiring 21st-century abilities such as collaboration, critical reasoning, strategic

thinking, and innovation and establishing access to skilled professionals (Advance CTE,

2016; Alfeld et al., 2013). Despite being underappreciated as an instructional approach,

work-based learning could potentially facilitate the development of significant

professional connections for students in the contemporary workforce, fostering

sustainable post-secondary strategies and successful careers (Advance CTE, 2016; Alfeld

et al., 2013; Cahill, 2016).

Advantages for Students

Work-based learning participants could be able to apply classroom learning to

real-world problems. According to Ripley's article "Real-World Skills in the Classroom"

(2014), four out of every five students desired more profound tangible learning

experiences. Similarly, Bridgeland et al. (2006) found that disengaging from school was a

significant factor cited by fifty percent of high school dropouts surveyed by the Bill &

Melinda Gates Foundation. With opportunities for work-based learning, students could

37
likely comprehend and retain the material, demonstrate new skills, and graduate from

high school (Cahill & Jackson, 2015).

Students could benefit from an education specifically applicable to the real world

and future aspirations (Bailey et al., 2003; Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006;

Harackiewicz et al., 2016). Given the high stakes in career exploration, discovery, and

exploration work should not start in college but much earlier. Expanding work-based

learning for all high school students could increase student engagement and

employability skills (Cahill & Jackson, 2015; Collis & Margaryan, 2005; U.S.

Department of Education, 2013).

A significant determinant behind the recent proliferation of work-based learning

initiatives was the skills gap, a universally recognized worldwide occurrence wherein the

competencies imparted in educational institutions fail to correspond consistently with the

competencies sought by employers (Cahill & Jackson, 2015). Individuals who engage in

work-based learning could improve their understanding and appreciation of emerging

economic duties and formulate strategies to acquire credentials that differentiate them

from competitors vying for the same prospects (Cahill, 2016). According to Bangser

(2008), individuals actively involved in work-based learning may also acquire the

knowledge and skills required to find and maintain suitable employment successfully.

Work-based learning, such as internships and apprenticeships, mentoring, job

shadowing, and field visits, occurred through industry relationships (Buzzeo & Cifci,

2017). The internship component could provide learning elements beyond the classroom

(Starr & Minchella, 2016). A work-based learning opportunity could also allow students

to obtain a real-world, competency-based, hands-on learning experience crucial in

38
preparing for the realities of the workplace (Davis & Snyder, 2009). Work-based learning

could allow students to gain financial compensation or academic credit while acquiring

knowledge about personal attributes and prospective career paths (Symonds et al., 2011).

Individuals could use work-based learning to make more informed long-term career

choices (Fuller Hamilton, 2015).

Work-based learning could allow students to indulge fully in a field and interact

with an organization’s experts. Individuals, employers, and educational institutions were

deemed the three most essential stakeholders in work-based learning by Little and

Brennan (1996). Work-based learning in academic institutions could be an opportunity to

fulfill social responsibilities to the learning community (Field et al., 2010). During the

work-based learning experience, students could interact with various facets of the

business, such as consumers, and master technical skills while gaining a greater

understanding of professionalism (Chadd & Anderson, 2005; Stone & Aliaga, 2013).

Employer Advantages

The study's results underscored the criticality of closing the talent divide to

sustain a competitive advantage in the global economy. The employment gap has raised

concerns within the business community of the United States regarding the workforce's

education. An element of the issue was that the applicants were deficient in essential

interpersonal abilities (Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006).

A Task Force on Student Learning and Success (2017) determined college

graduates needed more preparation to meet the 21st-century employment demands,

making it difficult for employers to find qualified candidates for open positions (Cahill,

2016; Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006). Employers could provide work-based learning

39
programs to collaborate with schools to find a broader pool of employees, train potential

employees, and hire skilled personnel (Cahill, 2016; National Center on Education and

the Economy [NCEE], 1990). When taken as a whole, the employer could seek effective

and economical staff development possibilities, employee engagement, and access to a

broader knowledge base than what is available within the business, all of which could be

a means of enhancing competitiveness (Cahill & Jackson, 2015). Employers providing

opportunities to students could mold future employees to meet the needs of their industry,

and businesses could partner with schools to ensure the skills and qualifications of

trainees align with specific workforce needs (Cahill, 2016; NCEE, 1990). Programs such

as internship youth apprenticeships and job shadowing, in which students and trainees

receive temporary job assignments with participating employers, could allow businesses

to train and observe potential employees before hiring them (Spiker, 2016).

Work-based learning initiatives could expand the pool of skilled workers (Spiker,

2016). Deke and Haimson (2006) found that employers experienced two positive

outcomes: reduced training costs and an increased pool of highly qualified applicants.

Learners reported that one-on-one interactions with employers on-site were more

beneficial than group worksite tours or school-based activities (Bangser, 2008; Deke &

Haimson, 2006). Students in work-based learning could improve critical soft skills, which

is another significant advantage for employers (Xanthis, 2015). According to Cahill

(2016), employers would devote time to familiarizing new employees with the

organization's complexities rather than providing professional guidance.

Work-based learning has the potential to reduce recruitment expenses for

businesses. Students who completed internships, clinical work, or apprenticeships may

40
have established connections and a positive reputation with regional employers and

organizations before receiving an employment offer (Xanthis, 2015). By gaining access

to a pool of candidates with prior experience with the organization's internal operations,

participating organizations may gain a competitive advantage during recruitment (Cahill,

2016). States could enhance the readiness of secondary school students for achievement

by implementing a work-based learning program of superior quality and attending to the

employment demands of their communities (Cahill, 2016; Spiker, 2016).

Industry Benefits

According to a report by OECD (2012), the following skills are the most

important for young people to master for future opportunities: dependability and

reliability, adaptability, trainability, critical thinking, decision-making, customer focus,

and teamwork (Getting skills right: Assessing and anticipating changing skill needs,

2016). Partnerships between schools and businesses could assist students in learning how

to communicate, interact with others, and solve problems in preparation for post-

secondary. Work-based learning could be an excellent systemic resource for all learners

(Xanthis, 2015).

Local leaders were uniquely positioned to employ policymaking and executive

authority to foster or establish work-based learning partnerships with local businesses

(Grob-Zakhary & Hjarrand, 2017; Mourshed, 2015). Companies with a diverse

workforce were more resilient than competitors because the teams consisted of

individuals with a broad perspective and innovative thinking to help keep up with

emerging changes in the business environment (Grob-Zakhary & Hjarrand, 2017;

Mourshed, 2015). Work-based learning programs could also help build a more diverse

41
talent pipeline by giving people the structure, support, and training necessary for success

(Cahill, 2016; Grob-Zakhary & Hjarrand, 2017; Mourshed, 2015). Businesses supporting

work-based learning programs could contribute to developing a skilled regional

workforce and improving and stimulating economic development in the surrounding

community (Mourshed, 2015).

Increasing teachers' awareness of local employers and the occupations available

to students is another component of work-based learning (Cahill & Jackson, 2015;

Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006). Work-based learning opportunities can connect

classroom learning to real-world applications, practices, and future careers (Hoffman,

2016). Sponsors of work-based learning could assist students in building work skills,

establishing professional networks, and determining career interests (Luecking &

Gramlich, 2003; Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013). Work-based learning

opportunities could help students prepare to transition from school to adulthood and

make informed decisions about integrated competitive work relative to individual

interests and aspirations (Cahill, 2016; Jacobson, 2015).

School-to-Work

From a historical point of view, work-based learning is one of the oldest ways to

learn, with examples going back to the beginning of human civilization in agriculture,

medicine, and craftsmanship (Cahill & Jackson, 2015). As one of the most prominent and

socially integrated kinds of work-based learning, apprenticeships operated as a public aid

system for early settlers, typically involving orphans and underprivileged youngsters

needing housing and role models (Cahill & Jackson, 2015). The inception of the school-

to-work movement coincided with heightened concerns regarding the United States

42
economy's trajectory in the 1980s (Kash, 2009). A considerable cause for concern was

the substantial wage disparity between individuals with and without a college degree and

skilled and menial labor (Historical Timeline for Work-Based Education, 2014).

Compared to other industrialized countries, low productivity growth in the United States

raised earnest questions about the country's long-term ability to compete internationally.

Youth Apprenticeships

Early proponents of vocational education argued that by closely linking education

to the workplace, vocational education would keep youth in school, increase wages and

employment opportunities for working-class youth, and make the United States economy

more competitive in international markets (Kantor, 1993). Youth apprenticeships are

multiyear combinations of school- and work-based learning in a specific occupational

cluster intended to lead directly into a related post-secondary program or a registered

apprenticeship (Stone & Aliaga, 2013). The Clinton administration, policymakers,

foundation heads, blue-ribbon panels, and state legislatures have backed a strategy for the

more than 50% of high school students who did not go to college and whose life

opportunities had been harmed by economic developments (Kantor, 1993). Moreover, in

The Forgotten Half: Non-College Youth in America (Rosenbaum et al., 2015), the W. T.

Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship (Halperin, 1998;

Kantor, 1993) highlighted the economic difficulties facing non-college youth and

endorsed cooperative education, pre-employment internships, and apprenticeship to help

young people bridge the gap between school and work.

Through various program designs and approaches, registered apprenticeship and

pre-apprenticeship programs for high school youth could meet the needs of school

43
districts, employers, sponsors, and specific opportunities in the local labor market

(Lerman, 2010). Career and technical education is uniquely positioned to educate

students for employment because it could provide a direct link between school and work.

Work-based learning and other CTE courses could enable secondary school students to

receive education and on-the-job training (Gordon, 2008). Work-based learning courses

could allow students to acquire skills that could be useful in the future.

Legislative Efforts

States and policymakers are not unfamiliar with the concept of work-based

learning. States have policies and procedures encouraging individuals and families to

acquire employment expertise in various industrial sectors. Education policymakers at the

K-12 and postsecondary levels responded to economic realities by establishing more

ambitious goals for postsecondary credential attainment and emphasizing college and

career readiness in their high school strategies (Mourshed, 2015; Spiker, 2016). No Child

Left Behind Act (No Child Left Behind Act [NCLB], 2002) established guidelines to

guarantee program access and equity for all subpopulations, including pupils with special

needs and limited English proficiency. Through the Strengthening Career and Technical

Education for the 21st Century Act ([Perkins V], 2018) and the Workforce Innovation

and Opportunity Act (WIOA, 1998), state policies were frequently paired with federal

support. Every Student Succeeds Act (Every Student Succeeds Act [ESSA], 2015)

intended to incorporate student career and workforce readiness into more formalized state

and municipal processes (ESSA, 2015).

44
Integral Legislation

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, American education and training could be

defined as uninteresting and detached from reality. During this period, historical book

learning and memorizing were the principal educational objectives (Stevenson, 1995).

Frequently, the acquired information proved impractical in a rapidly developing

industrial culture with agricultural underpinnings.

Late in the nineteenth century, several organizations in the United States

advocated for establishing new vocational education programs in schools. This shift

reflected the widespread belief in the value of work on multiple fronts, including moral,

educational, and practical acts (Hillison, 1995). At the time, the United States Chamber

of Commerce (Hillison, 1995) was interested in having a well-prepared program to

improve industrial operations' overall effectiveness.

Moving into the early 20th century, proponents of vocational training actively

campaigned for more organized programs and emphasized the economic and practical

merits with more emphasis. Advocating in this manner led to the Smith-Hughes Act of

1917, which provided limited federal funding (Smith-Hughes Act [Smith-Hughes], 1917)

for vocational education in general but specifically for vocational agriculture. Smith-

Hughes (1917) required states to develop a vocational education plan. The goal of Smith-

Hughes (1917) was to prepare high school students to contribute to the current industry

by organizing them for more practical learning applications in everyday life (Hillison,

1995; Smith-Hughes, 1917).

Smith-Hughes (1917) followed the growing acceptance of job-related

instructional programs in public schools and became the foundation of vocational

45
education policy, but had inadvertent outcomes, notably increased disparities in

curriculum and student separation (e.g., class and race) in schools that had previously

embraced a standard education for all. A commission to conduct a more comprehensive

vocational educational study was appointed by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. The

enactment of the Vocational Education Act of 1963 (Vocational Education Act [VEA],

1963) exceeded the provisions set forth by Smith-Hughes (1917) provisions and was the

outcome of its recommendations (Hillison, 1995).

The Vocational Education Act (1963) was the second central federal act

addressing the need for vocational training in the 1960s. The act emphasized vocational

training and retraining for high school students, adults who must complete high school,

and people with disabilities (VEA, 1963). The VEA significantly increased financing and

enlarged the importance of vocational education (VEA, 1963). Where the Smith-Hughes

Act had limitations (Hillison, 1995; Smith-Hughes, 1917), VEA funds could be used for

instruction, facilities, staff development, evaluation, curriculum development, and

administration. The VEA (1963) was purposed to provide high-quality vocational

education opportunities for people in any community in occupations that did not require a

4-year degree.

No Child Left Behind Act

Since the passage of Smith-Hughes (1917), policymakers have structured and

restructured federal funding for vocational and technical education to meet employment

and economic demands. Perkins III (1998) sought to broaden the scope of vocational

education by emphasizing academic, vocational, and technical skills at the secondary and

post-secondary levels, industry, and careers over entry-level jobs.

46
 In 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) was passed and was a

tremendous step forward for the children of our country in many ways. NCLB (2002)

primarily showed where students were progressing and where more help was necessary,

regardless of race, income, zip code, disability, home language, or background. The

original goal was to give more people in the United States, especially those who have

trouble finding work, access to jobs, education, training, and support services necessary

to succeed in the workforce (NCLB, 2002).

NCLB (2002) aligned workforce investment, education, and economic

development systems to facilitate a comprehensive, accessible, and high-quality

workforce development system in the United States. NCLB (2002) was supposed to be

changed in 2007 because the strict requirements on standardized testing became more

difficult for parents, schools, and teachers to follow (U.S. Department of Education,

1991). As a result of the complexities, NCLB (2002) was eventually replaced by the

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015).

Workforce Innovation Opportunity Act

On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed the Workforce Innovation and

Opportunity Act [WIOA] into law. The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act

(WIOA) of 2014 was implemented to amend the Public Law known as the Workforce

Investment Act of 1998. The WIOA (2014) program encompasses various program

components as outlined by the Employment and Training Administration and the U.S.

Department of Labor (ETA et al., 2017). These components include tutoring, alternative

secondary school services, paid and unpaid work experiences such as summer and year-

47
round employment opportunities, pre-apprenticeship programs, internships, job

shadowing, and on-the-job training.

Programs under WIOA (2014), legislation were purposed to offer occupational

skill training, concurrent education with workforce preparation and training, leadership

development opportunities, supportive services, mentoring, follow-up services,

comprehensive guidance and counseling, and financial literacy. The Workforce

Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014, as documented by the Employment and

Training Administration (ETA et al., 2017), was designed to facilitate job seekers' access

to employment opportunities, educational resources, training programs, and various

support services. The legislative provisions were to enhance their prospects for success

within the labor market. The basis of the 2014 WIOA legislation was to facilitate

employers' acquisition of skilled labor, enabling them to participate in the global

economy effectively.

Every Student Succeeds Act

The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015) replaced the No Child Left

Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) on December 10, 2015, when President Obama signed it into

law. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) granted states greater flexibility compared

to the NCLB legislation of 2002 in terms of the extent to which schools are held

responsible for the academic performance of their pupils (ETA et al., 2017). ESSA

(2015) mandates that states must set rigorous reading, mathematics, and science

standards while ensuring that the federal government does not impede this process.

Schools use ESSA funds to prepare students for college and career success,

provide information to educators, families, students, and communities through annual

48
statewide assessments that measure student progress, and support the expansion of high-

quality charter schools (ESSA, 2015). According to the U.S. Department of Labor

(2017), academic, career, and technical education could combine classroom instruction

with work-based learning, allowing students to earn a high school diploma while

developing workplace competencies, skills, and knowledge specific to their industry. The

programs provide opportunities and help students prepare for a career that includes post-

secondary education and employment.

Career and Technical Education

Since career and technical education courses, such as work-based learning, could

link schools, businesses, and industry, examining work-based learning courses was

crucial considering the economic crisis in the United States (Womble et al., 1995a,

1995b). Policymakers, administrators, and educators must understand how students

interpret the knowledge and skills they acquire in work-based learning programs. To

achieve effectiveness, courses and programs must place considerable emphasis on

addressing the needs of student learners and endeavor to foster motivation, interest, and

awareness (Womble et al., 1995a, 1995b).

Career and technical education courses aimed to develop skills and workplace

competencies for each occupational area or program concentration. Career and technical

education acknowledge eight domains: agricultural, business, marketing, family and

consumer sciences, health occupations, technical, technology, and trade and industrial.

The U.S. Department of Education (2013) has identified sixteen broad career clusters,

which outline the knowledge, skills, and aptitudes essential for students' success in work

49
and post-secondary institutions (Table 2). The career clusters are grouped based on the

knowledge and skills acquired by students (Career Clusters & Advance CTE, 2023.).

Table 2

National Career Clusters

Career Cluster Definition

Agricultural commodities production,

Agriculture, Food & processing, marketing, distribution,
Natural Resources financing, and development.

Architecture & Careers in designing, planning,

Construction managing, building, and maintaining the
built environment.

Arts, A/V Technology Multimedia content development,

& Communications including visual arts, journalism, and
entertainment services.

Business, management, Careers in business planning,

& Administration organization, direction, and evaluation.

Education & training Careers in providing education, training,

and learning support services.

Finance Careers with a focus on financial

planning, investment services, banking,
insurance, and business management.

Government and Public Government planning and functions at

Administration local, state, and federal levels.

50
Career Cluster Definition

Health Science Careers that provide therapeutic,

diagnostic, health informatics, support,
and biotechnology research.

Hospitality and Tourism Careers in restaurant management,

lodging, attractions, and travel services.

Human Services Preparing individuals for careers in

family-related services, including
counseling, mental health, and consumer
services.

Information Technology Prepare for entry-level, technical, and

professional hardware, software, and
multimedia careers.

Law, Public Safety, Preparation for law, public safety,

Corrections & Security protective services, and homeland
security careers.

Manufacturing Material processing involves planning,

control, maintenance, and engineering.

Marketing Careers centered on planning, managing,

and executing marketing activities to
achieve organizational goals.

