NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Inside the center of the atom, far below the electrons, lies the atom’s tiny and extremely dense
core. For the entire year, we have focused on the chemistry associated with an atom’s
electrons. We completely ignored the nucleus, taking the positive core for granted as it holds
the electrons in place through electrostatic attractions between the charged particles (protons
attracted to the electrons). The history of science, over the past 1000 years, has focused on
technology, medicine, and a long time ago – alchemy. The goal of all alchemists was to turn
other species into gold – to have Midas’ touch so to speak. This is not possible through
chemical processes, as that only involves the movement of the electrons. No species can be
turned into gold by losing or gaining electrons. Gold is gold because of the numbers of protons
and neutrons. However, we now know that it is possible to transmutate (change) one element
into another through nuclear reactions – which is NOT the same as a chemical reaction. The
goal is no longer to change species into gold (personally I would shoot for platinum  ), as there
are far more important and valuable products of nuclear reactions.

Society as a whole has many concerns about the applications of nuclear chemistry in their own
lives. Many of their concerns stem from mis-information. The promise of an abundant energy
source and treatment for diseases comes hand in hand with the threat of nuclear waste
contamination, nuclear melt-downs, and nuclear war/terrorism. Can we, as fallible humans,
harness the power of the nucleus without destroying ourselves or others? Do we have the
moral strength to use our powers only for good? Or are the risks just too great?

The changes that occur in the nucleus are completely different from all that we have studied to
this point. In chemical reactions, electrons are shared, lost or gained, in order to form new
compounds. In these processes, the nuclei just sit there are watch the show, passively sitting
by and never changing their identities. In nuclear reactions, the roles of the subatomic particles
are reversed. The electrons do not participate in the reactions, instead they stay in their
orbitals while the protons and neutrons undergo changes. In fact, during these changes, in
nearly every case, the change results in the formation of a different element! Nuclear reactions
are accompanied by energy changes that are a million times greater than those in chemical
reactions. Energy changes that are so great that changes in mass are detectable. Also, nuclear
reaction yields and rates are not affected by the same factors (e.g. pressure, temperature, and
catalysts) that influence chemical reactions.

First, it is important to understand nuclear stability. Why are some nuclei stable where others
are not? When nuclei are unstable, they are termed radioactive. All matter is composed of
atoms and many atoms are unstable. In fact, over half of the elements in the periodic table
including uranium, are in a constant process of rearranging themselves. This is not something
that humanity can control.

When the nucleus of an atom attempts to become more stable, it releases energy, known as
radiation. Once this happens the original atom changes into a new atom. In some instances, a
new element is formed and in other cases, a new form of the original element, called an isotope,

1
appears. The spontaneous change in the nucleus of an unstable atom that results in the
emission of radiation is called radioactivity and this process of change is often referred to as the
decay of atoms.

A stable nucleus will remain intact indefinitely. An unstable nucleus will not, and a great
majority of nuclei from atoms on the periodic table are unstable! The unstable nucleus exhibits
radioactivity: the nucleus will spontaneously disintegrate (fall apart) or decay by emitting
radiation. Each type of unstable nucleus has a characteristic rate of decay. Some decay very
quickly, e.g. in a fraction of a second, others can take billions of years.

Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay

Radioactivity is a decay process of the atomic nuclei, which produces high-energy radiation. The three
common types of nuclear radiations are alpha- , beta- , and gamma- radiation. Alpha-particle is a helium
nucleus ( He), beta-particle ( ) is a nuclear electron, and gamma radiation is a high-energy
electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelength and high frequency ( ~ 10-13 m;  ~ 1021 s-1).
The term nuclide refers to atomic nuclei with specific number of protons and neutrons, both particles are
referred to as nucleons. Nuclides are identified by the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A): X
Unstable nucleus is referred to as radioactive nuclide.
Radioactive materials was first discovered by Antoine-Henri Becquerel in 1896 when he discovered that
minerals containing uranium wrapped in a paper and stored together in the dark with some photographic
papers caused the latter to be exposed. He also found that the radiation from radioactive substances causes
ionization of the air molecules. Later, more radioactive substances were discovered by Marie Curie. She also
determined that the intensity of radiation is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance, but not
to the nature of the compound in which the element occurs. Curie also showed that radioactive decay was not
affected by temperature, pressure, or other physical and chemical conditions.

Why Radioactivity:
Radioactivity comes out of the nucleus of atoms. The nucleus is radioactive because it is
unstable. Like electrons in an excited state dropping back down to ground state and releasing a
photon, nuclei need an outlet for their excited state. This outlet is radiation or nuclear
reactions. Nuclear reactions, radioactivity, are spontaneous decays, there is no way to tell
when it will occur, but eventually they will decay. These radioactive decays occur in any atom
with more than 83 protons. Also, in any atom with an exceptionally small or large proton to
neutron ratio will be radioactive.

Recall that the atom is an electrically neutral, spherical species that contains a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons. The electrons move
rapidly around the nucleus and are held there in space by attraction with the positively charged
nucleus. The nucleus takes up 1 ten-trillionth of the volume but makes up 99.97% of the atom’s
mass and is therefore incredibly dense. The atom’s total diameter is about 10,000 times the
diameter of the nucleus!
The nucleus is composed of neutrons and protons. The protons are positively charged and the
neutrons have no charge at all, they just contribute to the overall mass of the atom. The
magnitude of the charge of a proton is equal to that of an electron, but the electron is
negatively charged. An atom is neutral because the number of protons ALWAYS equals the
number of electrons.

Protons and neutrons are collectively termed nucleons. Most elements exist in nature as a
mixture of isotopes, which are species that are the same atom (they have the same number of
protons and electrons if neutral!) but different numbers of neutrons. A complimentary term to

2
the isotope is the nuclide, which represents the isotopes of an element. It refers to the variety
of nuclei with a particular composition of nucleons (the differing numbers of protons and
neutrons). Each isotope is a nuclide. This means that 16O – which has 8 protons and 8 neutrons
is a nuclide, and 17O – which has 8 protons and 9 neutrons, is a nuclide of oxygen.

Recall that we can write the element or a particular isotope from the periodic table using a
variety of notations.

Atomic Notation: 3 Types

A = Atomic Mass = protons + neutrons
Z = Atomic Number = protons
X = Atomic Symbol = the elements letter designation
Type 1 This type came first and gives the most information
This type came second as the first type is redundant.
Type 2 You do not need to tell me carbon has an atomic
number of 6, all carbons atomic numbers are 6.
This type came last and is the easiest to type, and still
Type 3 X–A C -12 relays all the info you need. This symbol is spoken,
“carbon twelve.”

The same type of notation can and will be applied to the subatomic particles in the nucleus.
Thus, a neutron that has a mass of 1 (due to the neutron itself) and a charge of zero will be
written as . A proton, that has a mass of 1 (due to the proton itself) and a charge of +1 will
be written as . And an electron, that has a mass of zero (due to the electron itself) and a
charge of -1 will be written as .

(neutron) (proton) (electron)

It is important to be very familiar with this notation, as we will use it in nuclear reactions. It is
important to remember how to determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
particular nuclides (or isotopes) in order to understand what type of nuclear reaction is taking
place.

Concept Test:
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in

Write the atomic notation for the nuclide of chlorine that has 20 neutrons:

In 1896, Antoine-Henri Bacquerel discovered that uranium minerals emitted a penetrating

radiation that produced images on photographic plates, even though the plates were covered
with paper to prevent them from developing in the presence of light – but somehow, the
radiation penetrated the paper and developed the plate! Several years later, Marie Curie began
a search for other mineral that emitted radiation.

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Marie Curie found that thorium minerals emit radiation. She also showed that the intensity of
radiation depended on the concentration of the radioactive element in the mineral, not on the
nature of the compound. Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre, through their examination of
uranium minerals, discovered two other radioactive elements, one was named Polonium (after
her native Poland), and the other was named Radium.

During the next few years, Bacquerel, the Curies, and Rutherford began to study the nature of
radioactive emissions. Rutherford observed that elements other than radium were formed as
radium decayed. In 1902, they proposed that radioactive emission results as an element
changes from one element into another, completely different element. To many, at this time,
this sounded like the revival of alchemy. And it was met with ridicule. Now, however, we know
this to be true! Under most circumstances when a nuclide (isotope) of a one element decays, it
changes into a nuclide (isotope) of a different element.

Their work led to an understanding of the three most common types of radioactive emission.

3 Main Types of Radioactive Particles:

alpha particles – (symbolized as a helium nucleus ) are dense, positively charged

particles identical to helium nuclei. They consist of two protons and two neutrons,
identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. A sheet of paper or a person's surface layer of
skin will stop them. Alpha particles are only considered hazardous to a person's health if
they are ingested or inhaled and thus come into contact with sensitive cells such as in
the lungs, liver and bones. A source of alpha particles is radon gas, a colorless and
odorless gas formed from the radioactive decay of radium which in turn is one of the
products of the uranium decay chain. It is not radon itself that is a health concern, but
the radioactive products into which it decays. Radon, being a gas, is simply the vehicle
by which members of the uranium decay chain can enter the lungs. Outside the body,
radon is not a concern since the alpha particles it emits cannot penetrate the skin.

beta particles – (symbolized as β, β -1, or β) are negatively charged particles

identified as high speed electrons which are emitted from the nuclei of many fission
products. They can travel a few feet in air but can usually be stopped by clothing or a
few centimeters of wood. They are considered hazardous mainly if ingested or inhaled,
but can cause radiation damage to the skin if the exposure is large enough.

gamma particles – (symbolized as γ or sometimes γ) are high energy photons

(electromagnetic radiation) – about 10 5 times as energetic as visible light. They
penetrate matter easily and are best stopped by water or thick layers of lead or
concrete. Gamma radiation is hazardous to people inside and outside of the body.

The three types of particles that are emitted behave very differently in the presence of an
electric field. Alpha particles are positively charged and thus bend towards the negative plate.
Beta particles are negatively charged and thus bend towards the positive plate. Gamma
particles have no charge and are thus not affected by the charged plates. The degree of
“bending” is related to the mass of the particle. Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles
and thus are less easily moved in space.