Science, Technology, Emphasis on physical science, social

Engineering & science, and engineering, in addition to
Mathematics laboratory and testing services, research
and development.

Transportation, Careers specializing in planning,

Distribution & Logistics managing, and coordinating
transportation, logistics, and facility

51
 Career Cluster Definition

maintenance for people, materials, and

products.

Note. Adapted from Career Clusters Advance CTE. (2023). https://careertech.org/what-

we-do/career-clusters/.

Underpinnings of the Carl D. Perkins Act

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984, also referred to as Perkins

I, aimed to enhance accessibility for various demographic groups, such as women,

minorities, and individuals with special needs (Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act

[Perkins I], 1984). Carl D. Perkins, a Kentucky representative, strongly advocated

enacting the Perkins I (1984) legislation. Perkins I (1984) is regarded as the most

significant vocational education legislation ever implemented. According to Perkins I

(1984), vocational education programs encompassed various offerings, such as

occupationally oriented courses, cooperative education, apprenticeship programs, and

comprehensive guidance and counseling services.

Regrettably, Perkins I (1984) implemented stringent governance measures that

mandated allocating funds toward vocational education and programs to enhance

educational outcomes. The primary objective was to enhance the allocation of financial

resources for vocational and technical education inside secondary and post-secondary

educational institutions to enhance students' readiness for employment. Perkins I (1984)

called for promoting jobs with high skill levels, wages, and demand to facilitate students'

employment prospects after practical training.

52
Modifications to Perkins

The Perkins I legislation of 1984 was followed by the Carl D. Perkins Vocational

and Applied Technology Education Act Amendments of 1990 (Carl D. Perkins

Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act Amendments [Perkins II], 1990),

which welcomed accountability, secondary and post-secondary congruence, academic

inclusion, and professional relationships. Perkins II (1990) was the most significant

federal financing ever allowed for vocational education. The reauthorized Perkins Act

(Perkins II, 1990) allowed Congress to spend up to $1.6 billion (e.g., about $5 per person

in the United States) per year on state and local programs that teach the competencies

required to work in a technologically advanced society.

The 1984 Perkins I legislation was amended by the 1990 Perkins II legislation.

One of the modifications implemented was the establishment of the Tech-Prep program.

The U.S. Department of Education (Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act

of 2006: An Overview, 2016) described Tech Prep as a program that combined a

minimum of two years of secondary education and two years of post-secondary

education. As Tech Prep participants, students could receive college credit for their

secondary coursework. The program was designed to lead to an associate degree or

certificate in a specific career and high-wage, high-skill employment or advanced post-

secondary education (Beaumont, 1995).

The modifications to Perkins II (1990) were intended to enhance the cooperation

between secondary and post-secondary vocational education. As a result, states were

compelled to formulate and execute performance standards to assess programs'

53
effectiveness and gauge student learning outcomes. One of the distinctive elements of

Perkins II legislation was its emphasis on local accountability for program development.

Following the enactment of Perkins II in 1990, the School-to-Work Opportunities

Act of 1994 was subsequently authorized to support state and local efforts on educational

reform. The enactment of the legislation was a direct consequence of research findings

that highlighted a deficiency in integrating classroom education with work-based

opportunities. The objective was to incentivize states to formulate and execute

comprehensive statewide approaches to support preparing all young individuals for high-

paying vocations that need advanced skills, focusing on utilizing the workplace as a

conducive learning environment (School to Work Opportunities Act [STOWA], 1994).

The newly implemented initiatives were intended to provide students with career

awareness and exploration opportunities, work-based learning experiences, and school-

based activities to establish connections between classroom learning and the professional

world while maintaining a solid academic foundation.

Following the new strategies of STWOA (1994), work-based learning was

identified as follows: work experience combined with a planned program of job training

that assisted students in progressively obtaining pre-employment and employment skills

that synchronized with school-based learning and were relevant to student career

disciplines leading to skill certificates, on-the-job mentorship; general workplace

instruction, including establishing work behavior, employability, and other soft skills;

and training in all facets of an enterprise. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994)

aimed to increase educational and career opportunities for all students by encouraging

partnerships between industries and educational institutions at the state and local levels.

54
 Work-based learning initiatives frequently offered students supervised work

experiences with local firms, allowing them to earn course credit (Davis & Snyder,

2009). Experiential learning integrates classroom instruction and practical experience to

equip students with the skills and knowledge necessary for their future professional

endeavors. At this time, work-based learning was crucial for secondary students because

the connection between school and work provided a framework to develop specific

workplace competencies while attending school (Symonds & Gonzales, 2009).

After four years of working on the reauthorization of Perkins, Congress finally

passed a new bill, which President Clinton signed into law in 1998. The new Carl D.

Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998, denoted as Perkins III (Carl D.

Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act Amendments [Perkins III],

1998), increased accountability by requiring states to adopt new data collection and

reporting standards. Local programs received 85% of basic state grants under the new

formula. Tech prep was improved (Perkins III, 1998) by emphasizing the use of

technology in the classroom and establishing a pilot program to develop tech prep

learning sites at community colleges (Manley, 2011; Perkins III, 1998).

In addition, 10% of the financial allotment was to be made available for grant

awards to rural areas, state institutions, areas with high percentages of vocational and

technical education students, locations with high numbers of vocational and technical

education students, and communities negatively impacted by changes in the state

formula. The revised formula of Perkins III (1998) was positioned in part on the overall

population of individuals aged 15 to 19 and the percentage of the population living in

poverty.

55
 The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006,

often known as Perkins IV, was established to guarantee that students in educational

programs acquire the necessary intellectual and technical proficiencies to compete

effectively within a worldwide economy (Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical

Education Improvement Act [Perkins IV], 2006). Perkins IV was the principal means of

government financial support for educational, career, and technical programs. Perkins IV

legislation aimed to enhance accountability, academic performance, and connections to

higher education. Perkins IV (2006) asserts that academic, career, and technical education

programs should provide students with the means to acquire educational and technical

knowledge, enabling them to navigate the transition to the workforce and post-secondary

institutions effectively. According to Perkins IV (2006), state and municipal governments

must establish rigorous academic and technical standards that establish a connection

between high schools and post-secondary institutions.

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014 (Workforce Innovation

and Opportunity Act [WIOA], 2014) allocated formula money to states and outlying

areas. The allocated monies facilitated resource provision to regional workforce areas,

enabling comprehensive services to assist young individuals facing obstacles in getting

employment. WIOA (2014) legislation services focused on preparing them for post-

secondary education and employment prospects, helping them attain educational and

skills training certificates, and ultimately aiding them in securing employment.

56
 Current Content

According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 2021), estimates indicate approximately 9.3 million unfilled job openings in the

United States. Employers nationwide reported a skills gap for middle-skilled occupations,

with insufficient applicants possessing the qualifications, training, or education required

to fill those roles (Jimenez, 2020). When preparing students for high-demand and well-

paying vocations, the most effective technique is developing a combination of technical,

academic, and employability skills (Orrell, 2018, 2021). The literature in the study

emphasized the importance of providing career-connected learning experiences to

students in high school to develop a positive self-concept of professional possibilities

(Callahan et al., 2019; Maslak, 2022).

The skills and people gap impacts talent cultivation and alignment of that talent

with future employment opportunities. The skills gap consists of people who do not

possess the necessary skills or certifications to compete for jobs in the twenty-first

century (GPSEd Partners, 2022). As a result of the people gap, a sizeable majority of

businesses could not secure the necessary amount of labor when required (GPSEd

Partners, 2022). Communities could overcome the barrier by allowing students to

participate in activities parallel to professional practices, such as educator-guided projects

and hands-on experiences (Maslak, 2022). The shift could also expose youth to positive

role models, positive media, and related information, among other techniques (Mann et

al., 2020).

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Perspectives on Work-based Learning

The competitiveness and marketability of the United States workforce are

contingent upon its labor preparation (Jung, 2020). The mixed-methods case study

collected and analyzed data on work-based learning. The data included the participation

of 32 teachers and a focus group of five employees. 96.73 % of respondents believed in

participation in work-based learning, and 80.65 % would like work-based learning to be a

graduation requirement. However, 87.10% believed the labor preparation process could

be more challenging, and 93.54% believed developing industry partnerships would be

costly and time-consuming (Jung, 2020).

According to an American Student Assistance study (American Student

Assistance [ASA], 2022), 79% of high school students were interested in an internship

during the school year or summer, with only three percent having an internship

experience. According to 840 student responses, the low participation rate resulted from a

lack of understanding of work-based learning (ASA, 2022). The ASA poll in 2022 also

revealed that only one-third of students knew of potential work-based learning

opportunities. Another obstacle was the lack of available career preparation programs

sponsored by businesses.

Current Legislation

In the twentieth century, several organizations in the United States began to

advocate for establishing new vocational education programs in schools. The movement

reflected the widespread belief in the value of work on multiple fronts, including moral,

educational, and practical acts (Steffes, 2020). The push was followed by the passage of

the Strengthening Career and Technical Education Act (2018) in July 2018, which

58
amended the Perkins IV (2006). The amended Act garnered substantial support as a

fundamental measure to ensure congruence among our K-12 systems, postsecondary

institutions, and labor force (Von Zastrow, 2022).

Improvements to Perkins

The Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act

(Perkins V, 2018) extended Perkins IV to concentrate on programs of study.

Policymakers made significant changes to provide states and local recipients more

flexibility, prioritize stakeholder engagement and data-driven decision-making via a new

comprehensive local needs assessment, and streamline account administration.

Previously, Perkins funds were restricted to secondary and post-secondary institutions,

with some exceptions for 7th and 8th graders. Perkins V (2018) aimed to initiate the CTE

pipeline earlier (All4Ed, 2018; Perkins V, 2018), with an emphasis on enrolling students

in grades 5 through 8 in CTE programs (Perkins V, 2018).

The Perkins V legislation, enacted in 2018, exhibited a notable distinction from

Perkins IV by providing a clear and precise definition of work-based learning. Perkins V

(2018) legislation recommends aligning curriculum and instruction with industry or

community professionals. The learning experiences should occur within authentic

business contexts or simulated environments. Work-based learning thrives in educational

institutions, encouraging in-depth, hands-on engagement with the tasks required for a

particular career field (All4Ed, 2018; Perkins IV, 2006).

According to Perkins V (2018), state and local agencies were granted the

authority to utilize funds from the Perkins program to facilitate the advancement,

establishment, or enlargement of work-based learning opportunities (All4Ed, 2018;

59
Perkins V, 2018). The Perkins V legislation, enacted in 2018, emphasized developing

technical skills and employability competencies, marking a notable shift in educational

priorities. Through Perkins V (2018), states must describe how they intend to facilitate

productive and substantial collaboration between secondary schools, postsecondary

institutions, and businesses in their implementation plans. The primary aim of the

educational collaboration is to provide students with a thorough understanding and

mastery of diverse facets within a particular business (All4Ed, 2018; Perkins V, 2018).

The enactment of Perkins V (2018) pertains to equipping students with the necessary

skills and knowledge to thrive in high-demand industries or other sectors that share

similar attributes (All4ED, 2018).

Perkins V (2018) represented a significant opportunity to expand access for all

students to career and technical education programs of study and career pathways leading

to valuable credentials. The objective of Perkins V (2018) was to ensure academic

programs function like siphons, beginning with exploration and culminating in the

certification without duplicating courses, noting that every program must culminate in

accreditation or a post-secondary credential is essential.

State Trends in Work-based Learning

In a state-by-state analysis of high school work-based learning policies (ASA,

2021b), many students are interested in internships or other work-based learning

opportunities. However, most businesses in the United States do not offer these

opportunities due to insufficient resources, high school-appropriate jobs, liability

concerns, or budgetary constraints (Carnevale et al., 2020). Federal legislation has

attempted to remove barriers to youth work-based learning by providing more flexibility

60
and funding (Canney & Mezera, 2020; Darling-Hammond et al., 2016). States have also

expanded work-based learning programs in schools and communities by passing laws and

updating policies on strategy, coordination, oversight and accountability, access and

scale, funding, and program continuity (Greenfield et al., 2018; Hirsch, 2022). Despite

progress, states' different approaches to work-based learning for high school students

have led to inconsistent program availability and quality.

Current Educational Trends

Too few work-based learning opportunities are accessible for people who might

benefit most from its links and conventional support services to aid them in the labor

market. As the skills required for success in the economy and workforce of the 21st

century continue to grow, so must work-based learning programs (Yilmaz, 2021).

Technology could improve student paths from elementary school through post-secondary

education and the workforce by expanding work-based learning possibilities for all

learners (Greenfield et al., 2018).

Social Emotional Learning (SEL)

The United States labor market requires social and emotional skills more than any

other recent trend. However, a clear correlation between the social and emotional skills

developed in K-12 and workforce skills did not exist (Yoder et al., 2020). Yoder et al.

(2020) defined SEL as the process by which children and adults understand and manage

their emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and demonstrate empathy for others,

build and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. James

Heckman, an economist at the University of Chicago, established a decade ago that social

and emotional skills could increase productivity, wages, and risk aversion (Johnson &

61
Wiener, 2017). Work-based learning is the junction of project-based and social and

emotional learning because it encourages students to work on real-world projects to

enhance employability (Johnson & Wiener, 2017).

School-to-Work-Movement

America's workforce is rapidly evolving to meet the demands of the twenty-first

century. An employer's decision to interview a potential candidate may be influenced by

factors such as education, GPA, experience, critical thinking, and technological skills

(Wilkie, 2020). However, when it comes to hiring, the person who has honed their soft

skills is often given the job.

Education should prepare students to be active members of society who contribute

positively to their communities. Education should include a thorough understanding of a

wide range of global competencies. Schools must broaden young learners' knowledge of

world cultures and international communication, teaching how to apply what they learn

as active and engaged citizens (University of Massachusetts Global, 2020). Participating

in these programs, students discover where they excel, what they are passionate about,

and what drives them (ASA, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c).

School-based Enterprise

School-based enterprises are practical educational tools for preparing learners to

transition from school to employment or college. Many students gained their first work

experience through internships, while others developed management, supervisory, and

leadership skills. A school-based enterprise (SBE) is any school-sponsored activity in

which a group of students produces goods or services for sale or usage by someone other

than the students (Clark et al., 2018).

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 The benefits of school-based enterprises include a more robust comprehension of

academic subject matter through application in a practical context, motivation derived

from solving challenges with immediate implications, and the development of generic job

skills (such as collaborating in teams and knowing how to use work as a learning

experience). Students will engage in work-based learning while operating an SBE (Clark

et al., 2018). Either they will design or manufacture a product or provide a service.

Through these activities, individuals will obtain work experience and develop

employability skills.

Conceptual Framework Literature

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the

experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast through their

stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in high school. Flanigan

(2019) explained that while the number of unfilled jobs continues to increase, schools are

in an excellent position to add multidisciplinary employability skills, or what the National

School Boards Association (NSBA) Commission to Close the Skills Gap refers to as

"Life Ready Skills." According to Donovan et al. (2022), life skills encompass a set of

competencies essential for success in the professional realm, irrespective of one's specific

vocation.

Partnerships between schools and the workforce help learners develop

communication, teamwork, and problem-solving skills, preparing them for success

regardless of their post-secondary path (Advance CTE, 2016; GPSEd Partners, 2021,

2022; Hirsch, 2022). Opportunities for work-based learning could provide a route of

knowledge that connects ordinary classroom instruction and learning to the actual world.

63
Work-based learning opportunities, as such, could also allow students to reinforce and

enhance their classroom learning, explore possible career choices, and demonstrate their

skills in real-world situations (Advance CTE, 2016; GPSEd Partners, 2021, 2022; Hirsch,

2022). A universally applicable learning approach is no longer the norm.

Individuals exhibit distinct characteristics in their learning styles and abilities to

navigate and interact with their environment. Cognitive psychologists believe individuals

learn through active participation (Clark et al., 2018). Educational theories rooted in

transformational and cultural learning are necessary for work-based learning. The focal

point of Vygotsky's (1978) sociocultural theory was social interaction, and the

experiential learning theory developed by Kolb (1984) was the transformation of

experience. Other influential theorists are Dewey (1938), Piaget (1964), Lewin (1951),

and Bandura (1977, 1986, 1999).

Influential Theorists

Bailey et al. (2003) posit that in the seventeenth century, philosophers such as

Locke (1690) suggested that the human mind commences as an empty vessel and that all

ideas stem from experiential encounters and the resulting associations. The perspective of

19th-century American behaviorists, exemplified by Watson (1998) and Skinner (1965),

was founded on their conceptualization of the learning process as the alterations in

behavior induced by the response to stimuli patterns. Consequently, they believed that

experience determined human behavior.

The social character of humanity is also essential for education. Education is an

inherently social process based on the premise that experience development occurs

through interaction (Dewey, 1938). An experiential circumstance pertains to real-life

64
scenarios that include students in everyday activities beyond the confines of the

educational institution. The efficacy of formal educational approaches is contingent upon

allowing students to engage in reflective practices beyond the confines of the educational

institution (Dewey, 1916). Activities promoting critical thinking and deliberate

observation of relationships lead to natural educational achievements.

According to Dewey (1938), traditional education has an organizational structure

comprising timetables, regulations, and procedures that inhibit student learning. Real-life

experiences are vitally important (Dewey, 1938). The educational institution must choose

between reverting to a contemporaneous discipline's intellectual and emotional standards

or to adopting a more efficient approach to enhance the opportunities for a progressive

and expansive learning experience. (Gibbon, 2019).

The work of Dewey (1938) on experience and education serves as a fundamental

source of knowledge about experiential learning. According to John Dewey's experiential

learning theory, knowledge is believed to be socially created through engaging in

experiences. The provision of information must be situated within the framework of

practical experiences in the actual world while also being customized to suit the talents

and preparedness of the learners. The critical element of the theory revolved around the

level of the experience. Learners could acquire knowledge and the ability to apply it in

various situations after completing an experience. Consequently, acquiring and

constructing new knowledge leads to the learner's advancement to a distinct level of

preparedness, as Dewey (1938) advocated in his concept of learning by doing.

According to Piaget (1964), the significance of learning is ascribed to social

interactions. Piaget's theory introduced the notion of scaffolding, positing that acquiring

65
new knowledge and skills is contingent upon the foundation of previously acquired

material (Ewing et al., 2011). As indicated by Piaget's (1964) perspective, pupils acquire

knowledge and skills highly effectively through imitation and engagement in social play.

Lewin (1951) investigated behavior concerning its physical and social

environment (Cherry, 2020). According to Lewin's field theory (Zaveri, 2016), a teacher

must help students discern a situation's objective and obstacles by presenting the

information in a simplified and more accessible manner: ego involvement and

aspirational level influence psychological success and failure. Repetition of an activity

alters the cognitive structure and need-tension systems, thereby altering attractiveness.

Memory tasks with no sense of completion are not remembered, whereas psychological

tension improves recall of unresolved tasks. In contrast, tasks that satisfy multiple

requirements could be better remembered than those that satisfy only one (Zaveri, 2016).

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Bandura (1977; 1986, 1999) proposed a social cognitive theory that elucidates the

process through which children acquire knowledge and skills by imitating the actions of

others. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the reciprocal interplay between cognitive,

behavioral, and environmental factors (Ku et al., 2015). The reciprocal relationship

between any of the three variables suggests that both the individual and the environment

are subject to change and are not fixed entities (Kelly, 2009). Bandura's (1999) theory,

along with other theoretical frameworks, has been developed to provide a comprehensive

understanding of the factors influencing the career decisions made by individuals (Tetteh

et al., 2021).

66
 Confidence in one's abilities is pivotal in career decision-making (Bandura, 1999).

People gravitate toward occupations that require talents they possess or believe they can

acquire. In turn, self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations influence people's

interests, goals, actions, and achievements (Bandura, 1999). Career choices and behaviors

coincide with self-perception stability (Super, 1957). People choose careers that enable

them to express their self-concepts. The extent to which individuals implement their self-

concepts is correlated with their level of job fulfillment and high satisfaction.

Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory posits that social learning is the fundamental

basis for human intellectual development in the context of society or culture. Vygotsky's

theoretical framework posited that cognitive development is contingent upon social

interaction, as supported by scholarly works (Cherry & Morin, 2022; Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky's theoretical framework prioritized the role of social factors in facilitating

developmental advancements. Establishing robust relationships with industries that

transition into enduring, mutually beneficial alliances is fundamental to establishing an

effective work-based learning system (Abowitz, 2000; Cherry & Morin, 2022; Vygotsky,

1978). Solid partnerships could provide a work-based learning environment with

structure and enable professional career progression within a social and cultural context.

The sociocultural view proposes that human learning is primarily a social

phenomenon and that our mental processes are shaped by interactions with more

competent people (Cherry & Morin, 2022). According to the sociocultural approach,

psychological maturation is guided by instructors and parents. The acquisition of values

and beliefs occurs through social group interactions within social groups or participation

67
in cultural events (Cherry & Morin, 2022). Sociocultural theories define learning and

development as an entrenchment in social events and emerging as learners engaging with

individuals, objects, and events in a collaborative setting (Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky believed that all knowledge is acquired on multiple levels. According to

Vygotsky's theory, cognitive growth is limited to the "zone of proximal development"

(Mcleod, 2023; Vygotsky, 1978). The zone of proximal development is one in which the

student is cognitively competent but requires assistance and social interaction to flourish

fully. Vygotsky believed collaborative learning, discourse, modeling, and scaffolding

strategies would motivate learners to complete a task in the zone (Mcleod, 2023).

Experiential Learning Theory

The experiential learning theory (ELT) describes learning as transforming

experience into knowledge. The combination of grasping and transforming experience

produces knowledge (Kolb, 1984). The experiential learning theory further described two

sociologically connected modes of grasping experience (Kolb, 1984), Concrete

Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and two ways of transforming

experience, Reflective Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE).

Experiential learning is a pedagogical approach that involves the active

engagement of learners in authentic experiences related to the subject matter (Kolb,

1984). The primary emphasis of the approach is on the experiential aspect, encompassing

its surrounding circumstances, undertakings, and origins (Kolb, 1984). Similarly, work-

based learning is a pedagogical approach that posits that students can partake in genuine

learning, acknowledge the significance associated with their educational pursuits, and

derive meaning through experiential encounters.

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 Experimental learning has six principles: (1) learning is a process, not a product;

hence, focusing on engagement and process improves student learning; (2) students must

incorporate their prior beliefs, ideas, and knowledge into their new learning; (3) conflict,

dissonance, and disagreement foster learning by resolving dialectically opposed

adjustment patterns to the world; (4) learning incorporates the complete person—

thinking, feeling, seeing, and acting—in a holistic adaptation process to the world; (5)

learning is the outcome of interactions between learners and their experiences; and (6)

learning is knowledge creation (Kolb, 1984).

The significance of observations and reflections, particularly concerning

immediate or physical experiences, is emphasized in the four-stage learning cycle. As a

result, reflection entails the synthesis and conceptualization of thoughts, giving rise to

abstract notions that could stimulate inventive approaches. The findings could contribute

to the emergence of new experiences (Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023).

Conceptual Model

Experiential learning refers to a pedagogical approach during which students

participate in real-life experiences related to the subject matter, as Kolb (1984) described.

The focal point lies in the encounter, encompassing its surrounding circumstances,

activities, and origins (Kolb, 1984). Comparably, the concept of work-based learning

incorporates the active involvement of students in authentic educational endeavors

(Figure 1), enabling discernment of the practical use of acquired knowledge and deriving

significance from experiential encounters.

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Figure 1

Experiential Learning Model

Encounter new
experiences

Active testing or Experiential Ask questions or

experimentation Learning discuss
with different experiences
concepts
Theory

Draw conclusions
and lessons based
upon experiences

Note. Adapted from Demystifying Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory: A Complete

Guide. Growth Engineering by A. Virtanen, 2023, https://tinyurl.com/bdz4maja.

The sociocultural perspective contends that human learning is primarily a social

phenomenon and that interaction with more competent individuals can change cognitive

processes (Cherry & Morin, 2022). The fundamental element of an effective work-based

learning system is the establishment of enduring and mutually advantageous

collaborations with industry (Abowitz, 2000; Cherry & Morin, 2022). Partnerships are

crucial in shaping the work-based learning environment, facilitating opportunities for

professional career growth, and fostering a social or cultural environment (Figure 2).

70
Figure 2

Sociocultural Theory Process

Note: Adapted from What Is Sociocultural Theory? By K. Cherry & A. Morin, 2022,

Verywellmind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088.

The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) provided insight into identifying

factors that may facilitate post-secondary employment. The SCCT methodology employs

three governing principles: interest development, education and career decision-making,

and vocational contexts (Conklin et al., 2012). Goodwin et al. (2019) found that the social

cognitive career theory could be used to understand various work behaviors essential for

choosing a job and changing careers (Figure 3).

71
Figure 3

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Outcomes
(interests, goals,
choices)

Learning
Experiences
(environmental,
societal)
Personal (Gender,
Race, Culture,
Beliefs,
Physicality)

Note: From Can students be taught to articulate employability skills? By J.T. Goodwin, J.

Goh, S. Verkoeyen, & K. Lithgow, 2019, Journal of Education and Training, 61(4), 445–

460. https://doi.org/10.1108/et-08-2018-0186

Each theoretical perspective can serve as a foundation for a work-based learning

framework designed for secondary and middle school pupils. Establishing experiential

and social learning connections is crucial within work-based learning, as depicted in

Figure 4. Although individual differences in learning styles may lead to variations in the

specific procedure, the underlying concept remains consistent.

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Figure 4

Conceptual Model: Connecting Career Readiness through Work-Based Learning

Work-based
Learning
Sociocultural
Theory
•Interest •Application of
•Learning a new academic skills
experience •Abilities
•Learning by •Beliefs/values •Use of technical
•Personal interacting with skills
reflection on the •Environmental
others factors •Real-life work
experience
•Verbal coaching •Goals experiences
•Adjust & reflect
•Collaboration •Attainment •Career
•Apply new ideas experience
•Perception
•Memory Social Cognitive •Career
Experiential exploration
Learning Career Theory •Career exposure

As part of work-based learning, students participate in apprenticeships,

cooperative education, internships, and school-based enterprises. Apprenticeships consist

of on-the-job training supervised by a journeyman, whereas cooperative education

combines classroom instruction with paid apprenticeships. Paid or unpaid internships and

practicums allow students to observe and interact with adults to develop their skills.

Internships are culminating experiences that allow students to apply their knowledge in

the workforce. In addition to school-based enterprise management and job shadowing,

additional work-based learning activities include school-based enterprise management

(student-run businesses within the school) and observing employed professionals at work.

Methodology Literature

The reviewed literature contained 142 articles, six of which were research-based:

three were mixed methods studies (Coll et al., 2004; Murray, 2014; Thessin et al., 2018),

and three were qualitative studies (King Bailey, 2009; Medvide & Kenny, 2022;

73
Papadimitriou, 2014). Studies in the literature review centered on exploring and

developing work-based learning programs that could assist students in enhancing

academic performance and technical skills, attaining employability skills, and enhancing

students' academic performance. Conversely, secondary school students' perceptions of

work-based learning were unexplored.

Research Methodologies

One of the primary goals of all formal research is to expand the existing corpus of

knowledge in a particular field. Regardless of whether a research study adopts a

quantitative or qualitative approach, employs mixed-methods, action or longitudinal

design, or is conducted at the doctoral or professional level, it is anticipated that the

motivation, methodology, and findings of each study will offer a significant contribution

that can serve as a foundation for future researchers. The present study is based on

narrative inquiry methodology, aiming to gather essential narratives that portray the

perspectives of individuals who completed a work-based learning program during their

high school years in the coastal region of the Northeast.

Mixed Methods

The study by Thessin et al. (2018) employed a mixed methods approach to

construct a comprehensive career and technical education (CTE) model tailored explicitly

to a healthcare education program (HEP) located in the mid-Atlantic. The research

endeavor exemplified the foundation's dedication to advancing career and technical

education in healthcare. The study's findings revealed that the HEP incorporated an array

of distinctive elements that should be considered by other programs, such as hands-on

experience with medical apparatus, workplace observations, and an increased focus on

74
career decision-making competency (Thessin et al., 2018). Evidence indicated that

academic instruction with technical skills and work-based learning could potentially

prepare students for careers (Thessin et al., 2018)

A mixed-methods study evaluated a work-based learning program at a university

in Thailand (Coll et al., 2004). Qualitative data from interviews and observations

provided insights into quantitative findings. The study's findings by Coll et al. (2004)

illustrated that many of the perceived advantages and disadvantages reported by the

student participants were comparable to those reported in Western nations, such as

acquiring real-world experience, interpersonal skills and experience, and pertinent

practical skills. The results further indicated that participants were typically pleased with

the co-op benefits provided by the university but also provided suggestions for

administrative enhancements (Coll et al., 2004).

In the United Kingdom, Murray (2014) conducted a mixed-method study to

investigate students' viewpoints on work-based learning (WBL) and the role of reflection

in learning and practice. The findings of the study indicated the following about the Open

University students: they derive motivation from participating in WBL and recognize its

relevance and benefits for their personal, academic, and professional development; they

comprehend the critical concepts associated with reflecting on an experience and learning

from it, as opposed to focusing on surfacing implicit knowledge. Most work-based

learners in the study understood the importance of employing reflective techniques to

integrate work and study and improve performance (Murray, 2014).

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Qualitative Methods

Papadimitriou (2014) conducted a qualitative phenomenology study to investigate

and elucidate students' perspectives on mandating an internship as part of their

educational trajectory. The study intended to clarify how the student's perceptions

influenced the career and college decision-making process and any subsequent

modifications. Participants cited four program factors significantly impacting their career

choice and college major: clinical rotations, classes, internships, and instructors.

According to the findings (Papadimitriou, 2014), internships substantially influenced

both job selection and the ability of students pursuing a general sciences degree to remain

in their chosen field. From the perspective of non-science graduates, internships had

significant ramifications.

King Bailey (2009) conducted an exploratory qualitative narrative study on CTE

program graduates and their decision-making process to seek entry-level employment in

their field of study upon graduation. The study by King Bailey (2009) focused on the

experiences of graduates during their enrollment in their chosen program of study. Based

on the study results, employers and students concurred on the benefits of work-based

learning programs for all parties involved. Concerning the program's perceived worth,

businesses believed that individuals who engaged in the program would acquire adequate

training. The employer further believed the coordinator was responsible for program

development and coordination, emphasizing that effective collaboration achieved

successful outcomes (King Bailey, 2009).

Few studies have illuminated how low-income adolescents from minority

backgrounds can benefit from WBL programs. Medvide and Kenny (2022) conducted a

76
qualitative phenomenological study examining the experiences of low-income students of

color who participated in the work-based learning (WBL) program at a Northeastern

urban private multicultural Catholic high school. The school was known for its WBL

program, where students worked five days per month in various environments throughout

the four years of high school (Medvide & Kenny, 2022).

The final sample included 17 juniors, four seniors, ten males, and 11 girls aged

16–18 (Medvide & Kenny, 2022). The study's findings shed light on the meaning of hope

in the daily lives of motivated and goal-oriented students who prospered in school and the

workplace due to their meaningful connections with teachers and supervisors. Future

WBL program research, according to Medvide and Kenny (2022), should focus on

relational and organizational variables that give students a sense of relevance while

developing vocational skills.

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the

experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast through their

stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in high school. The

literature review highlighted the various trends in work-based learning programs, the

legislative initiatives dictating the size and scope of programs, and the need to finance the

programs. The literature necessitated student opinions and reactions to work-based

learning programs. Developing innovative concepts to modify existing programs to assist

students in making a smooth transition into the working world is critical.

The study of work-based learning could potentially provide valuable insights into

novel methodologies, optimal tactics, organizational frameworks, regulatory frameworks,

and equity considerations (Davis & Snyder, 2009). The existing body of literature

77
indicates that internships and instructors play significant roles in shaping individuals'

career decisions and choices of college majors. The literature further emphasizes the

importance of future research on relational and organizational variables to improve

learning vocational skills (Carnevale et al., 2020; Hudson, 2020). Both employers and

students agree with the advantages of work-based learning programs. The primary

objective of this qualitative narrative study was to make a scholarly contribution by

investigating how high school students gain the essential competencies and understanding

required for subsequent employment and collegiate pursuits through their participation in

work-based learning (ASA, 2020; Wilkie, 2020). Further investigation is required to

delve into students' viewpoints toward work-based learning.

Research Design Literature

According to Creswell (2013), qualitative study participants have many methods

from which to choose. Depending on their classification, qualitative research

methodologies are various and diverse. Qualitative approaches enable the researcher to

study issues in depth, with data collection typically occurring via open-ended questions

that will allow one to comprehend and absorb the viewpoints of others while not trying to

predict opinions through the selection of a series of questions (Bailey, 2007; Butina,

2015).

Research is driven by specific objectives, which include identifying a resolution

to an established issue or providing insights into areas of knowledge that require further

exploration. Irrespective of the situation, a well-defined concept or objective is

paramount. In research from Bhandari (2020), qualitative research involves collecting

and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts,

78
opinions, or experiences. Hence, a research design must be selected to complete the

study. Research design is purposed to complete the research method. The researcher will

use narrative inquiry to address the problem and purpose of this study.

Qualitative methods require flexibility. According to Maxwell (2009), collecting

and evaluating findings, creating and updating ideology, expanding or refining research

questions, and recognizing and coping with authenticity concerns frequently occur,

influencing others. Likewise, Given (2008) describes qualitative approaches that explore

new phenomena and capture individuals’ thoughts, feelings, or interpretations of meaning

and process. Qualitative methods are non-numerical and use interviews, observations,

journal articles, and surveys. The method is time-consuming as the researcher can either

observe or interview participants. The collected research will be analyzed and grouped

using a coding method to align with the research questions. The qualitative approach will

provide the perspective of the participants.

In an article published in Educational Researcher, Connelly and Clandinin (1990)

used the term narrative inquiry for the first time. With the view that education is the

construction and reconstruction of personal and social stories of teachers and learners,

Connelly and Clandinin (1990) argue that narrative inquiry embodies theoretical ideas

about the educational experience as lived and told stories. Because humans live storied

lives individually and socially, the main claim for using narrative in academic research is

that narrative organizes human experience. Based on Dewey's (1938) theory of

experience, Connelly and Clandinin (1990) interpret narrative as examining how people

live. For narrative inquiry, experience is the starting point and the key term.

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 One of the primary goals of all formal investigations is to add to the existing body

of knowledge in a specific discipline. Whether a research study is quantitative or

qualitative, action or longitudinal, doctoral or professional, the goal, method, and results

should make a significant contribution that other researchers could build on. Numerous

protections are built into the system to guarantee that each study adheres to discipline-

specific and cross-disciplinary standards (Martensson et al., 2019).

Many academics realize that personal and social lives are intertwined with stories,

and humans have a natural impulse to narrate (White, 1980). Correspondingly, the

increased knowledge of narratives, academia recognized that investigating how people

story their world contributes to a better understanding of how people construct meaning

in life (Mishler, 1995). Accordingly, the desire to give a platform to the people who

participated in the research and allowing them to tell their stories distinguishes a narrative

approach from other research methods.

In qualitative research, words rather than numbers are used for analysis. The

emphasis is placed on understanding human behavior through interpretation rather than

its ability to be predicted or controlled. A variety informs this type of research of

interpretative paradigms. Qualitative research does not reduce the findings to a level of

certainty and objectivity that can be measured. Instead, qualitative research is based on an

interpretive and naturalistic method of researching phenomena to make sense of the

meaning that individuals ascribe to those phenomena (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

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 Conclusions

Employers nationwide reported a skills gap for middle-skilled occupations, with

insufficient applicants possessing the qualifications, training, or education required to fill

those roles. When preparing students for vocations that are in high demand and pay well,

the most effective technique was developing a combination of technical, academic, and

employability skills (Orrell, 2018). The study literature emphasized the importance of

providing career-connected learning experiences to students in the middle grades to

develop a positive self-concept about professional possibilities (Callahan et al., 2019).

Young people and youth must have their voices heard and their needs met to succeed. As

a result, efforts must be made to close the gap between learners and the rest of society,

which extends beyond academics.

Students who collaborated with prospective employers could benefit in several

ways. They could apply learned academic and technical knowledge in a realistic

situation, linking education and employment. Students could also develop and practice

positive work-related habits and attitudes, such as the capacity to think critically and

work in teams, when they see and participate in authentic job-related tasks. Students

could develop and practice positive work-related habits and attitudes (Hoffman, 2015).