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 The use of a magnetic field to
direct beta particles is what
allows your TV to work. Your TV
has a phosphorescent screen
that is bombarded with precisely
directed beta particles. If you
look very closely at your TV when
it is turned on you can see small
blocks of color.
Every second your TV shoots 60
beta particles a second at each
one of those little blocks. It
starts shooting in one corner and
works it way across the screen
then drops down to the next row.
It hits every block in every row
then begins again. It fills the
screen 60 times a second with
colored blocks. These blocks, in
conjunction with each other,

When a particular nuclide decays, it forms a nuclide (the product) that is of lower energy and
the energy that is lost, is emitted radiation. Remember that nature always wants to form a
lower energy species – and as such, nuclear decay is no different.

Nuclides can decay in several ways, but they all share some things in common. First, the
reactant species/nuclide is called the parent species while the product is called the daughter.
Second, the full atomic notation of the nuclides is used in writing the nuclear reactions. Writing
the equations in this manner allows us to indicate the type of nuclear reaction the nuclide
participated in.

When a nuclide changes from one isotope to another or from one element to another, the
atomic masses will change (for species that change isotopes), and if the species changes from
one element to another, both the atomic mass and the atomic number will change. In order to
balance the equation, we must account for all species that are gained or lost in the change.

Let’s examine the types of nuclear reactions that we will see:

Alpha Decay: Since an alpha particle represents a helium nucleus, we will be losing two
protons and two neutrons from our parent nuclide. A general reaction is seen below, followed

5
by an actual example of alpha decay. Again, we must make sure that we account for all
species!

Notice that when you add the atomic masses of the daughter 222-Rn with 4-He you get the
same atomic mass that appears in the parent 226-Ra (222+4 = 226). And when you add the
atomic numbers of the daughter 222-Rn with 4-He you get the same atomic number that
appears in the parent 226-Ra (86+2 = 88). Since alpha decay involved the loss of a helium
nucleus, you are losing protons. The product in an alpha decay will be a different element – it
will be the element that is 2 atomic numbers away! Also, the mass difference will be 4 amu
different between the parent and the daughter species.

Beta Decay: A beta particle represents the loss of an electron. It might seem odd that an
electron is leaving the nucleus, but that is exactly what happens in beta decay. How is this
possible? A neutron is located in the nucleus. A neutron is a neutral particle. Why is a neutron
neutral? It is neutral because a neutron is the combination of a proton and an electron:
+ →

for decay

→ +

Remember that a beta particle is an electron, so the more common representation of the
neutron looks like this:

→ + β

In essence, for beta decay, the electron is ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind the proton.
Since the neutron no longer exists as a neutron, but now as a proton, the overall mass of the
species does not change (remember that the mass is due to number of protons and neutrons,
and while we lost a “neutron”, we kept it as a proton, so no net change in mass!). BUT, by
losing the neutral particle, we gained a positive particle, which means that the total number of
protons in the nucleus has changed – and it changed by one.

→ + β

Beta decay will result in a species that has the same atomic mass, but contains one
MORE proton than itself, thus its daughter will be found one atomic number higher than itself.

Note: when a neutron decays a neutral particle called a neutrino (: the little neutral one) is
also emitted. It is emitted in other nuclear reactions as well. They will not be discussed further
except to mention that experiments in Japan have shown that they do have mass and they may
account for a significant portion of the “missing” matter in the universe (remember that matter
cannot be created or destroyed . . .) For simplicity’s sake, they will not be included in any of the
nuclear reactions.

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Positron decay: A positron is the antiparticle to the beta particle. A key idea of modern
physics is that every fundamental particle has a corresponding antiparticle, or a particle with
the same mass but opposite charge. The positron has the same mass as a beta particle but
opposite charge, therefore it has a +1 charge. It is symbolized as β. Sometimes positron
decay is referred to as positive beta decay. In 1932, Carl D. Anderson found positrons created
by cosmic-ray collisions in a cloud chamber, in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave
behind trails as they move through the gas. The electric charge-to-mass ratio of a particle can
be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a magnetic field. Originally,
positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons traveling
in the opposite direction.

Positron decay occurs through a process whereby a proton in the nucleus is converted into a
neutron and a positron is expelled. This process is called pair production, which involves energy
turning into matter as a high energy photon becomes an electron and a positron
simultaneously. The electron and proton bind and form a neutron, while the positron is
expelled.

Because the proton becomes a neutron and stays in the nucleus, the overall mass will not
change, but the charge will. In essence, the atom just “lost” a proton. Therefore the new
species will have the same mass but will have one fewer proton, so its atomic number will
decrease by 1.
→ + β

Positron emission will result in the daughter having the same atomic mass, but
will be one atomic number LOWER than the parent species

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Electron capture: Electron capture occurs when the nucleus of an atom draws in an electron
from an orbital of the lowest energy level, the 1s orbital. As the electron comes into the
nucleus, it will be attracted to and bind with a proton. This will neutralize the proton’s positive
charge and create a neutron. This is an electron that is taken INTO the nucleus, not an electron
that leaves, as such, it should not be confused with the beta particle mentioned previously. In
order to distinguish between the two “types” of electrons, the symbol for this extranuclear
electron that enters the nucleus is : e. The loss of this inner electron from the first shell is a
vacancy. This vacancy will be quickly filled by an electron that resided in a higher energy level.
When the electron from the higher n value falls to the lower energy level, a photon is released
in the x-ray region of the EM spectrum.

+ e → + h (x-ray)

Electron capture causes the loss of a proton as it becomes a neutron. As such,

the atomic mass will stay constant but the atomic number will DECREASE
by one. The daughter will be the species one atomic number LOWER
than the parent species.

Electron capture results in the same product that would result from positron decay but the
processes are entirely different and should not be confused!

Gamma Emission: Gamma emission involves the radiation of high energy or gamma (γ)
photons being emitted from an excited nucleus. Recall that an atom in an excited electronic
state will promote electrons to higher energy levels. Those electrons cannot stay in the higher
level indefinitely, the atom releases the energy absorbed, the electron falls, and the energy is
released as a photon (h) which is of a specific energy – usually in the UV or visible region, but
also the IR. A nucleus that is excited will need to release that energy also, and it does so by
releasing a photon in the gamma region. The gamma photon is of MUCH higher energy (shorter
wavelength) than a UV or visible photon. Many nuclear processes leave the nucleus in an
excited state, so gamma emission accompanies most other types of decay. Because gamma
rays have no mass or charge, gamma emission will not change the atomic number or the atomic
mass of the species. Gamma rays will also result when a particle and its antiparticle meet and
annihilate one another.

→ γ

For example, when uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay, a gamma ray is also emitted.

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Other Types of Nuclear Reactions:
 Neutron Emission – a neutron is emitted from the nucleus cause the mass to drop by 1.

Equations for Nuclear Reactions

Radioactive decay always results in a change in the atomic number and often in the mass number of the
atom. For example,

U  Th + He

In a nuclear reaction the total number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) is conserved - the mass number and
the atomic number must equal on both sides of the equation.

U  Th + He
Mass number:  234 + 4 238
Atomic number: 92 + 2 92


Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay

9
 In the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together by a very strong nuclear binding energy, which is
effective only over a very short distance (within ~ 10 -15 m). Both nuclear particles also appear to exist in a set
of quantized energy shells, analogous to electronic shells in atoms. Certain magic numbers appear to exist for
both protons and neutrons, as they do for electron. That is, nuclei containing certain numbers of protons and
neutrons are found to be very stable. They are assumed to be the number that corresponds to filled nuclear
shells. These magic numbers are analogous to, but not necessarily the same as the number of electrons in
filled electronic shells that give noble gases special stability.
 Magic Numbers for electrons: 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86;
 Magic Numbers for protons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 40, 50, and 82;
 Magic Numbers for neutrons: 2, 8, 20, 40, 50, 82, and 126.

Evidences to support the nuclear shell model and the existence of magic numbers are:
1. Many radioisotopes decay by alpha-radiation. Alpha particle contains the magic number 2 for both
protons and neutrons, which gives it special stability.
2. The final products in many natural radioactive decay seem to imply the existence of such magic
numbers. For example, the final product in the decay of uranium-238 is lead-206, which has the magic
number 82 for the protons. Decay series of other heavy radioisotopes produce lead-207 or lead-208, the
latter also contains the magic number 126 for neutrons.
3. Pairing seems to occur among protons and neutrons, just as it occurs in electrons. Such pairing of
protons and neutrons seems to be associated with nuclear stability. For example, the percent of
naturally occurring stable isotopes with an even number of protons and neutrons is higher than those
with odd number of protons and/or neutrons.

Number of Stable Isotopes with Even and Odd Numbers Protons and Neutrons

Number of Number of Number of Percent of
Protons Neutrons Stable Nuclides Natural Occurrence Examples__
Even Even 168 60.2% C, O
Even Odd 57 20.4% C, Ti
Odd Even 50 17.9% F, Na
Odd Odd 4 1.4% H, Li

The Band of Stability and Type of Radioactive Decay

When the number of neutrons in various isotopes is plotted against the number of protons, a narrow band,
called the band of stability, is obtained. This band corresponds to the n/p ratios for stable isotopes. The band
of stability shows that for light elements with atomic number Z = 1 to 20, the N/P ratios for stable isotopes are
about 1. For elements with Z > 20, the n/p ratios increase gradually and reach about 1.52 in Pb and Bi. It is
suggested that as nuclei contain more protons, more neutrons are needed to stabilize the nuclei.
As the number of protons gets too large (Z > 83) the proton-proton repulsion becomes too great that a
stable nucleus cannot be maintained. In fact, no stable nuclide is known for elements with atomic number
greater than 83. All elements with Z = 83 or less have at least one stable isotope, except for technetium (Tc,
Z = 43) and promethium (Pm, Z = 61).
Isotopes with N/P ratios that fall outside the band of stability are radioactive. They decay in such a way
that the product nuclides would have the N/P ratios fall within the band of stability. The following criteria are
useful for predicting the type of radioactive decays:
1. Nuclides with N/P ratios greater than the "stable ratio" are likely to decay by emitting beta-radiation. This
emission changes a neutron to a proton, which brings the N/P ratio into the band of stability.

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 Examples: (i) Ne  Na + ; (ii) C  N + 
2. Nuclides with n/p ratios lower than the stable band decay by a positron emission or electron capture. Low
atomic number nuclides (Z < 20) are more likely to decay by positron emission.