Students could also create professional relationships for future employment and enhance

their possibilities for post-secondary work (Theodos et al., 2017).

A shift in the approach included knowledge of what can advance our learners.

Many do not always consider what students need to be employed and productive. Work-

based learning benefits learners when incorporated into every topic and grade level.

Federal, state, and local career pathway programs and initiatives included employment

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and education components. Integrating work-based learning across the learning

continuum could allow students to enhance their business and industry knowledge

(Canney & Mezera, 2020). Internships and other work-based learning programs could

provide high school and college students with valuable educational and professional

development prospects.

Chapter Summary

Education after high school is the surest path to becoming a member of the middle

class, and the post-secondary environment is complex and difficult to navigate

successfully. People whose families and schools cannot provide adequate guidance may

find it challenging to seek college and training opportunities that are both affordable and

a good match. Regarding employment opportunities, people who do not attend college or

register but do not complete a degree or certification are most likely to find themselves in

low-wage occupations. A fundamental difficulty is that neither secondary nor post-

secondary education institutions connect to the world of labor, with a few notable

exceptions. Work-based learning is an educational program that allows students to mix

what is learned in the classroom with real-world business or industry operations (Canney

& Mezera, 2020). Work-based learning is becoming increasingly popular among

students.

Developing technical, academic, and employability skills is the most effective

strategy when training students for vocations that are in great demand and pay well, as

stated in 2018 by Orrell. The research literature emphasized the need to give learners

career-related learning experiences by the middle grades to establish a good self-concept

about their professional options (Callahan et al., 2019). Since the mission of public

82
education is to provide each learner with the skills and competencies necessary to live an

efficient and purposeful life, classroom learning should include real-world experience.

Employers believe entry-level workers require much of the same knowledge and skills as

college-bound students (ACT, Inc., 2006). Work-based learning could expose students to

career opportunities before graduating from high school.

The chapter closed with a defense of the chosen qualitative design method. The

chapter discussed the strategies utilized to look for pertinent documents, including

keywords used to search for publications, the research methodology, design

appropriateness, and a restatement of the research questions. The selection of participants

and sample for the study will be addressed along with informed consent. Transferability,

data collection and analysis, and confidentiality will be addressed in Chapter 3.

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 Chapter 3

Research Methodology

A sizable portion of the younger population needs to improve in the requisite

knowledge and skills essential for achieving success in the future and effectively

participating in the prevailing economy, as evidenced by a skills gap within the labor

market of the United States (Donovan et al., 2022; Jimenez, 2020; Symonds et al., 2011).

K-12 education policymakers are placing a greater emphasis on resolving equity gaps,

acknowledging that previous attempts to increase students' career preparedness have

disproportionately impacted learners in areas (Mathers, 2019). The purpose of this

qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the experiences of graduates of a public

high school district in the Northeast through their stories of work-based learning

opportunities while they were in high school (Baker, 2020; Cahill, 2016; Jimenez, 2020;

Ross et al., 2020). This study’s approach allowed for an extensive understanding of the

challenges experienced by high school graduates. The investigation also provided a way

to construct a broader awareness from the data to improve the student's career readiness,

which is especially important for high school students in underserved areas.

The qualitative research approach involves more subjectivity and requires more

time than the quantitative research methodology. When the aims and objectives of a study

are exploratory, qualitative research strategies are frequently employed. Focus groups,

interviews, and observation with a few meticulously chosen individuals constitute

qualitative data collection (Butina, 2015; Creswell, 2007, 2008; Creswell & Poth, 2016).

Textual data and written or spoken words were collected and analyzed during qualitative

research (Butina, 2015; Creswell & Poth, 2016). The study did not focus on nonverbal

84
cues or visual indicators. Conducting qualitative research allows for the examination of

different perspectives on a topic, person, or product, which can be beneficial (Bailey,

2007; Butina, 2015).

The chapter examined the research methodology and design utilized to frame the

present study and acquire pertinent data. The chapter described the processes involved in

data collecting and processing. The chapter comprehensively analyzed the many elements

involved in data acquisition. The discussion in the chapter included specific information

regarding the impetus and design of the research.

Research Method and Design Appropriateness

The qualitative method was used to investigate and ascertain the meaning of the

data compiled to meet the study's objectives (Creswell, 2013). Using diverse ideologies

and experiences to draw conclusions and develop information distinguishes the

qualitative approach from other methodologies (Creswell, 2013). Quantitative research

enables researchers to identify and analyze demographic issues, discrepancies, and

patterns. Qualitative research necessitates an exploration of the underlying emotions that

accompany and underpin various experiences (Butina, 2015; Creswell, 2008, 2013).

Expanding the theoretical or practical knowledge base of a subject of study is a

core objective of any formal research (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Most studies employ a

strictly quantitative or qualitative approach, with the former gaining greater scientific

acceptance. Qualitative studies typically yield findings prevalent in human behavior and

social interactions that cannot be replicated in comparative studies or extrapolated to a

specific population. The absence of these traits does not diminish the significant insights

garnered through qualitative research that may not have been observable in a quantitative

85
environment (Clandinin, 2013; Clandinin & Rosiek, 2007). The narrative inquiry method

of qualitative research was befitting for this study. Based on its in-depth analysis and

suitability, philosophical underpinnings were deemed most likely to answer the research

questions among qualitative designs. The designs considered least appropriate were

phenomenology, case study, and ethnography.

Phenomenology

The main objective of phenomenology is to analyze individual experiences of a

phenomenon to convey its fundamental meaning. The researcher collects data from

witnesses to the event and formulates a comprehensive depiction of the key elements of

the experience (Moustakas, 1994). There are two approaches to phenomenology:

transcendental or psychological phenomenology and hermeneutic phenomenology.

Transcendental phenomenology focuses on the participant's thoughts, feelings,

and understanding of the event without the researcher using any background knowledge

that could re-interpret specific perspectives (Laverty, 2003; Moustakas, 1994). In

addition, hermeneutic phenomenology will only allow the investigator to use prior

knowledge to interpret the subjects' views (Bynum & Varpio, 2018). Although

phenomenology appeared appropriate for the study, it lacked a sufficient theoretical

framework for future research to adequately determine the how and why of this study

(Butina, 2015).

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the investigator

develops a general explanation of a process, activity, or interaction based on the

perspectives of many participants (Creswell, 2013; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss &

86
Corbin, 1998). Grounded theory, in many ways, is similar to narrative inquiry in that it

examines participants' viewpoints on a single and shared issue. Grounded theory deviated

and was eventually declared unsuitable since the development of innovative ideas was

outside the scope of current research.

Case study research examines a topic through one or more cases within a defined

system. Stake (1995) describes case study research as a decision of what to explore rather

than a concept. The size of the bounded case distinguishes the types of qualitative case

studies, such as whether the example involves one individual, multiple individuals, a

group, a whole program, or an activity (Stake, 1995, 2010; Yin, 1994, 2003). Although a

case study was plausible, the findings would not provide a rich, in-depth perspective of

the participants in this study.

Ethnography

Ethnography is another qualitative research method whereby the researcher

describes and interprets a culture-sharing community's shared and acquired patterns of

values, behaviors, beliefs, and language (Caulfield, 2022). Ethnography entails prolonged

group observations and involvement in the participants' daily lives. The participants'

different racial and cultural backgrounds precluded ethnography, which typically focuses

on a single ethnic group (Kross & Giust, 2019).

Narrative inquiry

According to Clandinin (2013), narrative inquiry explores an individual's

experience of an event and what the individual considers most significant. Narrative

inquiry develops a narrative by combining the participant's experience with the three

elements of narrative inquiry and the researcher's construction of an imported narrative in

87
which the participant's narratives produce a vivid and in-depth study of their experiences.

The narrative inquiry paradigm developed by Clandinin and Connelly (2004) recognized

the importance of interaction and rejected the notion of the researcher as a passive

spectator.

From an epistemological standpoint, Dewey (1938) contended that awareness of

connections is a truly conceptual matter and, thus, an educational topic. Knowledge

becomes perceptible through reconstructing experience into a divergent guise (Clandinin

& Rosiek, 2007). However, Connelly and Clandinin (1990) posited the narrative as a

phenomenon and a method, first embodying the exploration of a life experience. The

latter is the process by which a researcher examines the experience and integrates it into

the act of re-telling.

A narrative inquirer participates in an ongoing reformulation of the research by

consistently reflecting on the lives of co-participants and the social context to uncover the

perspectives of experience that shape the personal, practical/professional, and social

justifications of the study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The continual flux of modifications

is required as the researcher strives to comprehend the significance of the experience and

corroborate viewpoints (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004; Clandinin et al., 2007).

The connection between personal and social life and narratives is acknowledged

in academic contexts, emphasizing the inherent human propensity toward storytelling

(White, 1980). Academics are increasingly in agreement about the significance of

narrative recounting. As a result, the academic community has acknowledged the need to

examine how individuals narrate their experiences to enhance comprehension of how

individuals create significance in their lives (Mishler, 1995). The analytical method's

88
narrative capacity indicates an axiological choice. The distinctiveness of a narrative

approach lies in its aim to provide a platform for research, enabling participants to share

personal stories. The objective of a narrative method sets it apart from other research

approaches.

Analytic Frame

A three-dimensional space occurs in narrative inquiry (Clandinin & Connelly,

2004; Clandinin et al., 2007). The space encompasses temporality, personal/social

circumstances, and place (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004) and serves as the analytical

framework for comprehending stories as told by human subjects (Clandinin et al., 2007).

The first dimension is time, reflecting the story's temporal links (Clandinin & Connelly,

2004). The second dimension depicts the junction of personal and social conditions. The

dimension of sociality is based on Dewey's (1938) notion that experience is subject to

internal and existential conditions and that the person is, at heart, a social creature

impacted by their surroundings (Clandinin, 2013; Clandinin & Connelly, 2004). The third

dimension, place, describes the setting of the experience(s) and serves as the research's

environment (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004; Clandinin & Rosiek, 2007).

Temporality: Time. As individuals navigate their lives within the context

of a narrative existence, ascribing significance to personal events through storytelling is

innate to the human condition. The narratives told are commonly about past experiences,

but as the narratives are shared, the experience is recalled, and adaptations are made to

suit future similar situations. The temporal feature could also enable social transformation

to occur over time. When people reflect on narratives from a few years ago, social shifts

become evident, and what was once considered socially acceptable may no longer be the

89
case. Past experiences could impact how a participant perceives current circumstances,

and earlier educational interactions may influence how they view the future (Clandinin,

2013; Clandinin & Connelly, 2004; Clandinin & Rosiek, 2007).

Sociality: Interpersonal, Cultural. The tone of a narrative depends on

the audience. Individuals construct and re-construct their identities and social connections

while telling and receiving narratives. Individuals' ability to elaborate on personal

experiences and present a personal narrative enables identifying and elaborating key

elements and providing critical insights for future reference (Clandinin, 2013; Clandinin

& Connelly, 2004). Conversely, the recipient of the narrative could influence how

individuals recount experiences and the degree to which they disclose specific

information (Clandinin, 2006; Clandinin & Connelly, 2007).

Spatiality: Location and Surroundings. The environment, or spatiality,

could affect how a person perceives a particular event (Clandinin, 2013; Clandinin &

Connelly, 2004). Systemic understandings, such as healthcare and education, and

individual interpretations of belief systems could influence the participants' narratives.

The setting shapes narratives because they frequently contain extensive descriptions of

the environment, which impact the presentation of the experience that is subsequently

described (Clandinin, 2013; Clandinin & Connelly, 2007).

Research Questions

The nature of the research question is the primary factor considered when

choosing the qualitative research method. According to the findings of Creswell (1998,

2013; Yin, 1994, 2003), the research question in a qualitative investigation frequently

begins with how or what. The qualitative research approach helps the study become more

90
concrete by describing the events (Creswell, 2013). According to Merriam (2009), the

research questions should lead and explain what the study will aim to acquire or

understand. The present qualitative narrative inquiry was guided by the following three

research questions:

R1: How do participants characterize the relationship between work-based

learning experiences and chances for post-secondary employment? (Temporality)

R2: How do participants characterize interrelationships with others involved in

the work-based learning experience? (Sociality)

R3: How does involvement in a work-based learning program in high school

translate to life beyond graduation? (Spatiality)

The research questions helped to learn about the experiences of graduates of a

public high school district in the Northeast through their stories of work-based learning

opportunities while they were in high school (Baker, 2020; Cahill, 2016; Jimenez, 2020;

Ross et al., 2020). The first research question probed participants' perceptions of their

work-based learning experience and its relevance to employment after high school

graduation. The second question focused on reconstructing participant identities and

social relationships and their interactions with site mentors, administrators, and

instructors. The third question investigated the relationship between work-based learning

experiences and present-day life.

Population and Sample

The study focuses on a public high school district located in the coastal Northeast

region of the United States. This district has eight schools: six elementary, one middle,

and one high school (NCES, 2022). During the study, 1,458 students attended the high

91
school (NCES, 2022). Following IRB approval and because of the use of snowball

sampling to recruit students, permission was unnecessary. The final sample for the study

comprised four graduates from one coastal northeast public high school.

Snowball sampling helped to identify potential participants who could contribute

significantly to achieving the research's objectives (Naderifar et al., 2017). The research

started with one initial contact who met the research criteria and was invited to become a

participant in the study. Participants who consented were asked to recommend individuals

who met the research criteria (Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023). The sample for the study

consisted of high school graduates between 18 and 23 years of age who participated in a

work-based learning program during high school within a specific public school district in

the Northeast region of the United States.

The snowball sampling method was adopted to reduce the population to a

manageable sample size and to identify study participants. The use of purposeful sampling

criteria also aided the identification of the participant sample. Snowball sampling selects

participants based on referrals from previously identified individuals (Korstjens & Moser,

2018; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Snowball Sampling, 2020). Using both snowball and

purposeful sampling, helped find a group of high school graduates from a particular public

high school district in the Northeast who took part in a work-based learning program

while in high school. Snowball sampling is advantageous for locating participants who

could fulfill the criteria (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Palinkas et al., 2015; Sadler et al.,

2010).

Qualitative research methods are frequently concerned with obtaining an in-depth

understanding of a phenomenon or meaning, focusing on the how and why of a particular

92
issue, process, scenario, subculture, scene, or group of social interactions (Dworkin,

2012). The participants were selected based on three criteria. The first criterion was that

participants must be high school graduates from a specific coastal northeast public high

school district in the United States. Participants had to be between 18 and 23 years of age

(Dworkin, 2012; Marshall, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Sim et al., 2018). The final

criterion was that participants must have participated in a work-based learning program

while attending a particular Northeastern public high school.

The characteristics of networking and referral are central to the snowball

sampling technique, one of the most common qualitative sampling methods (Naderifar et

al., 2017; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Simkus, 2023). In snowball sampling, a particular

population is selected in a social context and through a multi-step process. The diminished

sample size emphasized comprehension, analysis, and a comprehensive representation of

each participant's experiences, although the study could have considered the entire

population (Creswell, 1998, 2013; Demarrais & Lapan, 2004; Miles & Huberman, 1994;

Patton, 1980, 2002).

Snowball sampling, or chain sampling, is a technique in which current

participants refer prospective participants (Naderifar et al., 2017; Snowball Sampling,

2020). In snowball sampling, additional participants are recruited after acquiring the first

participant (Naderifar et al., 2017; Nikolopoulou, 2022; Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023;

Snowball Sampling, 2020). The advantage of the snowball sampling method is that

current participants will know others with similar study-relevant characteristics (Sadler et

al., 2010; Simkus, 2023; Snowball Sampling, 2020). Snowball is efficient and cost-

93
effective for gaining access to individuals who would be difficult to locate otherwise

(Naderifar et al., 2017; Snowball Sampling, 2020).

Non-random participant selection prevents extrapolation to analogous populations

using snowball sampling (Snowball Sampling, 2020). Researchers could employ

strategies to address issues resulting from snowball sampling. One strategy consisted of

providing a detailed description of the sample (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018; Subedi, 2021)

so that other researchers and readers could extrapolate to the population. Chapter 4

includes a complete description of the work-based learning sample and details on

collecting the data (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). The findings could assist school

administrators and superintendents in developing work-based learning programs for all

students.

Informed Consent and Confidentiality

Participation in this study was entirely voluntary. All participants have signed the

informed consent form (see Appendix A) and consented to participate without force or

duress, following the United States Code of Federal Regulations provision on protecting

human beings (Kaiser, 2009; Office of the Commissioner, 2019).

After completing the informed consent, participants were contacted by email to

select a time for the interview. The email contained recommended individual interview

dates and times and a hyperlink to access a free downloadable version of Microsoft

Teams. Each person read and agreed to the electronically sent informed consent

document before the interview. The informed consent concisely described the study,

estimated duration, researcher roles, participant safeguards, personal privacy, and data

integrity.

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 The informed consent form indicated that the interview would be audio-recorded

for data collection. The consent form elaborated on the participant's right to disengage

from the study at any time and to have their information deleted if they declined to

participate. After three years, all digital data, including emails, would be erased, and the

thumb drive would be destroyed and discarded.

Ethics

This research involved high school graduates, their experiences, opinions, and

perceptions of work-based learning during their time at a particular high school in a

district in the Northeastern coastal region, with minimal physical risk to human subjects.

Participants understood that no harm would occur during the research study, including

the protection and confidentiality of collected data and information. Participants were

required to sign a consent form and receive information that personal data would have the

utmost care. Prevention of disclosing sensitive information or identities was essential to

protect the privacy and confidentiality of the collected data. The confidentiality of these

records was maintained throughout the study. All data will be stored for three years

before being deleted.

Instrumentation

Accumulating life experiences and engaging in conversational exchanges with

oneself and others is necessary for personal development and expanding one's knowledge

base. Even though they are all intertwined into one cohesive conglomeration, the

complexity of each may appear to be daunting at first glance. One method of structuring

these encounters is to combine them into discrete relative groups. A story, or a narrative,

is an example of such a relevant unit.

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 Stories are a natural way for most individuals to recall life experiences.

Additionally, this method is a practical solution to a fundamental problem in their lives

by bringing proper order and stability. We are continuously inundated with narratives

from our social world, not just to organize and structure our daily experiences but also to

order and shape our lives.

Narrative inquiry highlights the importance of a relational connection between the

researcher and the participant by co-creating the participant's experiences (Clandinin &

Connelly, 2004; Haydon et al., 2018). Involving study participants in the creation of tales

allows the researcher to live alongside them while listening to their experiences.