Examples: (i) Ne  F + ; (ii) C  B + ;

Isotopes with atomic number > 30 are more likely to undergo electron capture process, because the
innermost shell electrons (in n = 1) are very close to the nucleus and are easily absorbed by the latter.

For example, W + e  Ta; Au + e  Pt;;

[The lost of a positron or the capture of an electron changes a proton to a neutron: H  n + ;

H + e  n. Atomic number Z decreases by one unit, while mass number A remains the same.]

3. Heavy nuclides beyond bismuth (Bi) have too many protons and are unstable. They generally decay by -
emission, which decreases both the number of protons and neutrons.
Examples,
U  Th + He; Th  Ra + He;

Types of Radioactive Decay

1. Alpha Decays - Most heavy isotopes with Z > 83 decay by emission of alpha particles ( He). Examples:

U  Th + He; Ra  Rn + He;

2. Beta Decays - Some heavy radioisotopes such as Thorium-234 and most light radioisotopes, such as
carbon-14, decay by emitting beta particles

Th  Pa + ; C  N + ;
Beta particles are electrons found in neutrons; the lost of a beta particle convert a neutron to a proton:

n   H + ;

3. Gamma ( emission - This is a high energy electromagnetic radiation that accompanies many radioactive
decays. Nuclear processes often result in an excited nucleus and when this nucleus relaxes to a more
stable state, energy in the form of -radiation is emitted. Several -radiations of different frequencies can
be emitted as excited nucleus relaxes to the ground state. For example,

U  Th + He +  (gamma emission does not alter the atomic or mass numbers)

4. Positron Emission - Positron is a positively charged nuclear particle with mass equal to that of the beta
particle and is assigned the symbol . For example, the isotopes boron-9, carbon-11, and nitrogen-13
all decay by positron emission:

B  Be + ; C  B + ;

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 The emitted positron is absorbed by an electron and produces two gamma radiations :

 +   2 
The process is called annihilation; positron is an antimatter to electron. The collision between a matter
and antimatter results in the emission of energy radiation as the two particles destroy each other.

5. Electron Capture - In an electron capture (EC) process, an electron of the innermost shell (n = 1) is
absorbed by the nucleus, where it combines with a proton to form a neutron. A new nuclide with lower
atomic number is formed

H + e  n; Au + e  Pt

The following table summarizes the types of radioactive decays.


Type of Decay Radiation Nuclear Change Type of Nuclide
Atomic No. Mass No.

Alpha emission He -2 -4 heavy isotopes, Z > 83

Beta emission  +1 0 n/p ratio too large

Positron emission  -1 0 n/p too small (Z < 30)
Electron capture X-rays -1 0 n/p too small (Z > 30)
Gamma emission  0 0 excited nucleus


Exercise-1:
1. Write balanced equations for the following nuclear reactions:

(a) Nuclide Americium-243 undergoes alpha decay:

(b) Iodine-131 decays by beta-emission:

(c) Carbon-11 decays by position emission:

(d) Copper-61 undergoes electron capture:

2. Complete the following nuclear equations. Indicate the symbol, the mass number, and the atomic
number of the unknown particle

(a). N  C + _____; (c). Cu + e  _____;

(b). C  B + _____; (d). Na  _____ + ;

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3. Write equations for the probable mode of decay of the following isotopes.

(a) Aluminum-28 ( Al):

(b) Titanium-45 ( Ti):

(c) Plutonium-239 ( Pu):

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Decay Series
Heavy isotopes such as radium, thorium, uranium, etc., undergo a series of decay until a stable isotope is
formed. For example, a uranium-238 undergoes a series of - and -decays until lead-206 is formed. Can you
identify what radiation particle is produced at each decay step? How many alpha and beta particles,
respectively, are produced in a complete series of the decay of uranium-238?

U  Th  Pa  U  Th  Ra  Rn  Po 

Pb  Bi  Po  Pb  Bi  Po  Pb

Exercise-2:
1. Uranium-235 undergoes a series of decay to form lead-207. How many  and  particles, respectively,
are produced in one decay series?

2. If radium-226 undergoes a series of decays in which five  and four  particles are produced, what would
be the final product?
_____________________________________________________________________________

Nuclear Equations:
Nuclear equations are similar to chemical equations in that the total mass must be conserved.
The difference is the components in the nucleus change. For instance, in the first example with
C-14 the mass did not change but the number of protons did giving a total mass on each side of
14 and a total number of protons as 6. 6 = 7 + -1

Examples:

Electromagnetic Radiation – EM Radiation:

Electromagnetic radiation is most simply defined as light, and as you know, not all light is visible
to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation is broken up in to regions based on the frequency
of the light, the full range of radiation is called the electromagnetic spectrum, EMS.

The major regions are radio, micro, infrared, visible, ultra violet, x-rays and gamma rays.

14
Usage of Different Wavelengths of light:
Radio waves are used to transmit radio and television signals. Radio waves have wavelengths
that range from less than a centimeter to tens or even hundreds of meters. FM radio waves are
shorter than AM radio waves. For example, an FM radio station at 100 on the radio dial (100
megahertz) would have a wavelength of about three meters. An AM station at 750 on the dial
(750 kilohertz) uses a wavelength of about 400 meters. Radio waves can also be used to create
images. Radio waves with wavelengths of a few centimeters can be transmitted from a satellite
or airplane antenna. The reflected waves can be used to form an image of the ground in
complete darkness or through clouds.

Microwave wavelengths range from approximately one millimeter (the thickness of a pencil
lead) to thirty centimeters (about twelve inches). In a microwave oven, the radio waves
generated are tuned to frequencies that can be absorbed by the food. The food absorbs the
energy and gets warmer. The dish holding the food doesn't absorb a significant amount of
energy and stays much cooler. Microwaves are emitted from the Earth, from objects such as
cars and planes, and from the atmosphere. These microwaves can be detected to give
information, such as the temperature of the object that emitted the microwaves.

Infrared is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the visible region to
about one millimeter (in wavelength). Infrared waves include thermal radiation. For example,
burning charcoal may not give off light, but it does emit infrared radiation which is felt as heat.
Infrared radiation can be measured using electronic detectors and has applications in medicine
and in finding heat leaks from houses. Infrared images obtained by sensors in satellites and
airplanes can yield important information on the health of crops and can help us see forest fires
even when they are enveloped in an opaque curtain of smoke.

The rainbow of colors we know as visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
with wavelengths between 400 and 700 billionths of a meter (400 to 700 nanometers). It is the
part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we see, and coincides with the wavelength of

15
greatest intensity of sunlight. Visible waves have great utility for the remote sensing of
vegetation and for the identification of different objects by their visible colors.

Ultraviolet radiation has a range of wavelengths from 400 billionths of a meter to about 10
billionths of a meter. Sunlight contains ultraviolet waves which can burn your skin. Most of these
are blocked by ozone in the Earth's upper atmosphere. A small dose of ultraviolet radiation is
beneficial to humans, but larger doses cause skin cancer and cataracts. Ultraviolet wavelengths
are used extensively in astronomical observatories. Some remote sensing observations of the
Earth are also concerned with the measurement of ozone.

X-rays are high energy waves which have great penetrating power and are used extensively in
medical applications and in inspecting welds. X-ray images of our Sun can yield important clues
to solar flares and other changes on our Sun that can affect space weather. The wavelength
range is from about ten billionths of a meter to about 10 trillionths of a meter.

Gamma rays have wavelengths of less than about ten trillionths of a meter. They are more
penetrating than X-rays. Gamma rays are generated by radioactive atoms and in nuclear
explosions, and are used in many medical applications. Images of our universe taken in gamma
rays have yielded important information on the life and death of stars, and other violent
processes in the universe

Given all the reactions that we examined, there are several ways that an unstable nuclide might
decay, but can we predict how it will decay? Can we predict if a nuclide will decay at all? Our
knowledge of the nucleus is still very limited compared to our knowledge of the atom as a
whole. But there are some patterns that do emerge.

The Stability Band: The neutron to proton ratio (N/Z)

Remember that the number of neutrons (N) is determined by taking the atomic mass (A) and
subtracting the number of protons:

#no = atomic mass – atomic number

or #no = A-Z

A key factor that determines the stability of a particular nuclide is its ratio of neutrons to its
number of protons, or the N/Z ratio. For lighter nuclides, where the N/Z ratio  1, this provides
stability. For heavier nuclides to be stable, the number of neutrons must exceed the number of
protons. As you increase the positive charges in the nucleus (meaning the number of protons)
you need more neutral “buffers” which are the neutrons in order to increase its stability.
Stability can be thought of as the amount of time that the nuclide will exist as that isotope and
not undergo some sort of decay. However, if the N/Z ratio is too high or too low, the nuclide
will be unstable and will decay. There are some generalities that can be made.

The minimum N/Z value for stability is 1. Two exceptions are H and He. For lighter
stable nuclides, N/Z  1: He, C, O, Ne
The N/Z ratio which indicates stable nuclides increases gradually as Z increases. The
ratio will be larger than 1 but not much greater than 1.5. Bismuth-209 is the heaviest
stable nuclide, which has an N/Z value of 1.52.
All nuclides with Z > 83 are unstable, regardless of their N/Z ratio. Therefore the largest
members of Groups 1A, 2A, 6A, 7A, and 8A are radioactive, as are all actinides and the
elements in the 4th transition series (Period 7).

Why are neutrons necessary? What does it mean for the neutron to be this “buffer” inside the
nucleus? Given that the protons are positively charged and the neutrons have no charge, what

16
exactly holds the nucleus together? Nuclear scientists answer this question and explain the
importance of this N/Z ratio in terms of two opposing forces. Electrostatic repulsive forces
between the positively charged protons (remember +/+ do not want to be anywhere near one
another!!) would rip the nucleus apart if it were not for something called the strong force. The
strong force is an attractive force that exists between the neutrons and protons (termed
nucleons) in a nucleus. This force is about 100 times stronger than the proton-proton repulsive
forces but it only operates over very short distances. It is the competition between the
repulsive forces and attractive forces that ultimately determines nuclear stability.

Interestingly, the oddness or the evenness of the N and Z value is related to some important
patterns of nuclear stability. Two interesting points appear when stable nuclides are examined:

Elements with an even number of protons (even Z) usually have a larger number of
stable nuclides (isotopes) than elements with odd numbers of protons.

17
 Over half of the known stable nuclides (isotopes) have BOTH even N and Z values. Only
7 isotopes with odd N and odd Z are either stable: H, Li, B, N – or they decay so
slowly that their amounts have changed very little since the Earth was formed V, La,
Lu.

One model of nuclear structure that attempts to explain these findings theorizes that the
protons and neutrons lie in shells, nucleon shells, or energy levels where the protons and
neutrons reside, and that the stability results from the pairing of the nucleons. This
arrangement leads to the stability of even numbers of species, such that all species are paired.
Just like noble gases (elements 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86) are extremely stable because of their
filled energy levels (s2p6) for electrons, nuclides with N or Z values of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and
126 are also exceptionally stable. These are so called “magic numbers” and are thought to
possibly correspond to the number of protons or neutrons that would exist in a filled nucleon
shell. A few examples are given below:

Predicting the Mode of Decay:

Remember that nature always moves towards a more stable product. As such, an unstable
nucleus must undergo some sort of change in order to become stable. An unstable nucleus will
decay in a manner that brings its ratio of N/Z into the band of stability. Generally speaking,
nuclides will decay as follows:

Neutron rich nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides that have too many neutrons are unstable.
These species have a large N/Z ratio. In order to achieve stability, these species will
undergo beta decay, which converts a neutron into a proton. Thus, the overall number
of neutrons decreases, the number of protons increase, and the N/Z value is lowered or
reduced as well.

18
 Neutron-poor nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides that have too few neutrons are unstable.
These species have a small N/Z ratio. In order to achieve stability, these species
undergo positron decay or electron capture. Both of these processes convert a proton
into a neutron. Thus, the number of neutrons is increased and the number of protons
decreased, thus the N/Z value is increased as well.
Heavy nuclides: Isotopes/nuclides with atomic numbers (Z) > 83 are too heavy and do
not lie in the band of stability. These species must reduce their mass – thus their
number of protons and neutrons – thus they undergo alpha decay. This will reduce their
atomic mass by 4 and the atomic number by 2 (remember an alpha particle is
represented by helium).

A parent nuclide may undergo several decays, in succession, before reaching a stable form.
This is called undergoing a decay series, where each decay step happens, one after the other
until the nuclide is stable. Sometimes this is also referred to as a disintegration series.
Typically a decay series is depicted using a grid-like display to show the species as it changes
from one unstable species to another, until finally becoming stable.

Or, the decay might be shown in a simple manner as shown below.

19
Finally, the decay could be shown by writing out the balanced nuclear reactions that the species
undergoes in a step by step manner (only the first four steps in the decay are shown below):

Remember that alpha decay changes the mass of the nuclide and the number of protons (N and
Z both change), while beta decay turns neutrons into protons so the mass number stays the
same, but the number of protons increases. (thus N decreases by 1, but Z increases by 1 so the
mass stays constant)

Rate of Radioactive Decay:

We know that systems will change to reach the minimum energy state. As such, radioactive
decay is all about turning an unstable nuclide into a stable one. However, there is no mention
of how long this process will take. Radioactive nuclei will decay at a characteristic rate,
regardless of the chemical species in which they occur. This means that regardless of the
source of the unstable nuclide, it will decay at the same rate. The decay rate, or activity, of a
radioactive sample is the change in the number of nuclei divided by the change in time.
Because the number of nuclei are decreasing, and rates are inherently positive, we must take
the negative of the change in order to keep the rate positive!

Decay rate = -  nuclei

 time

The SI unit for radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq) and is defined as one disintegration per
second. 1Bq = 1d/s. A more common unit for radiation is the curie (Ci). 1 Ci = the number of
nuclei disintegrating each second in 1 gram of radium-226. Because the curie is so large,

20
millicuries (mCi) or microcuries (Ci) are often used. Several other units of radiation are given
below:

Units of Radiation:
Becquerel: 1 nuclear disintegration per second
Roentgen: 2.1 x 109 ion pairs per cm3 of dry air
Roentgen: 1.8 x 1012 ion pairs per 1 g of tissue
rad: The absorption of 0.01 Joules of energy per kilogram of material, radiation absorbed dose.
gray(Gy): The absorption of 1 Joules of energy per kilogram of material. The official SI Unit.
rem:  (roentgen equivalent man) specific to human beings.
 this unit is found by multiplying the amount of radiation in rads by the QF.
 rem = rad x QF
 the QF (Quality Factor) is determined by which radiation you are exposed to:
 QF = 1  and 
 QF = 10 
 QF = 20 
Curie(Ci):  37 billion radioactive decays in one second.
 equivalent to the number of decays in one gram of radium in one second.

An activity is meaningful only when one considers a large number of nuclei in a macroscopic
sample. For example, suppose that you have 1 x 10 15 radioactive nuclei of a particular type and
it decays at a rate of 10% per hour. What this means is that that average of all the decays
results in 10% of the entire sample of radioactive nuclei will disintegrate in that hour. Thus,
after 1 hour, 10% of the original number of nuclei, thus 1 x 10 14 nuclei will decay. This leaves
behind, 9 x 1014 nuclei that have not yet decayed. During the next hour, 10% of the remaining
9 x 1014 nuclei will decay, which is 9 x 10 13 nuclei. This process will continue to occur as the
nuclei continue to decay. Radioactive decay is a first order process, it will depend on the
number of nuclei present.
Half-Life:
Decay rates are commonly expressed in terms of the fraction of nuclei that decay over a given
time period. The half-life (t1/2) is the time required for one half of a number of an isotope to
decay into a new isotope. Half-lives differ greatly from isotope to isotope, they can range from
picoseconds to billions of years. The number of nuclei that are left after the set time is ½ the
original number that were present.

For example, 14C has a half-life of 5,730 years. What that means, is that if you had a 50.0 gram
sample of 14C, after 5,730 years you would have 25.0 grams left. Then, after another 5,730
years you would have 12.5 grams left and so on.

There are several mathematical equations that can be used to calculate amounts or the half-life
of species:

ln

ln

t1/2 = ln 2
k

Thus, the half-life is not dependent on the amount of nuclei that are present! A 50.0 gram
sample of 14C will have the same half-life as a 150.0 gram sample of 14C!

21
 Concept Test:
How long would it take for 500 grams for protactinium-234 to decay to 10 grams?
The half life of Pa-234 is 72 seconds.

Given the following table of information, we can see that our time is very reasonable!

Mass Time
500 0
250 72
125 144
62.5 216
31.25 288
15.6 360
7.8 432

The answer should be longer than 360 sec but shorter than 432 sec – and it is!

The nuclear processes that we have been considering so far have involved radioactive decay,
where a nucleus emits or absorbs (electrons capture) a few small particles or photons.
Eventually, through the decay processes, the product is a lighter nucleus. Two other processes
cause changes in/with the nucleus as well. They are fission and fusion. In nuclear fission, a
heavy nucleus splits into two light nuclei. In nuclear fusion, lighter nuclei combine (think fuse
together) and form a heavier product. Both fission and fusion release enormous quantities of
energy.

The Mass Defect:

22
Throughout the 20th century, it has become known that mass and energy are interconvertible.
The traditional mass and energy conservation laws that we discussed in term 1 have been
combined to state that the total quantity of mass-energy in the universe is constant. Therefore,
when any reacting system releases or absorbs energy, there must be an accompanying loss or
gain of mass.

This relationship really did not concern us (was negligible) when we were examining chemical
reactions. The energy changes involved in breaking or forming chemical bonds are so small
that the mass changes are therefore negligible as well. For example, when 1 mole of water
breaks up into its atoms, heat must be put into the system:

H2O (g) → 2H (g) + O (g) H = +934 kJ

Mass is equivalent or related to energy through Einstein’s equation E = mc 2 where m is the

mass and c is the speed of light. We can use this equation to examine changes in reactions.
Remember that H values are changes – the difference in energy between the products and the
reactants (H = npHfp - nrHfr). So the equation becomes:

E = mc2

or

m = E/c2

Using Einstein’s equation, we can examine the change in mass that occurs during the chemical
reaction:

m = 9.34 x 105 J/mol

(2.9979 x 108m/sec)2

m = 1.04 x 10-11 kilograms/mole = 1.04 x 10-8 grams/mole

The change in mass, while a number that can be calculated, is 10 ng – which is a change that is
too small to measure with any balance that we have today. (m = mass products – mass
reactants). Such small mass changes that occur when chemical bonds break or chemical bonds
form allows us to say that mass IS conserved in chemical reactions.

Nuclear processes are accompanied by a much larger measurable mass change. This mass
change is related to the enormous energy required to bind the nucleus together or to break it
apart. For example, what happens if we try and rip apart the nucleus of a carbon atom into its
protons and neutrons? A carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. A proton is
essentially a hydrogen atom (remember that the mass of an electron is negligible). So let’s
combine 6 H atoms with 6 neutrons and see what we get:

Mass of 6 1H atoms = 6(1.007825 amu)

Mass of 6 neutrons = 6(1.008665 amu)

H atoms = 6.046950 amu

+Neutrons = 6.051990 amu
total mass = 12.098940 amu

BUT!! The mass of one 12C atom is exactly 12 amu!

The difference between the calculated (predicted or theoretical mass) and the actual mass is
0.098940 amu
Note that the mass of the real nucleus is LESS than the calculated or the combined mass of its
nucleons (protons and neutrons). The mass decrease occurs when the nucleons are united into

23
the nucleus and is called the mass defect. The size of this mass 9.8940 x 10 -2 g/mole IS
measurable on any laboratory balance.

If we know the m (the mass defect) we can, using Einstein’s equation, calculate the energy
equivalent associated with the defect. For 12C, after converting the mass to kilograms, we can
calculate E!

E = mc2

E = (9.8940 x 10-5 kg/mol)(2.9989 x 108m/sec)2

E = 8.8921 x 1012 kgm2/sec2mol = 8.8921 x 1012 J/mol

E = 8.8921 x 109 kJ/mole

This quantity of energy, the energy associated with the loss of mass, is called the nuclear
binding energy for 12C. In general, the nuclear binding energy can be calculated for any
nucleus, and it is the quantity of energy required to break up the nucleus into its component
protons and neutrons (nucleons). Such that:

1 mole Nucleus + Nuclear Binding Energy → nucleons (protons and neutrons separated)

Binding energies are typically expressed in electron volts, specifically the megaelectron volt
(MeV).