Interviews and dialogues are the most popular means of gathering information for the

narrative process.

The examination of experiences as understood through the narratives of

individuals emerged during the twentieth century and continues in contemporary

scholarship. The design was initially associated with the critical intellectuals Clandinin

and Connelly (2004), who both hailed from the United Kingdom. Implementing the

narrative design allows meticulous documentation of the participant's experiences and

examines the significance conveyed by their experiences.

The exploratory structure for narrative inquiry should include the following

elements: temporality, the period of the experiences and how the experiences might

influence the future; sociality, the cultural and personal influences of the experiences; and

spatiality, the environment in which the experiences took place and its effect on the

experiences (Clandinin, 2006; Haydon & Van Der Riet, 2016). The three elements that

form a narrative and can be viewed independently are always interrelated. In some

96
narratives, sociality may have the most considerable influence. In contrast, spatiality may

have the most critical effect on others, and this relationship influences offer depth to this

methodology. The individual's perception of reality may not accurately account for the

occurrence (Clandinin, 2013).

The data obtained through narrative inquiry could have included material from

archival sources such as autobiographies, journals, letters, and photographs and data

collected through participant interviews. On the other hand, qualitative research studies

can obtain data through interviews. An investigation can also gather information through

observations and personal accounts because the data collection process incorporates

questioning, comments, and exploring. Data collected for this study came from virtually

conducted individual structured interviews (Butina, 2015).

Embracing participants' individual experiences to understand them in specific

places at specific times is a hallmark of narrative inquiry (Clandinin, 2006, 2013). Data

gathering aims to promote personal and communal learning, increase understanding of

the participants' viewpoints, and profit from their contextual knowledge. Following an

initial open invitation to speak, a genuine discussion continued to its completion. Probing

questions were asked in the subsequent portion of the interview to gather additional

information. A complete portrait of each person was created using audio recordings and

verbatim transcriptions.

Another part of the process was to include confidentiality for the participants.

Typically, researchers present confidentiality agreements at the outset of data gathering.

Hence, a privacy discussion was essential for obtaining informed permission and

establishing rapport with responders (Crow et al., 2006). Confidentiality maintained

97
honesty and avoided the influences of those with authority or affiliation, allowing

members to share experiences and opinions without fear of retaliation. During each

scheduled virtual meeting, structured interview questions were asked individually,

allowing the participant to provide a complete answer. Direct and semi-structured

questions such as “What type of jobs did you apply for,” or “What skills were you

lacking?” are a few examples (Patton, 1980, 2002). By telling personal stories, readers

may better understand post-secondary experiences and attitudes.

Within the research process, the relational perspective of narrative inquiry allows

participants to create a relationship with the researcher and share their stories. This

process can build a relationship that will give participants the necessary trust to be

genuinely open in their stories, allowing them to understand their experience better

(Clandinin, 2013). Narrative inquiry in this study enabled the participants to have self-

reflective experiences that could engage and motivate leaders to give additional attention

to current work-based learning plans. The design's goal was to obtain a profound

knowledge of the occurrence, which could aid in developing future educational initiatives

for the work-based learning program.

Participants in the study were between 18 and 23 years of age and consented to

share their experiences through individual virtual interviews on Microsoft Teams. Upon

consent, participants were assigned a pseudonym to protect their identity. The

participants were interviewed regarding individual work-based learning experiences

during high school and how the opportunity may have helped with finding gainful

employment after graduating high school. Interview questions examined the depth and

details of the post-secondary experiences of the participants. Work-based learning could

98
be essential to a well-rounded secondary education experience, as it may help students

see what comes after graduating high school. At this stage in the research, the

characterization of a work-related skill base is any resource that blends learning with

real-world experiences.

Researcher

The researcher was professional, respectful, ethical, and compliant with research

standards. The researcher interviewed, collected, and analyzed data consistent with the

study's design. Demographic information was informally collected during the individual

interviews held via Microsoft Teams, and the final sample included one male and three

females between 18 and 23 years of age. Member checking and an interview script were

used to interact universally with each participant (Birt et al., 2016; Carlson, 2010).

Qualitative instruments help to portray the collected information's intricacies,

details, and emotional content and can provide a more nuanced image of the individual's

environment. As Patton (2002) defined it, an interview consists of a series of open-ended

inquiries and probing questions that elicit in-depth responses from a subject regarding

their experiences, views, opinions, feelings, and knowledge. In most cases, interviews are

conducted face-to-face or through a study of recorded and transcribed audio-visual media

that appropriately portrays the occurrence (Englander, 2012).

The semi-structured interview is a combination of structured and unstructured

interview formats. Frequently, semi-structured interviews are open-ended, permitting

flexibility. The modified five-stage interview process consisted of an introduction, small

talk, questions and answers, probing, and closings (Paycor, 2022). Asking predetermined

queries in a predetermined order facilitated comparisons between respondents. Having

99
less structure can facilitate the identification of patterns while still permitting

comparisons between respondents (George, 2023).

Each semi-structured question was developed in advance and organized in an

interview guide (Appendix D). In-depth or intensive interviews are qualitative interviews.

An in-depth interview seeks to learn what each participant values about the subject matter

in their own words (Blackstone, 2012). In this qualitative interview, the researcher

constructed an interview protocol (Appendix C) and interview guide (Appendix D) in

advance that included a list of questions to cover during the interview. The interview

guide was purposed to make the interview conversational.

The interview questions were formulated to elicit participant responses (Table 3)

that align with the research questions. The first three questions focused on work-based

learning and potential future employment. Questions four through eight focused on the

interrelationships inherent to the work-based learning experience. Questions nine through

eleven concentrated on how the work-based learning experience could be applicable after

high school graduation.

Table 3

Research Questions and Interview Alignment

Research Question Interview Question Alignment

R1: How do participants Q1: Please tell me about your

characterize the relationship work-based learning
between their work-based experiences in high school.
learning experiences and What do you remember the
chances for post-secondary most?
employment? (Temporality)

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 Research Question Interview Question Alignment

Q2: Thinking about your work-

based learning experience,
please provide or describe
some examples of your
work-based learning
experience.
Q3: How did you connect
classroom learning to your
work-based learning
experience?

R2: How do participants Q4: How has work-based learning

characterize their prepared you to relate to
interrelationships with people of various cultural
others involved in the work- and ethnic backgrounds in
based learning experience? the workplace?
(Sociality) Q5: What skills did you learn while
in your work-based learning
program?

Q6: What experiences in your

program helped you master
the skills you discussed?

Q7: After graduation, did you

search for and secure
placement in a job related to
your work-based learning
experience?

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 Research Question Interview Question Alignment

Q8: What influenced your decision

to do so or not to do so?

R3: How does involvement in a Q9: What experiences have helped

work-based learning you the most after
program in high school completing your work-
translate to life beyond based learning experience?
graduation? (Spatiality) Q10: How did your work-based
learning experience factor
into your educational
decisions?
Q11: How did your work-based
learning experience factor
into your career choices?

Field Test

The standard in qualitative research is field testing. Field tests aim to increase the

research's validity by permitting a review of interview techniques and questions

(Anderson, 2021; Bagdady, 2022). For accurate data collection, relationships between

participants and researchers are crucial (McGrath et al., 2019). A field test identifies any

challenges or problems in establishing the proper conversation during the interview, as

well as any protocol modifications that may be necessary.

An expert panel reviewed the interview questions. The panel included a research

methodologist and other educators with experience with high school students and work-

based learning programs. Other educators included the director of the engineering

program at the high school and the Work-based Learning State Coordinator. The panel of

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experts identified any flaws in the questions and provided valuable feedback for making

the necessary changes or additions (Bagdady, 2022; Thelwall & Nevill, 2021). The field

test was completed before the research started.

Credibility and Transferability

Creswell (2013) defined qualitative validity as the processes a researcher employs

to ensure the accuracy of the findings. A plan for consistency (reliability) included

verifying the conclusion of the study by detailing the data collection and analysis

methods. According to Maxwell (1992), interpretative validity is one of qualitative

research's most significant types of validity. The validity relates to appraising the

participant's experience and focuses on deriving appropriate meaning from individual

narratives (Maxwell, 1992; Meraz et al., 2019).

Polkinghorne (2007) referred to validity as the credibility of a study's conclusion

or knowledge claim. Qualitative researchers must establish and defend their research's

reliability, validity, and credibility. Frequently, member verification is crucial to

establishing a research account's credibility. Opportunities for peers, external consultants,

or auditors to review and verify the evidence enhance its credibility (Meraz et al., 2019;

Mills et al., 2010). Utilizing mechanical recording devices permits researchers and their

evaluators to examine data. Participant transcripts, audio or video recordings, and

research reports could be easily linked, mainly when the report contains specific

references to the database containing the evidence.

The member-checking approach is used in qualitative research to check the

accuracy of participant data. The credibility of knowledge claims can be evaluated based

on the weight of the evidence and the supporting arguments (Birt et al., 2016). Thus, a

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conclusion is credible if adequate evidence supports its veracity (Hagens et al., 2009;

Hammersley, 1990; Meraz et al., 2019). Transcripts were sent electronically to the

interviewees to clarify information, correct errors, and add new material (Hagens et al.,

2009).

Research transferability refers to suitability to other contexts or studies (Coghlan

& Brydon-Miller, 2014). As such, the researcher was responsible for providing a highly

detailed description of the participants and the research process so that the reader can

determine whether the findings apply to their context (Korstjens & Moser, 2018; Lincoln

& Guba, 1985). Consequently, the reader can determine transferability since their specific

environment is unknown to the researcher (Korstjens & Moser, 2018).

The interviews were conducted using procedural protocol. According to Mey and

Dietrich (2017), a procedural note is a formal document that outlines an interview

protocol. This study used the document as a reference point during the interview

procedure. Similarly, the interview guide (Appendix D) enabled the documentation of

any inconsistencies that may have harmed the data analysis (Castillo-Montoya, 2016).

Data Collection

Pertinent information for the study can come from multiple sources, such as

educational databases, peer-reviewed journals, and professional websites. One person

meeting the study’s criteria was contacted during the initial phase. After receiving the

recruitment email (Appendix A) explaining the research's purpose and expressing

interest, the individual shared the names of others who fit the criteria. Each participant

received full disclosure of ethical and confidentiality terms during the initial contact.

Instruments for data collecting can involve notetaking, reflection, and coding to classify

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collected information for analysis, interpretation, and comprehension (Bloomberg &

Volpe, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The participant and researcher worked together

throughout the research process to ensure that the story told, and the story recounted

corresponded.

Recruitment

The research began with one initial contact who may have met the research

criteria. A high school graduate and active member of a local congregation served as the

initial point of contact. The official recruitment process began by sending the initial

contact a recruitment email (Appendix A).

The contact responded to the recruitment email affirming the intention to

participate in the study and was later contacted to confirm eligibility. The informed

consent (Appendix B) was subsequently transmitted and returned before scheduling an

interview. Through snowball sampling, one participant recruited three other participants

who met the study's inclusion criteria and were potentially interested in participating.

Individuals contacted in this manner responded by telephone or email to express interest

in participating in the study.

After IRB approval, the data collection process began with a single initial contact

with an individual who met the research criteria to participate. The initial contact of each

participant included a recruitment document (Appendix A) followed by the informed

consent document (Appendix B). The informed consent was signed electronically before

the study began.

At the end of each interview, the participant was asked to recommend other

contacts who met the research criteria and may be willing to participate. Current

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participants may know individuals with study-relevant traits, making snowball sampling

desirable (Sadler et al., 2010; Simkus, 2023). With over one hundred thousand residents,

two-thirds Orthodox, many former students have left the district (Strunsky, 2018).

Snowball sampling could efficiently locate hard-to-find people (Naderifar et al., 2017).

The snowball method of obtaining participants continued until the collected data reached

saturation.

Recommended participants met all criteria: high school graduate of the district;

were between 18 and 23 years of age; participated in a work-based learning program

during high school; and have agreed to participate in the study by signing and returning

the consent form. The participants received a recruitment email (Appendix A) and an

informed consent form (Appendix B). The sample size consisted of the four students who

responded to the recruitment email and returned a copy of the signed informed consent

form (Appendix B).

Through virtual interviews, graduates who participated in a work-based learning

program in a public high school from the Northeast contributed data to the study.

Participants chose from several convenient dates and time slots for a sixty-minute

recorded virtual meetings via Microsoft programs. The interviews proceeded according to

the interview guidelines (Appendix C).

Each interview was scheduled and recorded on Microsoft Teams. Interviews were

scheduled to accommodate participants' availability. Immediately after each virtual

interview, the transcription was saved on an encrypted USB drive. The transcription was

reviewed and revised as necessary to correspond with the articulation of the participant.

As for credibility, member checking was implemented because it allowed participants to

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review their responses, add new data, and remove previously submitted data. The study

used member checking to confirm information (Birt et al., 2016; Carlson, 2010). Each

participant received a copy of their transcript (Hagens et al., 2009), but only one chose to

make changes.

After transcription, the audio recording and all related documents were stored

electronically on a USB drive and secured in a security safe and lockbox. After three

years, data on the USB drive will be overwritten, followed by a hammer to shatter the

case and destroy the chips inside the USB case. All efforts were made to make sure the

participants felt comfortable with the entire process.

Inclusion Criteria

Individuals were mandated to meet three eligibility criteria for inclusion in the

study. The individuals had to be 18-23 years of age and have graduated high school from

a particular public school system in the Northeastern coastal region of the United States.

Additionally, all participants must have engaged in work-based learning experiences

during high school.

Exclusion Criteria

Individuals were considered ineligible for participation in the study if they were

under 18 or exceeded 23 years of age. A person who expressed interest in the study was

deemed ineligible if graduation from high school occurred in a district located outside the

coastal Northeast region of the United States. Persons who did not participate in any

work-based learning opportunities during secondary school would be excluded.

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Member Checking

For this study, validation of the findings included member checking (Birt et al.,

2016; Carlson, 2010). The transcribed narratives were electronically distributed to the

participants to confirm the work's substance, correctness, and completeness. The

accuracy of the data, as provided by the source, was validated by member checking

(Stake, 2010).

Primary Data

The relationship between participants and the researcher is essential for collecting

accurate information (McGrath et al., 2019). Participants must feel comfortable and

receive appreciation for their efforts during the interview. In addition, the researcher must

employ practical interpersonal skills, maintain composure, and provide thoughtful

comments (Birks et al., 2008) to communicate with participants (Butina, 2015). In so

doing, the interview environment can be less intimidating. In narrative research,

interviewers listen to and share participants' social experiences (Thelwall & Nevill,

2021). The quantity and quality of data obtained are proportional to the amount of

participant and researcher contact.

The information was collected through virtual interviews on Microsoft Teams.

Journals and images pertinent to the event were initially planned to complement the

participant's recollections; however, access to such information was forbidden due to new

social distancing norms (Creswell, 2008). The eleven open-ended questions were asked

throughout the interviews, and their primary aim was to locate the participants' similar

experiences (Moustakas, 1994).

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Demographics

One 18- to 23-year-old male and three 18- to 23-year-old female participants were

interviewed via Microsoft Teams. No formal demographic information was collected

during the process. In the study, neither race nor cultural identities were discussed or

included. Each participant reported no longer residing in the public school district

mentioned in the study.

Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis makes sense of the data (Merriam, 2009). Butina (2015)

stated that the process would require immersion into the data, consolidating it, and

concentrating on the segments that may offer insight into research questions. The

segments were compared to identify patterns or themes within the data (Butina, 2015).

Moreover, experiments and observations cannot produce the same unique and

comprehensive data as narrative methodology.

Qualitative research examines the accounts of those who have experienced the

phenomenon under study and then compares their accounts to determine what is shared

between them, thus defining the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Due to the extensive

data required for the analysis, the Modified van Kaam approach was the most evident

choice for the research (Moustakas, 1994). The modified van Kaam analysis consists of

the following seven steps:

(1) Step 1 involves listing and grouping relevant responses from study participants.

(2) Step 2 involves separating essential experience components from irrelevant and

redundant data.

(3) Step 3 involves grouping similar codes into themes.

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 (4) Step 4 involves testing themes against the transcript for explicit expression or

compatibility.

(5) Step 5 involves constructing an individual textural description.

(6) Step 6 combines textural and structural elements to explain the phenomenon.

(7) Step 7 combines textural and structural to understand what is occurring.

The modified van Kaam analysis was performed to comprehensively understand

participants' lived experiences without altering their narratives, experiences, or stories. In

addition, the analysis examined the participants' lived experiences to comprehend the

experience.

Chapter Summary

The third chapter elaborated on the research methodology and design utilized in

this qualitative narrative inquiry study. Participants' experiences in a work-based learning

program were shared through their stories. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) viewed

narrative inquiry as an exploration of a life experience and a method by which a

researcher analyzes the experience and integrates it into the act of retelling.

The final sample included four individuals who graduated from a public high

school in the Northeast. The data collection technique, instruments, and analysis

protected the participants' identities. A synopsis of the data analysis technique included

the steps of the modified van Kaam (Moustakas, 1994) analytical approach.

The narrative inquiry design satisfied the study's goal of describing the problem

and comprehending the various viewpoints from structured individual interviews. The

interview responses and data were examined and cross-referenced to verify their

credibility. Connecting interview responses to the protocol and established procedures

110
helped strengthen the research's credibility. The unique experiences and narratives of the

participants answered the research questions, making their accounts the focal point of the

study. The findings and interpretation of the data helped to understand work-based

learning as described by former high school graduates who participated in work-based

learning during high school.

Chapter 4 provides an objective description and analysis of the study's findings as

depicted in the interview responses. The data comprises direct narrative quotations that

correspond to several specific themes. The answers to the interview queries provide the

basis for these quotations. Chapter 4 presents the research project's results and findings,

emphasizing the participant interviews and personal perspectives. Specifically, selected

narratives and experiences answered the eleven interview questions that align with the

research questions that guided the study.

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 Chapter 4

Analysis and Results

Chapter 4 presents the results of the data analysis for each of the research

questions for the current qualitative narrative investigation of the experiences of

graduates of a public high school district in the coastal region of the Northeast through

their narratives of work-based learning opportunities while in high school. The data

comprises direct narrative quotations that correspond to a specific theme. The answers to

the interview queries provided the basis for the quotations. The research examined the

advantages of work-based learning for a range of stakeholders, including industry,

students, administration, and secondary school graduates upon entering the workforce in

the future. The research analysis highlighted the personal perspectives on the post-

secondary benefits of high school participation in work-based learning. Narratives and

experiences provided answers to questions that corresponded to the research questions in

the study.

Research Questions

The study explored the conscious experiences of 18- to 23-year-old high school

graduates who participated in work-based learning while in high school. Three research

questions guided the objective. The narratives of one's life could provide background for

making sense of educational events. The research concerns narrative inquiry transcending

temporality, sociality, and spatiality. The following three qualitative narrative inquiry

questions guided the current study:

R1: How do participants characterize the relationship between work-based

learning experiences and chances for post-secondary employment? (Temporality)

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 R2: How do participants characterize interrelationships with others involved in

the work-based learning experience? (Sociality)

R3: How does involvement in a work-based learning program in high school

translate to life beyond graduation? (Spatiality)

Data Collection

After receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the

University of Phoenix, participants who met the sampling criteria were recruited using

snowball sampling. Participants were selected based on three criteria: high school

graduates from a specific coastal district in the Northeast, being between 18 and 23 years

of age, and participating in a work-based learning program during high school. The first

candidate contacted provided the contact information of additional prospective candidates

(Figure 5). The Informed Consent Form was emailed to potential participants after

verifying that each participant met the study's requirements.

Each participant was required to submit the digitally signed form via electronic

transmission. The document contained contact information, which included the

University of Phoenix email address of the researcher. Prospective participants were also

provided with a phone number if additional information was required. Before the

interview, selected participants received a copy of the Informed Consent Form and a

thorough explanation of the study via email. Docusign.com was utilized to obtain copies

of signed informed consent forms (Appendix B).

The Informed Consent Form (Appendix B) provided each participant with a

detailed description of the interview procedure (Appendix C). Each interview was

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scheduled, and video recorded using Microsoft Teams in a secure virtual medium.

Transcription was conducted utilizing the Microsoft Teams feature.

Figure 5

Data Collection Process

• Recruit
Collect Data • Volunteer Commitment

• Transcribe
Interviews • Member-Checking

The instrument for data collection was direct interviews with each participant.

The interviews included four high school graduates between 18 and 23 years of age from

a public high school in the coastal Northeast who participated in work-based learning

during high school to learn about their attitudes, perspectives, knowledge, and concerns

regarding their work-based learning experiences. The primary instrument employed in

this qualitative narrative inquiry was the researcher. Each participant had a privately

scheduled and recorded meeting on Microsoft Teams. The scheduled and conducted

virtual one-on-one interviews contributed to developing a detailed, tangible, and

exhaustive account of participant experiences in work-based learning.

At the time of each interview, the study participants were respectfully assigned

the following codes: SP1, SP2, SP3, and SP4. Each interview ranged from 45 minutes to

1 hour and 15 minutes. Throughout the interview process, participants were provided

assurances regarding confidentiality. Participants were given ample time to pose

questions via telephone, text message Publications, or email before and after each

114
interview. Participants’ personally identifiable information, such as age, contact

information, names, and consent forms, were formally collected. Gender was established

informally. During the individual Microsoft Teams interviews, non-formal demographic

information was obtained from one male and three female participants.

Eleven interview questions (Appendix D) were the initial impetus for the

conversation. As the interviews were semi-structured, any prospective follow-up

questions were asked as part of the natural flow of the conversation to elicit more in-

depth and comprehensive responses from the interviewees. According to the audio files

and transcripts, no follow-up inquiries were required; however, an interview question was

occasionally repeated.

Since it had been at least five years since the students were in high school, several

questions were designed to guide the interviewee’s thought process of remembering their

work-based learning experience. The remaining questions were formulated to learn how

the work-based learning experience provided skills that prepared them for post-secondary

life. The interview questions were grouped into three categories to simplify the analytical

process and align with the research questions: (1) Work-based Learning and Post-

Secondary Employment (questions 1, 2 & 3); (2) Work-based Learning Interrelationships

(questions 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8); (3) Work-based Learning and Post-Secondary Decisions

(questions 9, 10 & 11).

Microsoft Teams based interviews were constructed for each participant

according to participant availability. Participants were individually invited to a Microsoft

Teams meeting with an arbitrarily generated password. No other participant received the

same meeting ID and password combination as another, ensuring adequate

115
confidentiality. In addition, no outside observers had access to the IDs or meeting

credentials.

Each interview was audio recorded to ensure the acquisition of accurate data.

According to the Recruitment Form (Appendix A) and the Informed Consent (Appendix

B), only the audio from Microsoft Teams interviews was referenced for the study.

Otter.ai, a second virtual transcription software comparable to Microsoft Teams, was

utilized as a contingency for the audio.

The expectation was that each participant would need two meetings. The first

scheduled meeting was the interview, where all data would be collected. The rationale for

the second meeting was to examine and prepare the audio-recorded and transcribed data

for approval or modification by the participant.

The interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed within the Microsoft

Teams application. The researcher conducted the transcription using Microsoft's available

transcription feature. The researcher and interviewee scrutinized each transcribed

interview via email to determine whether corrections were necessary and to finalize an

acceptable transcript.

The recorded interviews were destroyed after the participants' confirmation that

the transcript accurately reflected their responses. The documents containing personally

identifiable information have been stored in a secure location on a USB flash drive and

will be deleted 3 years after the study's completion. During the fourth interview, the

researcher determined that data saturation had been reached and that additional

interviews would not yield any new information.

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Demographics

During the individual interviews held on Microsoft Teams, gender and

demographics were informally collected (Table 4). The final sample included one male

and three female participants between 18 and 23 years of age. Race or cultural identities

were not discussed or included in the study. Each participant stated that they no longer

lived in the public school district referenced in the study.

Table 4

Demographic Data

Participant Gender Identified Visually

SP1 Female

SP2 Male

SP3 Female

SP4 Female

Data Analysis

The data analysis process (Figure 6) involved making meaning of the data through

data immersion, data consolidation, and a focus on the segments that provided insight

into research questions. Comparing the segments enabled the identification of patterns or

recurring themes within the data (Figure 6). The objective of the study’s analysis was to

investigate the perspectives of high school graduates who participated in a work-based

learning program while in high school.

Data analysis (Figure 6) utilized narrative and thematic approaches, emphasizing

the narrative process. The steps involved reviewing interviews, taking notes, and
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transcribing data. Participants were provided with transcriptions for evaluation and

approval.

NVivo12 coding software assisted with data analysis for the study. Each transcript

was imported into the coding software, which generated participant-specific files. The

researcher used the files during transcript examination to identify and organize thematic

elements into cluster folders. After scrutinizing each transcript, the researcher used the

files to identify and organize thematic elements into folders based on clusters. The

cluster-based folders were used to classify and organize the themes more

comprehensively. The classification of themes demonstrated that sufficient data had been

collected.

Figure 6

Data Analysis Process

Chunk into Organize Assign Refine and

smaller into initial develop
groups clusters codes codes

Coding and organizing the data was required to analyze the recorded data’s

verbatim transcription. The next stage involved reducing the data to complex units of

meaning. These meaning units of endless contexts served as the basis for the qualitative

analysis. In the following stage, validation consisted of comparing the fundamental

themes to the entire transcript to determine if they line up or require elimination.

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 After completing the steps for all transcripts (Table 5), the comparative analysis

process implicit in the narrative inquiry study design was applied to the contents of the

themes to identify any shared participant perspectives. Themes were extracted from the

interviews (Table 5) and were as follows: overall experience, communication,

organization, opportunity, career, hands-on, culture, shadow, listening, and college.

Contrary to the emergent themes, one participant (Table 6) contributed to the

research in a manner distinct from the others. The NVivo12 software discovered

additional data. The additional data collected in the study included information on the

interview process, the investment of time and money, career trajectory, and the activities

conducted in the classroom. The extra findings provided further support for the

participants' reported experiences. In the results, germane participant quotes preceded

each group of questions with their corresponding theme.

Table 5

Data Analysis

Code Frequency

Overall Experience 105

Communication 63
Organizational skills 48
Opportunity 33
Career 29
Hands-On 25
Culture/Cultural 22
Shadow 20
Listening 19
College 15
Attention to detail 8

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Table 6

Additional Data

Code Frequency

Interview process 19

Time and money 14

Career Path 11

Classroom Activities 11

The narrative inquiry method centered its data analysis on the shared narratives of

the participants. Because the stories of the four high school graduates shed light on the

work-based learning experiences during high school and how those experiences

influenced post-secondary decisions, the research findings are best communicated using

their narratives to illustrate the various themes.

Temporality

In the first research question, participants analyzed the impact of work-based

learning on post-secondary employment opportunities. The interviews revealed that

work-based learning helped participants improve communication and public speaking

skills. Real-world learning forced students to extend their abilities beyond personally set

barriers.

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Sociality

Participants characterized work-based learning relationships in the second

question. Work-based learning exposed students to culturally diverse professional work

environments. Two of the four participants had never worked and had limited knowledge

of other cultures. As leaders and practitioners, incorporating cultural learning in the

classroom is necessary.

Spatiality

The third research question asked if the high school work-based learning program

was transferable to life after graduation. The participants reflected on overcoming

personal anxieties, such as speaking with adults. One of the four participants reported that

being in a confined space with strangers no longer caused apprehension. Two of the four

participants learned that the first selected fields of study were no longer considered.

Work-based learning could also save time and money for students entering post-

secondary education.

Results

The researcher investigated the data vertically regarding participants’ stories,

similarities across narratives emerged, and results were written as data that characterized

collective accounts and their commonalities. Thematic analysis was conducted using

coded sentences, paragraphs, descriptions, interview structure, and the interview.

Narratives were categorized, participants’ experiences summarized, and data were

categorized into themes.

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Theme 1: Communication and Real-World Experience

Since the participants have been out of secondary school for one to five years, the

first two questions were intended to stimulate their work-based learning experience.

Temporality focuses on the evolution of participant experiences over time. The study’s

participants expressed an appreciation for learning beyond the confines of the classroom.

SP1 shared, “We went out to different schools, speaking to students about what we do at

the nonprofit and what it really is about.” Similarly, SP2 stated, “I wanted to do an

internship because initially, I was interested in policing...”

The work-based learning placement was the first work experience for SP1, SP2,

and SP3. Not all students can access the activities, exposure, practice, and feedback that

could help them develop employability skills. The former work-based learning

participants shared how the experience helped post-secondary. SP3 shared, “…it helped

me understand, like, what sort of questions would be asked in an interview…” SP4

stated, “As you know, my degree is going to be in early childhood development. So that’s

the reason why I was there.”

Participating in work-based learning during high school afforded the learners a

real-world experience. In work-based learning, students can explore careers and learn

different aspects of a work environment. SP1 stated, “I got to work with Salesforce…and

with Mail Chimp.” SP2 likewise stated, “…the biggest one, I got to sit with several

different judges…got to see criminal cases.” SP3 shared, “I presented in front of the

CEO, and the people I worked with…helped me boost my confidence.” SP4 shared,

“…my kindergarten class… I would help them start with their morning work.”

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 Learning in class differs from learning on the job. Each of the participants

shadowed managers (SP1), judges and officers (SP2), financial officers (SP3), and

teachers (SP4). Most interesting was how the participants connected hands-on learning

with classroom learning. The common thread was listening and reflecting on new

knowledge. SP1 shared, “I will always write it down and go over it like I was preparing

for a test.” SP2 stated, “I guess, paying attention closer attention to things.” SP4 stated,

“So, it helped me to realize not to be afraid to ask for help.”

Work-based learning program participants developed skills not addressed in the

typical school environment. Classroom learning is so regimented that students are not

always forced to build communication and organizational skills. Students do not like to

speak in front of groups, and texting has diminished the ability to have a proper

conversation. The results highlighted improvements in the participant’s ability to

communicate with adults professionally.

Communication and organization were often referenced as new knowledge by the

participants. Work-based learning prepares students for the real world. The experience

equipped students with skills that could be used in most entry-level jobs. SP2 stated, “I

developed a lot of like transferable skills there…communication being like a big one.”

SP1, SP2, SP3, and SP4 shared experiences with building communication skills and

networking. SP2 shared, “I was able to learn how to like professionally communicate

with things like my supervisors or other staff.” SP3 stated, “Again, like even during the

process, I learned communication skills, organizational skills. I realized after I graduated

how important it is to know people.”

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Theme 2: Cultural Awareness, Networking and Career Exploration

The second theme identified was career exploration and cultural awareness.

Questions four through eight allowed the participants to share how the experience helped

them understand the differences between the classroom and the real world. The school's

demographics at the time of the study were Hispanic, and the only exposure to other

cultures was limited to the majority-white faculty. The experience provided exposure to a

different demographic. The participants shared that the experience allowed them to build

interpersonal and employability skills. Communication, respect, and patience were other

beneficial components of interacting with diverse cultures.

Sociality is concerned with how participants' experiences relate to society or

relationships. SP1 shared her initial discomfort with working in an unfamiliar

environment, “I never really interacted with white people unless they were my

schoolteachers. It helped me a lot.” Correspondingly, SP2 stated, “And it was a really

good learning opportunity in that way because you don’t get the same kind of experience

at a place like a school because you usually interact with the same sort of people.” SP3

shared, “It helped me like learn about being respectful and being like patient; there’s so

many different kinds of people.” SP4 stated, “…just because you come from a different

background, or a different country doesn't mean that I can't learn from you …”

Despite the significance of organization and professionalism during the learning

experience, mastery of the new skills was primarily achieved through daily activities and

observing professionals in the field. High school students have limited knowledge of

work ethics due to the absence of classroom behavioral standards, relevant task

repetition, or mentoring. Work-based learning allows students to witness and evaluate the

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conduct and professionalism displayed by assigned mentors. SP1 stated, “…working with

them every day …” SP2 shared, “…just doing the day-to-day tasks at the site.” SP2 also

stated, “…it kind of helped me practice and refine the skills…”

Participants in work-based learning acquired an understanding of professionalism

by working under the supervision of a professional for several hours per day. In work-

based learning, mentorship is indispensable. SP 1 stated, “You are there learning and

doing the work, and you can ask someone who has been doing it for a long-time

questions.” Shadowing professionals provides insight into the industry, job duties,

expectations, and overall responsibilities.

The results support work-based learning programs in providing participants with

more than just work experience; they also assist them in determining if their intended

career path is feasible. SP1 and SP3 were offered positions at their work-based learning

site, but they declined them. Work-based learning programs provide cost-free career

exploration opportunities.

Career exploration in high school enables students to consider post-secondary

options. College is a time-consuming and costly means to learn that a desired career is

not a good fit. SP3 stated, “After I got to explore the field of criminal justice a little, I

realized that it wasn’t really for me…” SP1 and SP4 are in college, SP3 has completed a

four-year program of study, and SP2 is returning to college in the fall.

Secondary schools often promote college enrollment without discussing career

options, inviting industry professionals to meet in small groups, or sponsoring career

fairs, which is unjust to students who are not college ready. SP2 stated, “…if I hadn’t

done it, I wouldn’t have known that it wasn’t for me. So instead, I was able to change

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fields and pursue something else.” Conversely, SP1 stated, “I learned that I love helping

people… it was really fun and interesting.” SP3 shared, “I had planned to do something

in finance but had narrowed it down to anything specific. But the experience helped me

look in a different direction.” SP4 stated, “It gave me an idea of what it is like to be in a

learning environment with little kids.”

Theme 3: Self-Discovery

Increasing the visibility of career guidance in K-12 institutions could assist

students in understanding the relationship between their employment experiences and

their long-term career goals. In educational systems, structure and support should be

present for young people transitioning from secondary school to college or career. The

study results illustrated that work-based learning experiences could have post-secondary

benefits.

Participants in the study often commented on the experience. SP3 stated, “The

overall experience was great because it prepared me to be professional, respectful, and

how to communicate. I learned how to be invited into a room, proper handshakes, eye

contact, and the importance of listening.” Working with or shadowing professionals in

the industry helped with self-development and acquiring skills that are not a primary

focus in most schools. Spatiality focuses on how the participant’s experiences were

related to the environment and culture within which the participants worked.

The results of the study illustrated that a work-based learning experience could

assist post-secondary decisions. Student Participant 1 (SP1) expressed a desire to pursue

further education but faced uncertainty regarding the optimal selection of courses.

Through the work-based learning assignment, SP1 was able to partake in marketing

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projects actively and discovered a creative side that may have otherwise remained

unexplored. SP4 shared, “It pushed me to want to become a teacher even more.” As a

result of the work-based learning experience, SP2– “…helping me narrow down my

career options” and SP3– “…accounting was so boring…” changed the trajectory of their

educational and career decisions.

As indicated by the interview narratives, the work-based learning experience

significantly benefited each participant. The experience allowed SP1, SP2, SP3, and SP4

to determine career and college paths. Each participant expressed self-efficacy,

professional growth, and the acquisition of transferrable skills. Work-based learning

offers substantial advantages for students, enabling self-discovery and finding what

works best for them.

Chapter Summary

Chapter 4 presented interview data based on thematic classification. Three major

themes were revealed using the narrative study design principles: communication and

real-world experience, cultural awareness –networking–career exploration, and self-

discovery. The narrative's depth assisted in comprehending the participants' perspectives

on work-based learning.

The narratives demonstrated the acquisition of new skills. Notably, three of the

four participants gained their first employment through the work-based learning

experience. Since the experience did not occur in the traditional book learning

environment, students were required to abandon their comfort zones. The opportunity

afforded the participants a new perspective on learning.

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 The participants reflected on the in-class preparation process for the work-based

learning experience. Learning to shake hands properly and enter a room are essential

employment skills. The interview responses emphasized the benefits of the ‘interview

process, mock interviews, self-assessments, and career research because of the techniques

and strategies applied to their current employment process.

Real-world learning placed the participants in situations involving interactions

with diverse cultures and adults without the teacher as the buffer. Participants indicated

an initial discomfort in working with other cultures. Work-based learning could provide a

chance to network with people from various social classes.

Although Work-based learning for each participant differed, perspectives and

outcomes were similar. Self-efficacy was evident in their reflections on the high school

work-based learning experience. Cognitive strategies help students apply information to

new situations. The participants were required to reflect upon their roles as learners in

different learning environments. Consequently, individuals may have the inherent

capacity to attain heightened consciousness. Students with a wide array of learning,

cognitive, and problem-solving capabilities are more likely to use these abilities in the

future.