1 amu = 931.5 x 106 ev = 931.5 MeV

We can compare the stabilities of nuclides by determining the binding energy per nucleon. The
equation is:

Binding Energy
Total # nucleons

Fission or Fusion: The Means of Increasing the Binding Energy per Nucleon

Binding energies for different species vary greatly. And it is known that the greater the binding
energy per nucleon, the more stable the species, meaning the harder it is to rip the nucleus
apart. Nuclides with atomic masses less than 10 (less than 10 total nucleons) have rather small
binding energies, with the exception of helium, which has an unexpectedly large binding
energy, which is a reason why it is emitted intact as an alpha particle from nuclei. When
species have more than 12 nucleons, binding energies vary between 7.6 to 8.8 MeV.

24
The binding energy in the table above peaks for elements that have a total number of nucleons
around 60. In other words, as the binding energy increases up to this point, the stability of the
nuclides increases as well. Then the binding energy begins to decrease after masses = 60, so
the nuclides become less stable. This point, mass number = 60 is important. It represents the
place where the atom can be “most” stable. Other nuclides would like to get to this place on
the plot. Species with lower numbers of nucleons need to INCREASE their total number of
nucleons while species with too many nucleons need to “lose” some. Two nuclear processes
can help a nuclide become more stable.

Fission: A heavier nucleus can split into lighter ones. This means that a species with too
many nucleons will now split into to nuclei that have less nucleons. The product nuclei
will have a greater binding energy per nucleon and thus be more stable. Energy will be
released as the product is more stable (at a lower energy state) than the reactant.
Nuclear power plants use fission as do atomic bombs
Fusion: A lighter nucleus needs to gain more nucleons. It can do so by combining with
other nuclei. Again the product is more stable than the reactant, so it is at a lower
energy state and that energy is released. The sun and stars generate energy through
fusion as do hydrogen bombs. Current research is focusing on the fusion of hydrogen
nuclei to form a stable helium nucleus as a useful source of energy.

Of the many beneficial applications of nuclear reactions the greatest is the potential for limitless
amounts of energy. In the mid-1930’s, Enrico Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons. What
they observed, were, what they believed, were smaller particles. Subsequent experiments
proved these results. In fact, when uranium is bombarded with neutrons, it breaks apart into
92
Kr and 141 Ba and releases a lot of energy.

25
The uranium-235 nucleus can split in many different ways, but what is most important is that it
happens quickly (10-14 seconds) and it releases extraordinary amounts of energy. In fact, ½
pound of coal releases 2 x 104 J when it is burned while ½ pound of uranium releases 2.1 x 10 13 J
of energy – that is a billion times more!

One of the other products of a fission reaction is the release of neutrons. These neutrons will be
moving, pretty fast, and they will begin colliding with the species that are present, which will
cause more splitting and more neutrons to be produced . . . and you can see where this is
going! This is called a chain reaction, where splitting and collisions propagates more splitting.

The occurrence of a chain reaction depends on the amount of substance. This is termed critical
mass. There must be enough of a species present or the neutrons will “miss” the species and
fly out of the sample. Think about firing a gun at a group of animals. If you are 50 feet away
and there is 1 animal, you have to be a pretty good shot – right? What if you are 50 feet away
from 100 animals. Chances are, just firing in the general direction of the group will land you a
hit. The same applies to the neutrons. A direct hit is likely if there is enough stuff there! The
minimum amount of nuclide necessary for a chain reaction to occur is called the critical mass. If
the mass of the sample is lower than the critical mass, then the neutrons will leave the sample
and a chain reaction will not occur.

Uncontrolled Fission: The Atomic Bomb

When the fissionable species is present in abundance, meaning they exceed this critical mass,
the ensuing chain reaction brings about an explosion. In order to “by some time” subcritical
masses of fissionable material are kept separate and then brought together by some explosions
which then allows the chain reaction to take over.

26
Controlled Fission: The Nuclear Reactor
It is not too difficult to understand some people’s fears with regard to nuclear energy compared
to nuclear bombs. After all, they are the same process, just used or handled differently. What if
the power plant goes haywire – out of control – what if it explodes like the atomic bomb. What
prevents the fission inside the nuclear reactor from experiencing the uncontrolled chain
reaction?

Nuclear Reactors:
Nuclear reactors are not the most popular source of power in this country. There are many
people who wish that these power plants would be shut down. They have good reasons and bad
reasons for wanting them to be shut down. One good reason is that we do not have a truly
viable method for getting rid of the reactor fuel once it has been used. This material is called
spent fuel. One bad reason is the fear of the plant becoming unstable and causing a nuclear
explosion. The fuel used in a nuclear reactor is not concentrated enough for an explosion, like
that in an atomic bomb, to occur. This is simply not possible. So, put the thought of mushroom
clouds or melt downs ending in China out of your mind!

You may be asking yourself, with all the controversy why build them at all? Well, we are an
electric society. All methods for producing electricity will be developed in some capacity. A
tidal power plant was built in the US many years ago, at great taxpayer expense, unfortunately
it failed miserably. The flow of the water in tides is just too slow to produce electricity.

Speaking of electricity, how is it generated? To produce voltage, you need 3 things. A

magnetic field, a current carrying conductor (a wire) and relative motion between the two. By
relative motion between the two it is meant that either the wire or the magnetic field must
move so that the magnetic lines of flex cut across the wire. So, if a wire is waved it back and
forth between a magnet, a voltage will be generated. Seems simple enough, so why build a
nuclear reactor or build a dam if all that is need is to move wire? Well the wire used in electric
power plants is actually a very long wire wrapped thousands of times around an axle, then large
magnets are placed around the wire. With this amount of wire the axle can weigh quite a lot.
By a lot I mean hundreds of tons. Look below, these are BIG!

27
That is a man standing on the generator. The other picture is of a row of generators like those
found in most dams.

The problem is how do you turn this axle? Humans have come up with a few means. First a
turbine is attached to the axle. A turbine is really a large fan, but instead of these fan blades
blowing air, water or steam or wind is used to push the blades. Since the turbine is attached to
the axle wrapped in wire the wire turns in the magnetic field, abracadabra electricity is being
generated. When water is used, this is called a hydroelectric plant, or dam. When wind is used,
this is called a windmill. But these methods can only be used if there is water or wind available.
The most common method used to turn the generator is with a steam turbine.

Where does the steam come from? Boiled water. It is as simple as that, if you can boil water
you can generate electricity. In order to boil the water you must have a heat source, for
example, fire. The typical heat sources are coal, natural gas or oil, and garbage is now being
used as well. It is unclear who lives down wind of the garbage burning electrical power plant
but I am sure they are not thrilled with their power source! There is another method, nuclear
power.

There are two types of nuclear reactions that can be used to generate power. Nuclear fusion
and fission. The sun uses nuclear fusion, which is the combining of two smaller nuclei to make
one large nuclei. It might not seem like much energy would be given off by this reaction, but sit
outside on a the first sunny day of spring with in a bathing suit and tell me the sun does not
have a lot of power. This is the method we would like to use, the problem is there is too much
energy given off. The fusion reaction gives off so much heat it melts every container known to
man. Humans are currently attempting to create a magnetic field which will hold the fusion
reaction but this research is moving ahead very slowly. The best part of this reaction is the
waste product is helium, certainly not a threat to the environment as it is a noble gas.

28
Fission is the nuclear reaction of choice for nuclear power plants. In this reaction a neutron hits
and enters a large nucleus. This nucleus is split into two smaller nuclei, a few neutrons and
releases a lot of heat. Not as much heat as in fusion but plenty enough to boil water. The main
problem with this reaction is that the two smaller nuclei produced in the splitting are very
radioactive. And their half lives are very long, ranging from thousand to millions of years. It is
very difficult to build a container which will hold something for a million years. Other ideas of
disposal have been considered such as shooting the waste into space or into the sun, but this is
not really a practical solution.

Regardless of politics, these power plants exist. Here are the basics on how a nuclear reactor
works and why the odds are stacked against a leak of any radioactive material reaching the
environment.

The fuel used in nuclear power plants is U-235. This in itself is a problem as uranium is not a
common element, and the most common isotope of uranium is U-238. Unfortunately U-238
does not fission every time a neutron hits it, normally it simply absorbs the neutron and
becomes U-239. So, U-235 must be purified out of large sample of all the uranium isotopes.
This is very costly. An aircraft carrier, such as the USS Abraham Lincoln costs 2 billion dollars,
the nuclear reactor cores’ U-235 fuel that is used to run the Lincoln is 1 billion of that total cost.

The U-235 and all the radioactive products of the fission reaction are contained in fuel
assemblies. The fuel assemblies are basically bars or rods composed of very strong very
corrosion resistant metal. All the radioactivity of a nuclear reactor is trapped in these
assemblies. There would have to be a serious problem for the fuel assembly to break and
release radioactive material.

A nuclear power plant is divided up in to loops. These loops prevent water that has touched the
reactor fuel assembles from reaching the environment. This water, called primary coolant, is
not actually radioactive, but it is isolated in case there is a problem. The primary coolant is
contained in the primary loop. Again, this loop is wholly separated from the next loop of water
called the secondary loop. The secondary loop contains the water that is actually boiled to
steam and is used to turn the steam turbine. Remember that the entire purpose of the reactor

29
is to turn the generator. The next loop is the condensing loop. It cools the spent steam from
the turbine back to into liquid water which is looped back to be boiled again. The final cooling
loop begins at a lake or river. This lake or river water cools the condensing loop so it can cool
the spent steam.

For a reactor to release radioactive material to the environment the fuel assemblies would have
to break, at the same time that the primary loop ruptures into the secondary loop which must
itself leak into the condensing loop whereupon it must burst into the cooling loop. This is just
not going to happen unless someone bombs the plant. Regardless, if any of these systems
where to break and leak into any of the other systems the reactor would instantly and
automatically shut down.

Primary Coolant:
 normally composed of water
 very high pressure, 2000 lb.
 very high temperature, 500F
 water performs 2 functions, heat exchanger and as a moderator to slow neutrons to aid in
fission of U-235

Primary Loop:
1. begins cycle at pump
2. flows to reactor core and is heated by U-235 chain reaction
3. is piped to steam generator through U-tubes and heats secondary water

Secondary Loop:
1. begins at the pump under the condenser
2. flows to bottom of steam generator
3. hits U-tubes and is heated to steam
4. is piped to steam turbine where it strikes the turbine blades and is spins the turbine
5. exits the turbine and enters the condenser
6. hits condenser U-tubes and is condensed to water

Basic Diagram of a Nuclear Reactor:

30
Radioactive Dating:
Radioactive dating uses half-lives to determine how long something has been around. All
objects take in radioactive materials over the course of their lives. When they die they stop
taking in these radioactive materials. The radioactive materials decay over time. If you know
how much of a particular radioactive material is in a live organism you have the No value. You
can use a detector to determine the amount of this radioactive material in the dead organism,
which give you N. If you know the half-life you can calculate how long the organism has been
dead.

C-14 dating is most famous isotopes used for dating but it has limitations. The accuracy of half-
life dating is very poor after the isotope has undergone 5 half-life cycles. So, C-14 with a half-
life of 5730 years is not very accurate after 40,000 years. Potassium-40 is used to date farther
back in history. K-40 has a half-life of 1.28 x 10 9 years this allows scientist to date much older
objects, meteors, dinosaurs, crater, etc. A table of useful isotopic decays follows.

Useful Isotopic Decay

System Material Half-life/years Age range/years
C-14 organic remains 5730 200 - 50,000
U-238 to Pb-206 ratio Minerals 4510 million 10-4500 million
U-235 to Pb-207 ratio Minerals 704 million 10-4500 million
Rb-87 to Sr-87 ratio Minerals 48,800 million 60-4500 million
K-40 to Ar-40 ratio Minerals 1250 million 0.1-3000 million

31
 Sm-147 to Nd-143 ratio Minerals 110,000 million 1000-4500 million

Transuranium Elements:
Humans have created new elements by bombarding atoms with other particles such as, alpha
particles, neutrons, or even with other nuclei. Most of these can be found past uranium on the
periodic table and therefore are named transuranium elements. Uranium is the element with
the most protons that occurs in nature. As of today there are not a lot of uses for transuranium
elements. Here is a short list of their uses today: in smoke detectors, nuclear power and
nuclear bombs. Most of these isotopes do not last long, having half-lives in the seconds.

Acute Dose-Response Effects in Humans:

Dose (mrem) Effect
Immediate prostration, coma, followed by death within 1 or 2 days from severe
10,000,000
central nervous system damage.
Immediate nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Death within 1 or 2 weeks from
1,000,000 blistering of small intestine. Complications from depressed bone marrow
activity.
No overt effects. Some depression of white cell count. Statistical increase in
100,000
probability of radiogenic leukemia and life shortening (1 to 5 days/rem).
Effects are difficult to measure. In early embryo, developmental defects are
10,000 possible. Subtle abnormalities of brain structure and perhaps also function may
occur above 10 rem.
No measurable effects except a statistical increase of tumor incidence before
1,000
age of 10 in infants exposed in-utero.

Inverse Square Law of Radiation:

This equation calculates the intensity of radiation for a given distance from the source of the
radiation and is called the inverse square law of radiation. The equation used to calculate the
effects of gravity is in the same format, simply replace I, intensity with G, gravity.

I = intensity of radiation
d= distance from the intensity
Shielding will also reduce the intensity. The calculation for
shielding works on 10th thickness. This is the amount of shielding
to reduce the intensity of the radiation to 1/10 th of what it was.
This is specific for the type of radiation and the shielding used.
For example, the 10th thickness for gamma is 2 inches of lead.
The 10th thickness for neutrons in 10 inches of concrete or water.

32
  and  radiation are really not a
threat outside the body. The dead
layer of skin that covers your body
is enough to shield you from them.
 and  radiation are really only
harmful if the radiation is
generated from within the body. A
radioactive isotope can be eaten,
drank or breathed in. When this
occurs the isotope can decay. The
tissue in the body has no
protective layer and is easily
ionized, killing the surrounding
cells. Or worse, mutating them.

Radiation Detection
We detect radiation by using its high energy to cause a reaction to occur. Detection is
necessary as radiation has the potential to harm us. Radiation that harms living organisms is
called ionizing radiation. If radiation is strong enough to cause atoms and molecules in the
body to be ionized bad things can happen to the organism. Cells die, or worse cells live in a
mutated state, which is one cause of cancer.

The detector is normally gas filled and when ionizing radiation enters this area, the interior gas
is ionized. Thus, the neutral gas is now charged. A large electrical probe runs through the
middle of the detector and when these ions are formed in the detector, they will now be
attracted to this probe in the middle of the detector as opposite charges attract. The center
probe is positively charged so the newly released electrons are drawn to the probe, then travel
through the detectors circuits where they are counted. They travel back to the chamber holding
the gas and return to the ionized gas from which they came. More ions mean more ionizations
which means more electrons and ultimately, more radiation. The Geiger counter is such a
device also known as an ion-chamber detector.

33
Another method used to detect radiation is a scintillation counter. When radiation hits a
material in the detector the material gives off a photon, which is read by a photon detector and
counted. These detectors use a sodium iodine crystal, which when it is exposed to high energy
radiation, will release light, which is detected by the photo detector. Hand held scintillation
counters are still in use by the Navy. Others do use the scintillation detectors but ironically they
have grown while the gas filled detectors have shrunk. With the exception of the Navy, all other
scintillation counters are now large cabinet-sized pieces of equipment and the gas filled
counters are very small.

Medical Applications
Radioactive tracers are used to make a part of the body temporarily opaque to radioactivity to
check for a problem, like a leak in your digestive system, or to check if an organ has increased
in size. The isotopes absorb the radiation and do not allow it to reach the x-ray film or detector.

X-rays can diagnose bone breaks and the CAT scan or CT (computed tomography scanning,)
which is many x-rays taken with a computer used to generate an image, can diagnose internal
injuries.

Radiation therapy for cancer victims is another important use of radiation. Directing gamma
radiation at tumor can kill the tumor. This is sometimes the only hope for those persons with a
tumor in an inoperable location, i.e. the brain.

As a side note, MRI, magnetic resonance imaging, is a big improvement over x-rays in
diagnosing problems in soft tissue, muscles, organs, tendons and the like. X-rays don’t show
soft tissue well MRI does, the damage tissue is affected differently than healthy tissue, all based
on charges, but on the computer screen it shows up as a different color.

34
Scientific Applications

Atom Tracking:
Using isotopes allows chemists to track the flow of a molecule or atom through a biological
process. For example a scientist can use heavy water, water which has its normal hydrogen, H-
1 replaced with H-2 called deuterium. It is twice as heavy as a normal hydrogen but it
chemically behaves the same as normal hydrogen. The water will react normally and the
hydrogen will be tracked through series of chemical reactions. The deuterium acts as a tag.
The substance which has taken up this heavy hydrogen has a different spectrum or appearance
when analyzed by certain instruments.

A Further Look at the Limits of Nuclear Stability

One of the basic questions of nuclear science remains unanswered: What combinations of
neutrons and protons does nature allow to form a nucleus?

It is possible that there are isotopes of aluminum with twice the mass of a normal aluminum
nucleus, but no one has produced such isotopes. We cannot predict what the mass limit might
be, yet.

The Rare Isotope Accelerator, RIA scientific program will allow dramatic steps toward
understanding nuclear binding and the limits of nuclear stability. Working with a variety of very
fast ions from powerful accelerators, scientists have already made several thousand different
nuclei that can be shown on a chart of nuclei.

The figure shows three different kinds of nuclei. The combinations of neutrons and protons that
make up the stable nuclei, those found on the earth are shown by the black squares. The
unstable known nuclei that have been produced at one time or another in the laboratory are
shown in yellow. The larger region of unknown but predicted nuclei is shown in green. RIA will
allow scientists to explore this region.

The unexplored green region, terra incognita, of the chart of nuclides is very large with literally
thousands of unknown nuclei. The limit on the neutron-rich side is called the neutron drip line.
The addition of another neutron would lead to its immediate re-emission—it’s like trying to add
a drop of water to a bucket filled to the rim.

Experiments with RIA will extend our present knowledge of heavy isotopes and the neutron drip-
line far beyond the present limit, our present limit is oxygen, not too far down this long road of
research. Challenging experiments are planned that will detect and identify individual rare
nuclei as they fly from the production target.

Additional Information:

35
What is PET?
The name "PET" comes from Positron Emission Tomography. It is a new scanning technique in
medical research. PET allows us, for the first time, to measure in detail the functioning of
distinct areas of the human brain while the patient is comfortable, conscious and alert. We can
now study the chemical process involved in the working of healthy or diseased human brains in
a way previously impossible. Before the advent of the PET scanner, we could only infer what
went on within the brain from post-mortems (dissections after death) or animal studies.

PET represents a new step forward in the way scientists and doctors look at the brain and how it
functions. An X-ray or a CT scan shows only structural details within the brain. The PET scanner
gives us a picture of the brain at work.

Positron: Antimatter equivalent of the electron

A positron is an anti-electron. Positrons are given off during the decay of the nuclei of specific
radioisotopes. A type of radioactive fluorine produced at TRIUMF for the PET program is a
positron emitter. When matter collides with its corresponding antimatter, both are annihilated.
When a positron meets an electron, the collision produces two gamma rays having the same
energy, but going in opposite directions. The gamma rays leave the patient’s body and are
detected by the PET scanner. The information is then fed into a computer to be converted into a
complex picture of the patient’s working brain.

36
details within a "slice" through the person. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does much the
same thing, but using magnetic and radiowave fields. In contrast, the PET scanner utilizes
radiation emitted from the patient to develop images. Each patient is given a minute amount of
a radioactive pharmaceutical that closely resembles a natural substance used by the body. One
example of such a pharmaceutical produced at TRIUMF is 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG),
which is similar to a naturally occurring sugar, glucose, with the addition of a radioactive
fluorine atom. Gamma radiation produced from the positron-emitting fluorine is detected by the
PET scanner and shows in fine detail the metabolism of glucose in the brain.

What does a PET scan show?

The brain function being studied during a PET scan determines which radiopharmaceutical is
used. Oxygen-15 can be used to label oxygen gas for the study of oxygen metabolism, carbon
monoxide for the study of blood volume, or water for the study of blood flow in the brain.
Similarly, fluorine-18 is attached to a glucose molecule to produce FDG for use in the
observation of the brain’s sugar metabolism. Many more PET radiopharmaceuticals exist, and
research is under way to develop still more to assist in the exploration of the working human
brain. For example, dopa, a chemical active in brain cells, is labeled with positron-emitting
fluorine or carbon and applied in research on the communication between certain brain cells
which are diseased, as in dystonia, Parkinson’s disease, or schizophrenia.