According to participant interviews, the post-secondary and working

environments are comparable regarding the skills required to operate within the

frequently inescapable established standards. Work-based learning experiences are

crucial for career success and academic achievement. Work-based learning could assist

local industries in filling positions with trained individuals. The findings of the research

were comprehensively expounded upon in Chapter 4.

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 Chapter 5 presents an interpretation of the results and makes recommendations for

future research by researchers. Chapter 5 discusses the findings by comparing the results

to existing literature. Based on the research questions and findings, Chapter 5 provides

those in leadership and practice with recommendations for addressing the problem

underlying the study. The future recommendations in the Chapter provide resources to

help the district define roles and expectations for learners participating in work-based

learning.

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 Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

Four high school graduates provided valuable information regarding their work-

based learning experience while attending a public school district in the Northeast

through the current qualitative narrative inquiry. The study provided a deeper

understanding of how work-based learning operated from the participant's perspective.

The work-based learning afforded the four high school students a real-world experience,

enhanced their academic, technical, and employability skills, and combined preparation

and opportunity (Barfield, 2022; JFF, 2018).

Secondary educational institutions in the United States are under constant

pressure to expand their instructional scope beyond customary methods to ensure their

graduates are college and career ready. The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry

was to learn about the experiences of graduates of a public high school district in the

Northeast through their stories of work-based learning opportunities while they were in

high school (Baker, 2020; Cahill, 2016; Jimenez, 2020; Ross et al., 2020). Schools must

prepare students in the following essential areas: academic knowledge, employability

skills, conscientiousness, responsibility, self-management, and technical skills and

knowledge (Plasman & Thompson, 2023).

Annual increases in high school graduation rates nationwide have not been

accompanied by improvements in employment prospects or achievement in post-

secondary education. The problem is when high school graduates have not developed a

work-related skill, the result is that they have challenges adapting to post-secondary life.

Available evidence substantiates the premise that educational institutions must ensure

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students are well-equipped for their pursuits beyond secondary education (Mathers, 2019;

Ross et al., 2020).

Research Questions

The study aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences of high school

graduates who participated in work-based learning while in high school. Three qualitative

narrative inquiry questions were the focus of this study:

R1: How do participants characterize the relationship between work-based

learning experiences and chances for post-secondary employment? (Temporality)

R2: How do participants characterize interrelationships with others involved in

the work-based learning experience? (Sociality)

R3: How does involvement in a work-based learning program in high school

translate to life beyond graduation? (Spatiality)

Discussion of Findings

Examining raw data, reducing data into themes (Dhakal, 2022) through coding

and recoding processes, and representing the data in figures, tables, and narratives

constitute data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). Using the data analysis

techniques of a qualitative narrative inquiry, Chapter 4 identified several themes from the

audio recordings: communication and real-world experience, cultural awareness–

networking–career exploration, and self-discovery. The narratives of each interview were

transcribed verbatim. A review of the themes relating to the existing literature was

necessary to discover any benefits, skills attainment, and experiences that promote work-

based learning.

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 Career programs must be defended in the current educational climate. When

determining which programs are necessary, enrollment numbers are always considered.

The findings of the study on work-based learning provide district leaders, administrators,

and instructors with information that could be used to increase opportunities. In addition,

the program's integrity must be frequently addressed. The information obtained could

guide allocating resources and opportunities to all students.

Theme 1: Communication and Real-World Experience

Research completed in the United Kingdom (Coll et al., 2004) provided evidence

that perceived advantages and disadvantages reported by international students

participating in work-based learning are similar to those reported in Western countries.

The research included acquiring relevant practical skills, interpersonal skills and

experience, and real-world experience. To adequately prepare individuals for the

challenges of the modern era, emphasizing career-readiness skills development and

incorporating work-based learning opportunities that facilitate real-world experiential

learning are essential (Jimenez, 2020).

Work-based activities are learning activities rooted in real-world situations aiming

to improve the capacity of learners to address challenges in their daily job

responsibilities. For three participants, namely SP1, SP2, and SP3, the work-based

learning experience was their first employment and an unfamiliar atmosphere for

learning. The acquisition of skills and information through work-based activities occurred

within a specific context and setting, ensuring future applicability rather than in a

hypothetical environment. Our nation's dynamic economy demands an employee base of

individuals prepared for today's jobs and can acquire new skills to meet labor market

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demand (ASA, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c). The participants articulated that the work-based

learning experience afforded a valuable opportunity to enhance their readiness for future

pursuits (Alfeld et al., 2013).

Although each learner was provided information regarding the site's location,

their apprehension level exceeded all expectations. Three participants, SP1, SP2, and

SP3, expressed concerns because they had no employment exposure. SP4 has worked in

the past, but only in a fast-food environment. The work-based learning experience

provided the opportunity to actively engage in and gain insight into basic work ethics and

professionalism (Alfeld et al., 2013; ASA, 2023).

Despite being inconsistently available and of variable quality nationally, work-

based learning is a specialty in education and workforce development (Ross et al., 2020).

Some students would have access to career and college preparation under such

conditions. Consequently, initiatives to provide high-quality opportunities for work-based

learning may need to be revised. Without instructional modifications, only a fraction of

programs will likely have the resources to prioritize quality enhancement and evaluation

(Plasman & Thompson, 2023; Ross et al., 2020).

Employability skills could be cultivated through observation and practice, as work

experience offers valuable opportunities for acquiring practical, hands-on employment

expertise. Job shadowing is one activity that may contribute to the development of these

skills, albeit to a lesser extent, given that students typically lack the opportunity to

implement and refine them in the workplace. Job shadowing provided a different

perspective, reduced anxiety, and enhanced job satisfaction (Personal Communication).

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Networking links students with supportive workplace relationships that guide them

through many of the workplace's unwritten norms.

Our nation's dynamic economy calls for an employee base consisting of

individuals who are prepared for today's jobs and able to acquire new skills as required to

meet labor market demand. All workers must have continuous access to flexible and

affordable training and education opportunities. ASA (2022) and Jobs for the Future

(JFF, 2021b) used original research on Generation Z and employers to conclude that 81%

of employers concurred that organizations should hire based on skills rather than post-

secondary degrees. The need to evaluate the meaning of employability and the

educational and professional paths that facilitate its attainment is becoming increasingly

prominent.

Theme 2: Cultural Awareness, Networking, and Career Exploration

Scholarly evidence further indicates that integrating academic education,

technical skills development, and work-based learning could prepare students for

prospective job prospects (Thessin et al., 2018). Student programs for workforce

development incorporated consciously positive adolescent development principles. A

five-city initiative funded by the Annie E. Foundation emphasized the significance of

working relationships, noting that participants referred to program staff as some of the

first positive, consistent adult roles ever encountered (Anderson-Moore et al., 2018). For

three students, SP1, SP2, and SP3, work-based learning was a first-time job experience.

Students in the study believed that their work-based learning course adequately

prepared them to interact with other employees from diverse cultural and ethnic

backgrounds. The participants indicated that their interactions with other cultures were

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limited because the makeup of the public school district is primarily Hispanic and

African American (Public School Review, 2021). The acquisition of the ability to

effectively engage with varied cultural origins bestows a notable advantage in practical

contexts, owing to the intrinsic uniqueness of each individual (Boone, 2019). Cultivating

skills in adapting to and comprehending the distinctiveness of individuals among students

contributes to advancing global development. Although three participants (SP1, SP2, and

SP3) expressed having minimal interaction with white people, the overall experience was

positive.

Through developmental relationships with adults, adolescents have the

opportunity to comprehend their experiences, learn self-regulating behaviors, develop

social skills, and build resilience. Such relationships and social interactions provide

crucial opportunities for learners to experiment, learn, and grow within and across their

environment (Ross et al., 2020). In work-based learning, adult supervisors, mentors,

instructors, and others can provide young people access to valuable resources such as

information, assistance, and exposure to adulthood, support, and encouragement. Each

participant agreed that networking helped them understand the value of networking and

developing relationships with professionals.

Work-based learning facilitates the prevalent informal referral system in

recruitment and employment. Organizations rely heavily on referrals during the hiring

procedure (Ross et al., 2020). The work-based learning program provides a formal,

structured method of connecting people from otherwise disparate networks; an adult can

attest to a young person and portray them favorably to a potential employer who may

subconsciously hold a negative stereotype (Plasman & Thompson, 2023; Ross et al.,

135
2020). Without access to labor market information and connections, and more

importantly, the ability to comprehend and interact with multiple networks, many young

people cannot apply what they have learned, further undermining the legitimacy of

educational and employment development systems (DeJesus, 2021).

Theme 3: Self-Discovery

Empirical research suggests that employers believe individuals attain sufficient

training through work-based learning, with program coordinators having a significant

role in developing and coordinating (King Bailey, 2009). Both employers and students

acknowledge the advantages of work-based learning, highlighting its significant impact

on improving learning and personal growth (King Bailey, 2009; Papadimitriou, 2014).

The most widely acknowledged effect of work experience is its ability to aid young

people in deciding on a career path and provide insight into the workforce. Classroom

learning lacks real-life experience, while workplace learning involves hands-on

experience (SP1, Personal Communication). Work-based learning placements provide

participants with the opportunity to explore particular positions in the workplace and

increase their understanding of various industries. Studies have demonstrated that work-

based learning placements can help young people confirm or deny potential career

options (Alfeld et al., 2013; ASA, 2023; Bailey et al., 2003),

The participants in the study were initially college-bound, with a definitive major.

SP2 and SP4 planned to attend the local community college and major in business and

criminal justice, respectively. SP3 planned to major in finance at a state university, and

SP4 was unsure of which college to attend but would major in education. Each

participant conveyed that formal (i.e., internships) and informal learning (i.e., job

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shadowing, personal and career assessments) associated with the work-based learning

experience helped with post-secondary decisions (Plasman & Thompson, 2023).

While numerous frameworks for course design and evaluation in the literature are

available (Collis & Margaryan, 2005; DeJesus, 2021), none fully represent the type of

learning supported by work-based learning activities for the following reasons: an

assumption that all instruction is either in person or virtual, or that participants are

primarily responding to teacher-driven instruction or content. The program assists 17-

year-olds in navigating their uncertain futures by addressing their lack of knowledge

(SP3, Personal Communication). The study's participants were in a credit-bearing, career-

focused, work-based learning course that included job shadowing, internships, and

cooperative education (ASA, 2023; Kobes et al., 2018). Job shadowing refers to school-

sponsored workplace visits that allow students to observe workers in action (Buzzeo &

Cifci, 2017). Internships and cooperative education refer to structured work experience

(ASA, 2021a).

Critical components of the work-based learning framework are career exploration

and career awareness (ASA, 2022). Learners may be better able to identify individual

preferences and areas of interest with job exploration opportunities during the experience.

Providing learning alternatives to students could be beneficial in facilitating the

clarification of their career choices (ASA, 2022; Hudson, 2020). Students' understanding

of the career trajectories they wish to pursue may be enhanced through participation in

career exploration activities (Kelly, 2021).

SP2 and SP3 experienced personal epiphanies during their work-based learning.

SP2 shared that the plan was always to be a police officer. The work-based learning

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opportunity provided a view of the career from an unfamiliar perspective. Conversely, the

self-assessment activities shifted the career trajectory of SP3 from finance to

cybersecurity. The participants concurred that the activities and opportunities assisted

with college and career choices. The internship experience reduced the career

possibilities, allowing exploration of interests-aligned fields.

Conceptual Framework

Career learning encompasses several concepts that will guide young people into

developing soft skills, career awareness, and social growth (Table 7). The study

employed three frameworks to classify work-based learning practices. The utilization of

structures facilitated comprehension of diverse program models, objectives, and effective

processes within career learning experiences. The findings of the narrative study were

consistent with various corroborating ideas.

The data obtained from the interview supported the interconnectedness of the

three theories in work-based learning: experiential (Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023),

sociocultural (Cherry & Morin, 2022; Vygotsky, 1978), and social cognitive career

(Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1999; Kelly, 2009; Tetteh et al., 2021). Experience is assimilated

and transformed to produce knowledge (Kolb, 1984; Virtanen, 2023). Students

participating in a work-based learning opportunity glean from adults in a professional

work environment (Torii, 2018). Experiential learning theory characterizes learning as

the transformation of experience into new knowledge. The experience allowed the

participant to observe the activities required in a specific job, ask questions, process the

new knowledge, and apply those skills in the given environment (Kolb, 1984; The Annie

E. Casey Foundation, 2021).

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 During the interviews, participants referenced the in-class learning activities

associated with their work-based learning experience. The interview given by SP3

focused more on the preparatory learning activities than the actual site learning. Despite

the excellent site experience, the work-based learning training was instrumental in

preparing the student for real-world employment situations. The explorative activities

provided additional preparation for the challenges of the workforce (SP3, Personal

Communication).

In alignment with sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978), work-based learning

provided the participants of this study with a range of career development opportunities

through partnerships with local industries and organizations. Professionals could provide

learners with training to support their growing comprehension of knowledge in a specific

career field and the development of complex skills. The experiences facilitated

intentional learning through collaborative learning, conversations, demonstration, and

guidance, which are strategies for supporting learners’ intellectual knowledge and skills

and facilitating intentional learning (Cherry, 2020; Cherry & Morin, 2022; Mcleod, 2017;

Vygotsky, 1978).

Participation in work-based learning allows students to develop transferable

workplace skills and practices, such as attention to detail, dedication and regular

attendance, the ability to learn from knowledgeable coworkers, and the processes entailed

in acquiring mastery of complex material (Tarver, 2022). Bandura’s (1977, 1986, 1999)

model of social cognitive career theory, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and

objectives play crucial roles in educational and vocational interest development, decision-

making, and performance achievement. Specifically, social cognitive career theory

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proposes several educational and career program objectives (Wang et al., 2022). Among

the goals are attempts to broaden interests and foster career aspirations in young people,

enable career goal creation and implementation, and encourage successful job adjustment

(Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1999; Wang et al., 2022).

When courses are instructed within real-world contexts linked to the workplace

(Table 7), and when abstract knowledge concepts are coupled to tangible real-world

issues, students experience enhanced effectiveness in their learning outcomes (Tarver,

2022). Staff must have the ability to establish and maintain relationships and program

activities and curricula must be structured to enable staff and youth to form meaningful

bonds (Jorgensen, 2022; Ross et al., 2020; Tingum, 2019).

Table 7

Employability Skills

Academic Skills Effective Relationships

Applied Academic and Critical Personal

Thinking Skills and Interpersonal Skills

Attentive to detail Attendance Initiative

Identifies challenges Teamwork and
Punctuality
and problems collaboration
Develops solutions to
Communication Policy and Safety
challenges/problems
Ability to analyze Respect
Motivation
information Confidentiality
Note: Adapted from PCRN: Employability Skills, n.d.

Work-based learning could positively impact employability skills, motivation in

education, career decision-making, and knowledge of the world of work, according to the

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participants in the study (ASA, 2021a, 2021c, 2022; Hudson, 2022). The experiences

assisted students in developing social responsibility intellectual, technical, and

occupational skills that could increase their value in the labor market (Hart Research

Associates, 2013; Hudson, 2022; JFF, 2021a, 2021b; Torii, 2018).

Limitations

Limitations are obstacles within the study that could affect the findings and

conclusions (Simon & Goes, 2011). The purpose of presenting limitations was to provide

the reader with meaningful information. The study's rigor is proportional to the

participants' candor regarding the information they chose to share.

One of the four participants provided a response influenced by the tasks and

actions associated with preparing for the work-based learning experience. The participant

expressed that the interview sessions, simulated interviews, and résumé development

were the most valuable aspects of the experience. The limitation did not harm the study.

Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners

Schools nationwide have prioritized college and career readiness to emphasize

prepping learners for post-secondary and keeping up with the changing demands of the

workforce. Accelerating technological innovation and an employee shortage have

heightened the push to implement promising strategies such as work-based learning to

provide career preparations in high schools (JFF, 2018, 2021b). The study investigated

the advantages of offering work-based learning in secondary education. By focusing on

the experiences of high school students through their narratives, the study demonstrated a

novel approach to understanding the benefits of work-based learning.

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 Although students are the focal point of education, studies do not consider their

narrative. Even more, legislators and other stakeholders frequently make critical

decisions regarding the funding and future of work-based learning without considering

students' experience (Mathers, 2019; Symonds et al., 2011. The study produced

significant elements to replicate throughout work-based learning opportunities to elevate

student progress and career preparedness (Baker, 2020).

Partnerships

During the interviews, the participants provided valid suggestions for how the

school could enhance its work-based learning programs and strengthen its partnerships

with local employers (Table 8). In addition, students gain exposure to occupations and

professions that might otherwise be unknown to them (Canney & Mezera, 2020;

Donovan et al., 2022). The hands-on experience assisted students with identifying their

career goals (ASA, 2021a, 2021c, 2021d). Participants should have a seat at the table to

share their stories, thoughts, and ideas.

Districts could be more diligent in increasing relationships with local businesses

and industries (Dobbs-Oates, 2019; Carroll, 2021; Suarta et al., 2017). Work-based

learning coordinators should be included in every aspect of the program. The coordinator

would be responsible for ensuring that the line of communication is consistent (Tingum,

2019). The district must be willing to trust the process. Having a knowledgeable

connection could provide an additional point of view and manage the minutiae regarding

structure, rules, regulations, policies, procedures, and the potential benefit to the

community (Donovan et al., 2022; Hirsch, 2022).

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Communications

The study shows the need to alter educational and workforce leaders' attitudes

toward career-ready programs, such as work-based learning (JFF, 2021b; Knepler &

Zapata-Gietl, 2019). According to the interviews, students anticipated more than

traversing to a work site to observe other employees. The participants anticipated work

experiences that would equip them with future-applicable skills and knowledge (Figure

7). The recommendation for school administrators is to convene with the work-based

learning coordinator, who could engage with work-based learning participants to

deliberate on expectations and develop tangible and mutually acceptable goals (GPSEd

Partners, 2021, 2022).

Time constraints that hinder the ability of numerous organizations to create

programs, curricula, and job descriptions for students to adhere to should be considered

by school districts (Knepler & Zapata-Gietl, 2019). The recommendation is to create a

generic worksite skills list (Figure 7) that could align with most jobs in the area. Another

strategy to help companies open their doors to internships is not overwhelming them with

paperwork. The work-based learning coordinator could meet with potential sites to

provide forms and discuss expectations, such as the intern review and the capstone

project (Table 8).