PET radioisotopes produced at

TRIUMF
Labeling agent Half-life
carbon-11 20.3 minutes
oxygen-15 2.03 minutes
fluorine-18 109.8 minutes
bromine-75 98.0 minutes

37
How much radiation does a patient get?
PET scans using radioactive fluorine in FDG would result in patients receiving exposures
comparable to (or less than) those from other medical procedures, such as the taking of X-rays.
Other scanning agents - for instance, 6-F-
dopa or radioactive water - normally cause
even less exposure.

PET: Research tool of the future

The PET program at TRIUMF and UBC is in a
unique position among world medical
research centers in having many of the
expensive major facilities required to mount
a powerful PET program. These include the
cyclotrons and radiochemistry laboratories
at the TRIUMF project that are the source of
the PET scanning agents. The laboratories
are linked to the UBC Health Sciences
Centre Hospital by the world’s longest "pea More information on the PETTVI scanner
shooter", a 2.4 km pneumatic pipeline used
for the delivery of PET scanning agents in the shortest possible time. These facilities have a
capacity that has not been equaled by any other university/health sciences center in the world.

http://www.triumf.ca/welcome/petscan.html

__________________________________________________________________________________________

The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

Nuclear activity is the rate nuclear decay. The SI unit of nuclear activity is called the Becquerel (Bq),
where 1 Bq = 1 event/s; or 1 disintegration/s. More commonly used unit for activity is the Curie (Ci),
where 1 Ci = 3.70 x 1010 Bq .

Radioactive materials decay by first-order rate law:

Rate = kN; (where k = rate constant and N = number of radioactive nuclides).
ln(At/A0) = - kt; (A0 = activity at time t = 0 and At = activity at time t)
The rate of decay is expressed as the number of disintegrations per second (dps) or counts per second (cps).
Unlike most chemical reactions, the rate of natural radioactive decay is not influenced by external conditions,
such as temperature and pressure.

Half-life
The half-life represents 50% chance that a nuclide will decay during that period. The activity of
radioactive substances are normally given in the form of their half-lives, from which the rate constant, k, can
be calculated. For example,

C  N + ;
t½ = 0.693/k) = 5730 yrs;  k = 0.693/5730 yrs) = 1.21 x 10-4 yr-1

Exercise-3:
1. Rubidium-87 has a half-life of 4.88 x 10 10 y. What are the rate constant and the rate of disintegration of a
sample containing 2.5 mg rubidium-87. (Atomic mass ~ 87 g/mol

38
2. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8.0 days. If a person ingests 2.5 mg of NaI labeled with iodine-131, how
much of the radioactive isotope remains in the body after 30. days?

Half-life of Some Radio-isotopes

Isotopes Half-life
Hydrogen-3 13.3 yrs
Carbon-14 5730 yrs
Sodium-24 15.0 hrs
Phosphorus-32 14.3 days
Sulfur-35 87.1 days
Cobalt-60 5.26 yrs
Strontium-90 28.8 yrs
Iodine-131 8.1 days
Cesium-137 30 yrs
Radon-222 3.8 days
Uranium-235 7.1 x 108 yrs
Uranium-238 4.51 x 109 yrs
Plutonium-239 2.44 x 104 yrs
_______________________________

Nuclear Transformation (Transmutation)

Nuclear reactions can be induced by bombardment of target nuclei with fast moving particles called the
projectile. The process is called transmutation. Rutherford and co-workers were the first to apply this
technique, when in 1919, he used alpha particles from a radioactive source to bombard nitrogen-14 nuclei,
and the reaction produced oxygen-17 and a proton. He also bombarded aluminum-27 with alpha particles to
produce phosphorus-30 and a neutron.

N + He  O + H; Al + He  P + n

Since the projectile and the target nuclei are both positively charged and strongly repel each other, the
projectile must be accelerated through a particle accelerator, such as the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLA)
and cyclotron, in order to acquire a very high kinetic energy before reaching the target. For example, a linear
accelerator called Superhilac was used by Professor Glen Seaborg and co-workers at UCB to produce
element-106 (Sg); the following reaction occurs:

Cf + O  Sg + 4 n

The element lawrencium-257 was created by bombarding californium-252 with boron-10.

39
 Cf + B  Lr + 5 n

Neutrons are often used as projectiles in many transmutation processes. Since neutrons are electrically
neutral and not strongly repelled by the target nuclei, high kinetic energy neutrons are not necessary. They
are sufficiently accelerated by heat, hence called thermal neutrons, which have just enough energy to bind to
the target nuclei. Neutron bombardments are often used to produce isotopes such as cobalt-60 from cobalt-59
or iron-59 from iron-58:

Co + n  Co + ; Fe + n  Fe;

Transmutation process is used to prepare plutonium-239 from uranium-238, in which the latter is bombarded
with fast neutrons. The reaction produces Uranium-239, which undergoes two successive beta-decays, first to
neptunium-239 and then to plutonium-239.
 

U + n — U —— Np —— Pu

Exercise-4: Complete the following nuclear equations and identify the other products

1. C + n  He + _____? 4. Cr + He  n + _____?

2. N + He  n + _____? 5. Cf + B  _____? + 4 n;

3. Es + He  n + _____?

Detection and Uses of Radioactivity

Nuclear activities are measured using Geiger Counter or scintillation detector. A Geiger counter
measures decay rates by counting the pulses of electric current produced by the ionized Argon gas particles in
the probe. When the high-energy radioactive particles, such - or -particles, enter the probe, they collide
with the argon gas and ionize the latter. The argon ions that are formed produced an electrical pulses, which
are detected and measured by the detector.
The Geiger counter used to measure neutrons emission also contains BF 3 gas labeled with isotope boron-
10. Boron-10 absorbs low energy neutrons and is converted to lithium-7 and an -particle. The -particles
ionize the argon gas in the probe, which produced electric pulses.

B + n  Li + n.
In the scintillation detector, the probe uses a fluorescence substance, such as sodium iodide, that produces
flashes of light when struck by radioactive particles. The detector counts these flashes and measure the
photoelectric current produced by the radiation. Unlike the Geiger counter, which only measures the rate of
nuclear decay, a scintillation detector also measures the radiation energy.

Radioisotope Dating
Fixing the dates of relics or fossils is an application based on the rate of radioactive decay. The decay of
carbon-14 is often used to date objects, which at one time contain living materials. Carbon-14 is continuously
formed in the upper atmosphere by reaction of neutrons from cosmic radiation with nitrogen-14:

40
 N + n  C + p

Carbon-14 nuclide undergoes beta-decays with a half-life of 5730 yrs:

C  N + ; t½ = 5730 yrs.

In nature, the rate of formation and decay of carbon-14 is equal, establishing a steady state concentration
for carbon-14 in nature. The natural radioactivity of carbon-14 is about 14.9 dpm/g-C. In the atmosphere,
carbon-14 is converted to 14CO2, which is then absorbed by plants during photosynthesis and incorporated into
the plant materials. Animals and human consumed plants and the carbon-14 become part of the body tissues,
including bones. Carbon-14 is distributed throughout living matters (plants and animals), and the
radioactivity of carbon-14 remains constant at about 14 dpm/g-C.
However, when the plant or an animal dies and metabolic processes stop and the level of carbon-14
decreases as it continues to decay but not get replaced. By comparing the radioactivity of isotope carbon-14 in
the dead material with the steady state radioactivity, and the knowledge of its half-life, the age of the object
can be calculated. The accuracy of carbon-14 dating is limited to periods between 500 to 30,000 years. Its
accuracy also depends on the assumption that carbon-14 level in the atmosphere remains about constant.

Exercise-5:
1. The so-called Dead Sea Scrolls, Hebrew manuscripts of the old Testament, were discovered in 1947. The
activity of carbon-14 in the linen wrappings of the book of Isaiah is about 11.0 dpm/g-C. Estimate the
age of the scroll when it was discovered.

2. A wooden Japanese temple guardian statue of the Kamakura period (AD 1185 - 1334) showed a carbon-
14 activity of 12.9 dpm/g-C when it was discovered in 1990. If the initial 14C activity was 15.0 dpm/g-C,
what year was the statue was made? ( t½ = 5730 yrs)

Medical Applications of Radioactivity

Radiation Therapy
Radiotherapy is widely used to treat cancers and blood disorder such as leukemia. Cancer cells are
usually more sensitive to radiation than normal cells. Radiation kills more cancerous cells per dose than
healthy cells. A slow administration of radiation will give affected normal cells time to repair damage. Large
tumors in the body are normally irradiated with gamma-radiation such as from cobalt-60. Damage to normal
tissues is greater and also causes side effects such as nausea and loss of hair. Iodine-131 is used to treat
thyroid diseases, phosphorus-32 is used to locate tumors in the body.

Medical Diagnoses - Medical Imaging and Radiotracers

Medical diagnoses of diseases using radioisotopes may be done in one of two ways - one is to develop
image of internal organs; the second is by using radioisotopes as tracers in the analyses of substances, such
as growth hormone in the blood, in order to deduce possible disease conditions. Technetium-99m is often
used to develop images of internal body organs. It has a half-life of 6.02 hr, decaying by -radiation to
technetium-99:
99m
Tc  Tc + .
99

The image of internal organs absorbing the radioisotope-labeled substance is obtained by scanning the body
with a -scintillation detector.
Thallium-201 is also used to determine heart disease in patients. Thallium-201 decays by electron
capture and emits X-rays as well as gamma-radiation. It can be used to obtain images similar to those
obtained with technetium-99m. Thallium-201 binds particularly strongly to heart muscle. Diagnosis of disease

41
or disorders depends on the fact that only muscle tissue that receives sufficient blood supplies bind thallium-
201. When a person exercises strenuously, some part of the heart tissue may not receive sufficient blood
because of constricted arteries. Areas that do not bind thallium-201 will show in the image as dark spots.
Another method of nuclear imaging is called positron emission topography (PET), which uses positron
emitters, such as carbon-11, fluorine-18, nitrogen-13, or oxygen-15. These are neutron-deficient isotopes,
which have short half-lives. They must be prepared in a cyclotron immediately before use.