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Figure 7

Worksite Skills

Career Skills Career Specific

•Active Digital Skills
learning Competence •Arts and Design
•Collecting and
Applied STEM-
•Computing •Fashion Deisgn
organizing Academics SKILLS
skills •Culinary
information •Basic •Graphic design •Engineering •Horticulture
•Creativity mathematics Concepts
•Media Literacy •Office skills
•Leadership •Reading •Health
•Micsroft Office •Child care
•Public •Writing Software Literacy •Tutoring
Speaking •Research •Google Suite •Science Lab
•Time •Photo editing Concepts and
Management Safety
•Spreadsheets
•Understand
the industry •Web
Development

Note: Adapted from PCRN: Employability Skills, n.d.

Policymakers

The credibility of the findings could be enhanced through the study's replication

using a more substantial sample size. Conducting a comprehensive inquiry with a

representative sample of the state's population would enable the assessment of the

findings' reliability (Barfield, 2022). If the State Department of Education conducts a

study, students from all work-based learning programs could participate. Research done

by policymakers and the state department aimed to encourage district leaders, principals,

and educators to actively collaborate with work-based learning coordinators, thereby

enhancing the level of support provided to the program (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-

Hammond, 2013; Stasz & Brewer, 1998).

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Educational Leaders

The study identified educational strategies that could help school administrators

improve the preparedness of high school graduates to smoothly enter the workforce after

completing secondary education (Table 8). Understanding the needs of employers could

guide curriculum enhancements to increase the preparation of tomorrow's workforce

(ASA, 2022; Bangser, 2008; Deke & Haimson, 2006; OECD, 2012). Enhancing learning

experiences necessitates collaboration among teachers, employers, and students (ASA,

2021d, 2022).

Districts could consider establishing an advisory task force comprising career and

technology education teachers, guidance counselors, and recent high school graduates.

The team would have the opportunity to convene to engage in a comprehensive

discussion of current job trends, available course offerings, and potential

recommendations for curriculum or program modifications (Task Force on Student

Learning and Success, 2017). High school graduates could exchange their post-secondary

experiences and discuss the resources they desired to have available throughout their time

in high school (Coll et al., 2004; Maslak, 2022).

Work-based Learning Task Force

Although experts and professionals target secondary school, the implementation

of work-based learning initiatives could begin as early as fifth grade (Ross et al., 2020).

District administrators and educators could designate a task force to carry out and oversee

annual short interviews to gauge student interest and develop a comprehensive career

education curriculum for the academic year. The task force could arrange for

professionals to interact with elementary school students, coordinate field trips to relevant

145
organizations, or set up virtual visits based on the findings from the interviews (Canney

& Mezera, 2020). As a result, students could learn about various careers, which could

assist them in choosing a pathway in secondary education (ASA, 2021d).

Table 8

Recommendations for Leaders and Practitioners

Themes Recommendations

Work-based learning programs Establish a recruitment procedure that

discloses program objectives and
highlights to students, parents, and local
businesses

Real-world experience Facilitate work-based learning

opportunities for all high school students

Skills development Ensure all students can access feedback,

professional development opportunities,
and activities that could enhance their
employability

Career Exposure Establish standardized operating

procedures to guide the implementation of
work-based learning initiatives within the
organizations of stakeholders

Career Exposure and Exploration Ensure the programs' objectives include

facilitating students' exploration of post-
secondary options that seek to mitigate
the financial burden associated with
pursuing higher education and aiding

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 them in assessing the suitability of their
desired career path

Work-based learning Coordinator The coordinator will be the point of

contact, establish teams as necessary and
provide updates for work-based learners,
stakeholders, and district.

Recommendations for Future Research

Several study designs were considered during the study. The methodology used in

the current study was qualitative. The methodology generated non-numerical data, and

individuals' perspectives, experiences, attitudes, behaviors, and interactions were

comprehended (Maxwell, 2009). Qualitative researchers generally seek to describe and

interpret human behavior based primarily on the verbal expressions provided by selected

participants (McGrath et al., 2019; Meraz et al., 2019).

Applying quantitative research techniques would have resulted in a more

significant impact on this qualitative study's outcome. A quantitative study includes

objective measurements and statistical analysis of data collected via polling,

questionnaires, or computational techniques (Creswell, 2014). The objective would have

been to classify attributes, calculate them, and develop statistical models to explain

observed phenomena. Using technology, researchers would collect data from documents

sent to a larger population sample.

A full-scale quantitative study initiated by the state department in conjunction

with local school districts could make the results more generalizable (Blackstone, 2012;

Creswell, 2008, 2014). Teachers, students, parents, and local businesses could be

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included in the study. The viewpoints of all stakeholders could help develop a high-

quality work-based learning program (Barfield, 2022; Dworkin, 2012). State involvement

could encourage the implementation of new or redesigned work-based learning programs.

The state could expand the population and yield extensive data by presenting a

statewide survey or poll for schools to administer every biennium. A survey or poll could

provide work-based learning programs with valuable information when data is collected

from all students (Palinkas et al., 2015). Additional research on secondary students'

perceptions of work-based learning could contribute to the existing body of literature.

Another recommendation for future research would be the application of a

Modified Delphi. The Modified Delphi technique would involve a literature review,

expert panel discussions, questionnaires, coding, and teleconferences to gather consensus

and opinions from high schools, recent graduates, and stakeholders (Green, 2014). The

team could include educators, superintendents, school administrators, guidance

counselors, social workers, and State Department of Education members.

The design ensures anonymity, maintaining honesty and allowing flexibility for

members to change opinions without fear of retaliation. The approach involves a single

inquiry, allowing a panel of education specialists to reach consensus on methods for high

school students to develop employability competencies, with the goal of identifying the

most effective strategy to address the challenge (Green, 2014). The Modified Delphi

approach would be practical for enhancing knowledge of challenges, possibilities,

strategies, and forecasting.

A final recommendation would be to shift from a narrative to a case study. The

case study method would be advantageous when a thorough understanding of an issue,

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event, or phenomenon of interest in its natural real-world context is required (Stake,

1995; Yin, 2003). Work-based learning introduced to middle school students would

include early career awareness and exploration. The program would allow the students to

gather knowledge to help them select a course pathway in high school (Baker, 2020;

Stone et al., 2013).

The recommended case study could follow 8-10 students participating in the early

work-based learning program. A task team of CTE and regular education teachers,

guidance, and administration could create three phases for data collection: informal and

formal learning opportunities, interviews, focus groups, high-school course selections,

career pathways, work-based learning opportunities, and participation (ASA, 2022; Collis

& Margaryan, 2005). The results could help other districts by employing an early work-

based learning option for all students (Baker, 2020; Fuller Hamilton, 2015).

Participating in the work-based learning study could provide valuable information

for future research (GPSEd Partners, 2021, 2022). The work-based learning coordinator

could facilitate meetings and communications with a specially selected team (Task Force

on Student Learning and Success, 2017). The team could be used to implement, monitor,

and assess the program's functionality. Participant interviews and surveys could be

conducted by the designated team at various program phases to determine viability.

Contribution to the Body of Knowledge

Work-based learning is an instructional strategy that could assist students in

establishing firm connections to the workplace, developing viable post-secondary plans,

and securing employment (Bangser, 2008). The study's results supported a systematic

continuum of work-based learning experiences for all high school students. The research

149
examined the benefits of work-based learning for students, institutions, communities, and

employers (GPSEd Partners, 2022; JFF, 2021b). The goal of the research is to move from

emerging to transforming.

The research's objective was to promote hands-on learning experiences in

secondary and middle schools. Students could gain practical workplace skills if attending

college is not feasible (Plasman & Thompson, 2023). School leaders should make greater

attempts to comprehend the significance of vocational exploration and community

engagement. Educational leaders, the community, and students could better understand

how to provide an educational platform that prepares generations of critical thinkers,

problem solvers, innovators, and productive, industry-ready citizens (Rogers-Chapman &

Darling-Hammond, 2013; Ross et al., 2020).

Chapter Summary

The study aimed at understanding the experiences of high school graduates who

participated in work-based learning while in high school. This chapter addressed the

analyzed data to determine the credibility of the findings compared to previous research.

Having access to learning experiences in the actual world could be advantageous for

post-secondary careers or education.

One of the primary reasons for selecting work-based learning as the research topic

was that many of the career course offerings at a specific public high school district in the

Northeast were only available to some students. The responses shared by the participants

of the study gave validation. The four former high school students identified skills

attained due to the work-based learning experience.

150
 Chapter 5 supported the findings of the study. The participants analyzed the

impact of work-based learning on post-secondary employment. In a real-world

environment, work-based learning, students must focus on minutiae, model, and complete

assigned tasks. Chapter 5 supported the long-term effects of participating in work-based

learning in high school.

The program's quality depends on district leaders' enthusiasm, resulting in

potential fluctuations in standard and intermittent employer participation (Ross et al.,

2020). The success of work-based learning initiatives could be enhanced by providing

support from leadership (Knepler & Zapata-Gietl, 2019). Participants could enhance their

likelihood of achieving higher success by thoroughly comprehending the program's

fundamental purpose and objectives (Hudson, 2020; Kelly, 2021). Secondary educational

institutions could develop more effective strategies to ensure that all students, regardless

of post-secondary aspirations, acquire the requisite skills, competencies, and mindsets

indispensable for success (Mourshed, 2015).

Refinements to work-based learning programs must ensure that students acquire

the requisite skills and knowledge to actively contribute to the workforce or pursue

higher education at a post-secondary institution (Bangser, 2008; Carroll, 2021; Jimenez,

2020). The initiation of program enhancement should begin with a thorough analysis of

existing data, empowering decision-makers to make well-informed choices that

effectively meet the needs of students (Jimenez, 2020). Including student perspectives is

essential in the assessment of educational programs (Boone, 2019).

Nonprofits, for-profits, and community-based organizations could provide work-

based learning programs that align training and development with local employer

151
demands and provide employment opportunities (Wilkie, 2020). Work-based learning is

hands-on, situational, interdisciplinary, and team-based, allowing students to engage in

activities unavailable in conventional classrooms (Jung, 2020; Yoder et al., 2020). WBL

programs could help students create marketing strategies, design challenges, and teach

lessons to preschoolers, providing valuable learning opportunities that may not be

available in traditional classrooms.

The research provided materials to aid in organizing and implementing a work-

based learning plan (Knepler & Zapata-Gietl, 2019). Budgetary constraints frequently

constrain curriculum selection options. Through the research, educational leaders and

instructors could gain knowledge of the legislation and funds available to support work-

based learning programs. The research included a collaboration strategy with businesses

and the community. Participation with businesses, communities, community-based

organizations, secondary and post-secondary universities, and workforce partners is

crucial for implementing, sustaining, and expanding work-based learning opportunities

(Hirsch, 2022).

Work-based learning is a unique program that establishes a connection between

work and learning, surpassing the capabilities of any other program. Work-based learning

programs should implement recruitment initiatives to effectively disseminate information

regarding the program and foster thorough comprehension of the advantages associated

with participation among all individuals at the community level (GPSEd Partners, 2021).

Work-based learning represents a promising avenue for equipping the workforce with

proficient individuals capable of contributing to the nation's future economic prosperity

(Plasman & Thompson, 2023). Transitioning from high school to post-secondary

152
education is a significant milestone for any student, and incorporating work-based

learning opportunities into the journey could prove advantageous (Bangser, 2008;

Luecking & Gramlich, 2003).

153
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 APPENDIX A

Recruitment Email

Dear Prospective Participant:

My name is Gay Huggins-Dickey, and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of

Phoenix earning a Doctor of Education degree. At the time of the study, I was a teacher at

Lakewood High School. At this time, I am conducting a research study entitled:

Enhancing Career Readiness of High School Students Through Work-Based Learning: A

Qualitative Narrative Inquiry. The research study is about work-based learning

experiences through the stories of former high school graduates from a district in

Lakewood High School

The study is a personal doctoral research study and is not sponsored or requested by the

school, district, or affiliates.

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry was to learn about the experiences of

graduates of a public high school district in the Northeast through their stories of work-

based learning opportunities while they were in high school.

1. The research will require three to five recent Lakewood High School graduates

between the ages of 18-23 who participated in work-based learning while

attending high school. Data collection for the study will consist of 11 questions.

The questions will be presented to you in a telephone interview or virtual Zoom©

192
 or Microsoft Teams meeting at a time that best suits your schedule. The meeting

will last for approximately one hour.

Although there may be no direct benefit to you as a participant, a possible benefit is that

this study may help learners connect school, post-secondary, and professional aspirations.

Participation in the study may contribute to the community by encouraging students to

explore real-world learning experiences in local businesses.

If you are interested in participating in the study, please send an email confirming your

interest in participating to [email protected]. I will then contact you

to verify that you meet the eligibility requirements.

If you have any questions about the research study, please contact me at (XXX) XXX-

XXXX or XXXXXXXXXX @email.phoenix.edu.

193
 APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT: PARTICIPANTS 18 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER

My name is Gay Huggins-Dickey, and I am a student at the University of Phoenix

working on a Doctoral Degree in Educational Leadership. I am conducting a research

study entitled: Enhancing Career Readiness of High School Students Through Work-

Based Learning: A Qualitative Narrative Inquiry.

There is a deficiency in schools' ability to prepare students for life after high school, but

work-based learning opportunities can assist. The work-based learning experiences of

graduates between the ages of 18-23 will be explored through interviews to determine

whether administration, educators, and current learning strategies contribute to skill

attainment and employment after graduation.

The purpose of this study was to learn about the experiences of graduates of a public high

school district in the Northeast through their stories of work-based learning opportunities

while they were in high school. Each interview will explore the experiences of the

participant through their stories of work-based learning.

Your participation will involve the following:

x An individual interview conducted via telephone or online via Zoom© or

Microsoft Teams, which will last approximately one hour

194
 x An audio recording of the interview

x Understanding that only the audio portion of the study will be used and

transcribed

x You recognize that participation is entirely voluntary and that you may withdraw

at any time

x Knowing that your personal information will be kept confidential

x Your responses will be included with those of no more than 5 other participants

x Reviewing and approving the interview transcript, which will be emailed to you

by the researcher

x Interview transcripts will be overwritten, and printed copies will be cross-

shredded immediately after your approval

You can decide whether to be a part of this study or not. Once you start, you can

withdraw from the study without any repercussions.

In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you.

Although there may be no direct benefit to you as a participant, a possible benefit is that

this study may help learners connect school, post-secondary, and professional aspirations.

Participation in the study may contribute to the community by encouraging students to

explore real-world learning experiences in local businesses.

195
If you have any questions about the research study, please contact me at (XXX) XXX-

XXXX or XXXXXXXXXX @email.phoenix.edu. For questions about your rights as a

study participant or any concerns or complaints, please contact the XXXXXXXXXX

@phoenix.edu.

As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:

1. You may decide not to be part of this study or you may want to withdraw from

the study at any time. If you want to withdraw, please contact me (XXX) XXX-

XXXX or email me at XXXXXXXXXX @email.phoenix.edu. Any data you have

provided will be withdrawn if you withdraw from the study.

2. Your identity will be kept confidential.

3. Gay Huggins-Dickey, the researcher, has fully explained the nature of the

research study and has answered all of your questions and concerns.

4. Before interviews are conducted, you must give permission for the researcher,

Gay Huggins-Dickey, to audio-record them. Gay Huggins-Dickey will transcribe

the information from the recorded interviews, and the data will be coded to ensure

that your identity is protected.

5. The audio recordings will be stored on a USB drive in a fire-resistant key-lock

box, while the transcripts will be coded and saved on a different USB drive and

deposited in a separate master key-lock box. After 3 years, the data on the USB

drives will be overwritten, and the case and chips inside each USB case will be

crushed. Audio recordings will be deleted after the transcript has been reviewed

and approved.

196
 6. The results of this study may be published.

By signing this form, you agree that you understand the nature of the study, the possible
risks and benefits to you as a participant, and how your identity will be kept confidential.
When you sign this form, this means that you are 18 years old or older and that you give
your permission to volunteer as a participant in the study that is described here.

( ) I accept the above terms. ( ) I do not accept the above terms.

(CHECK ONE)

Signature of the research participant ________________________ Date _____________

Signature of the researcher _______________________________ Date______________

197
 Appendix C

Interview Introduction Guide

Virtual Location (check one): Zoom: _______ Microsoft Teams______

Cell Phone Interview: Yes_______ No_________

Computer Interview: Yes_______ No_________

Interview Date: __________________________

Name of Interviewee: __________________________________________

Session Start Time: _____________ Session End Time: _____________

Pseudonym: ______________________________

Interview Introduction Statement:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research study. Research can move forward

because of your willingness to share personal views and experiences and because you

have met the following eligibility criteria:

2. You are between 18 and 23 years of age

3. You are a graduate of XXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXl

4. You participated in work-based learning while at XXXXXXXX XXXX

XXXXXXl

5. You signed and returned the Informed Consent Form

This interview will be audio recorded and transcribed to ensure that all information you

are willing to contribute is correctly captured for the success of the research study.

198
There are no anticipated risks linked with this research nor any compensation.

Participation in this study is optional and can be terminated at any time. Any data you

have provided will be withdrawn if you withdraw from the study.

In addition, your identity will be kept confidential by designating a personal pseudonym

and following the steps in the Informed Consent Form previously signed and returned.

Finally, you will be provided a copy of your signed consent form. The original consent

form will be stored on a USB drive in a secure lockbox for 3 years.

199
 Appendix D

Interview Questions

1. Please tell me about your work-based learning experiences in high school. What do you
remember the most?

2. Thinking about your work-based learning experience, please provide or describe some
examples of your work-based learning experience.

3. How did you connect classroom learning to your work-based learning experience?

4. How has work-based learning prepared you to relate to people of various cultural and
ethnic backgrounds in the workplace?

5. What skills did you learn while in your work-based learning program?

6. What experiences in your program helped you master the skills you discussed?

7. After graduation, did you search for and secure placement in a job related to your work-
based learning experience?

8. What influenced your decision to do so or not to do so?

9. What experiences have helped you the most after completing your work-based learning
experience?

10. How did your work-based learning experience factor into your educational decisions?

11. How did your work-based learning experience factor into your career choices?

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