Some Radioactive Nuclides in Medical Applications as Radiotracers________

Nuclide Half-life Area of Body Studied___________
24
Na 14.8 hours Circulatory system
32
P 14.3 days Eyes, liver, tumors
51
Cr 27.8 days Red blood cells
59
Fe 45.1 days Red blood cells
87
Sr 2.8 hours Bones
99
Mo 67 hours Metabolism
99m
Tc 6.0 hours Heart, bones, liver, lungs
131
I 8.1 days Thyroid
133
Xe 5.3 days Lungs

Food Irradiation
Bacteria and other pests in food can be destroyed by radiation. Preservation of food by radiation uses
much less energy than preservation by heating or freezing. Food irradiation is commonly done using g-rays
from sources such as cobalt-60 and cesium-137. Insects and fungi in grain can also be destroyed by radiation,
and medical supplies can be sterilized by radiation.

Radioactive Tracers
The chemical property of a radioisotope is almost identical to that of non-radioactive isotopes of the same
element. Chemists can use radioactive isotopes as tracers in chemical reactions and biological processes.
Isotopic tracers have been widely used to study mechanism of reactions, both simple as well as complex.
Radioisotope carbon-14 is widely used in the tracer studies of biochemical pathways. The radioisotope
phosphorus-32 has been used as tracer for detecting uptake of phosphorus by plant as well as the rate of such
uptake under various conditions.

Use of Radioactive Nuclides in Elemental Analyses

Several methods in modern analytical chemistry, such as neutron activation and isotope dilution, involve
nuclear reactions. Neutron activation is an analysis of elements in a sample, and is based on the conversion of
stable isotopes to radioactive isotopes by bombarding the sample with thermal neutrons. A typical capture
reaction results. For example,

As + n  As*  As + ;;

The frequency of the gamma rays is characteristic of the element and can be used to identify the element. The
intensity of the radiation is proportional to the amount of the isotope and is used to estimate the amount of the
element in the sample.

Isotope Dilution
Isotope dilution method can be used to measure the volume of fluid such as blood in circulatory system,
or water in oil in underground reservoirs. Isotope dilution is a technique for determining the quantity of a

42
substance in a mixture or in a total volume of liquid by adding a known amount of radioactive isotope to it.
From the dilution of the radioactivity obtained, the total volume of the liquid can be calculated.

19.5: Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus - Nuclear Binding Energy

In nuclear reactions, a certain amount of the mass is normally lost, such that the mass of a nuclide is
always less than the sum of masses of nucleons that make up the nuclide. For example, a fraction of mass is
lost when a proton and a neutron fuse together to form a deuterium nuclide.

H + n  H;
1.007825 u 1.008665 u 2.01410 u
Mass defect, m = 2.010410 u - (1.007825 u + 1.008665 u) = - 0.00239 u
This difference is called the mass defect, which is the amount of mass that is lost when nucleons are bound
together to form a nuclide. This lost mass is converted into nuclear binding energy that is needed to hold the
nucleons together in the nuclide. The nuclear binding energy can be calculated using the Einstein equation, E
= (m)c2, where m is the mass defect. For deuterium, the nuclear binding energy

E = (m)c2 = (- 0.00239 u) x (1.6605 x 10-27 kg/1 u) x (2.9979 x 108 m/s)2

= -3.57 x 10-13 J/ H nuclide; or - 2.15 x 1011 J/mol H

Thus, in the fusion reaction involving protons and neutrons, a nuclear energy of 2.15 x 10 8 kJ is
released per mole of H-2 nuclides formed. The formation of He involves a nuclear binding energy of about
2.73 x 109 kJ/mol, about ten times higher than the formation deuterium (H). The larger the nuclide the greater
will be the binding energy. The nuclear binding energy expressed in Joule per nucleus range from about 3.57
x 10-13 for deuterium to about 2.89 x 10-10 for uranium-238. The larger the nucleus the larger the binding
energy.

However, nuclear stability may be compared based on binding energy if the latter is expressed in term of
Joule per nucleon. When the nuclear binding energy per nucleon is plotted against the mass number, the graph
shows alpha particle as having an unusually high binding energy compared to its neighbors. Other nuclides
with mass numbers divisible by 4, such as carbon-12, oxygen-16, neon-20, magnesium-24, etc., are also
found to have higher binding energy per nucleon compared to their neighbors. The graph also shows that
highest binding energy per nucleon occurs at isotope iron-56. This implies that elements with mass numbers <
56 are more likely to be formed by fusion processes and those with mass numbers > 56 are m ore likely to be
formed by fission of heavier isotopes formed during the supernova of dying stars.

Exercise-6:
1. Calculate the nuclear binding energy per nucleon for the He nucleus.
(atomic masses: He = 4.0026 amu; H = 1.0078 amu; n = 1.0087 amu; 1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg)

2. The nuclides beryllium-8 and beryllium-9 have an atomic mass of 8.005308 u and 9.012186 u,
respectively. (a) What is the mass defect in each nuclide? (b) Calculate the nuclear binding energy in

43
 J/nucleus and the nuclear binding energy in J/nucleon for each nuclide. (c) Predict which nuclide is more
stable? (d) Explain why beryllium-8 does not exist?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission
Two most important nuclear fission processes are those of uranium-235 and plutonium-239 isotopes. The
fission reaction of uranium-235 is brought about by bombardment with slow (thermal) neutrons, while the
fission process of plutonium-239 is caused by bombardment with fast neutrons. When a slow (thermal)
neutron strikes a uranium-235 nucleus, it is absorbed by the latter to form a metastable uranium-236, which is
called a compound nuclide - a nuclide composed of a target (uranium-235) and a projectile (neutron). The
metastable uranium-236 disintegrates into a series of products as shown below. The fission also produces
more neutrons. The number of neutrons increases rapidly during the fission process, and cause more fission
reactions, resulting in a branching chain reactions.
Te + Zr + 2 n;

U + n  U*  Ba + Kr + 3 n; E ~ -2 x 1010 kJ/mol

Cs + Rb + 2 n;

The extent of chain reactions depends on the size of the uranium sample. A sample that is too small to
sustain chain reaction is referred to as a subcritical sample. A sample size that is just right and able to sustain
chain reaction in a controllable manner is referred to as a critical sample. A sample size that is too large and
brings about chain reaction in an uncontrolled fashion is called supercritical sample. In such samples fission
reactions increase exponentially resulting in a tremendous explosion (a nuclear explosion), which releases an
enormous amount of gamma radiation .
In a nuclear reactor, the rate of fission reaction is controlled so that the number of neutrons produced is
equal to the number absorbed, enough to sustain fission reaction. The core in a nuclear reactor consists of
fuel rods, which contain uranium-235, and control-rods (usually contain cadmium), which are placed in
between the fuel rods. If the number of neutrons emitted increases, the control-rods are lowered to absorb
excess neutrons, and this will slows down the fission process. When the number of neutrons falls too low, the
control rods are removed and the fission reaction increases.
Neutrons produced by fission reactions are fast neutrons, which cannot cause fission reaction on uranium-
235. Slow or thermal neutrons are required to bring about nuclear fission on uranium-235. A moderator,
normally the cooling water system, is used to slow down the neutrons produced by fission, and these are then
fed back into the reactor core to bring about more fission reactions.

Problem Associated with Nuclear Power

After a few years, the concentration of fission products that capture neutrons build up to a point where
power can no longer be produced at a practical rate. The fuel rods must be replaced. The fission products in
the used-fuel contain too many neutrons and are therefore radioactive, and will continue to be dangerously
radioactive for many thousand years. Their disposal poses an enormous problems. One reasonable suggestion
is that radioactive waste be converted to small volume of glassy materials and then stored underground in
geologically stable rock beds.
Another problem with nuclear power is that the supply of uranium-235 is very limited. Natural uranium
contains only about 0.72% uranium-235; the remainder is uranium-238, which does not undergo fission
reaction. However, uranium-238 captures fast neutrons to undergo a series of beta-decays and finally forms
plutonium-239.

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 U + n  U  Np  Pu
 +  + 
Using Plutonium-239 for Nuclear Energy
Plutonium-239 undergoes nuclear fission process when bombarded with fast neutrons. A moderator is
not needed in a nuclear reactor that uses Plutonium-239 as fuel. A special type of reactor, called breeder
reactor, is designed to produce plutonium-239 from uranium-238. A breeder reactor uses a mixture of
plutonium-239 and uranium-238 as fuel. One of the neutrons produced from the fission of plutonium-239
nucleus is used to sustain the fission chain reactions, while other neutrons are used to convert uranium-238 to
plutonium-239. Thus, a breeder reactor produces both energy to generate electricity and more fuel ( Pu).

Nuclear Fusion
The combination of light nuclei is called nuclear fusion, and tremendous amounts of energy are generated
by such reactions. The sun, which presently consists of 73% hydrogen (protons), 23% helium (-particles),
and 1% other nuclei, gives off vast amount of energy from the fusion of protons to form helium:

H + H  H + ;

H + H  He

He + He  He + 2 p;

He + H  He + 
These reactions produce solar energy in the order of 10 19 kJ of energy per second. A temperatures in the order
of 107 K is required to bring about fusion reactions. At these very high temperatures atoms exist as plasma
consisting of unbound nuclei and electrons.

Much research is being devoted to making the following fusion process a practical reality:
H + H  He + n; E ~ -1.7 x 109 kJ/mol

In fusion bombs (also called thermo-nuclear bombs), the fusion reaction involves deuterium ( H) and tritium
( H), where the latter is produces from lithium-6 bombarded with neutrons produced by the fission bomb.
That is, lithium-6 deuteride is placed around the plutonium-239 fission bomb. When the fission explosion is
set off, the following reactions occur, which set off another explosion from fusion processes.

Li + n  H + He; H + H  He + n;
Exercise-7:
1. How much nuclear energy (in kJ) is produced per mole of He formed in the following fusion reaction:
(a) H + H  He +  ;

(b) H + H  He + n;

(Atomic masses: H = 2.0140 amu; H = 3.0160 amu; He = 4.0026 amu; n = 1.0087 amu;

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 1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg; c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s; 1 J = 1 kg.m2/s2)

_____________________________________________________________________________

The Effects of Radiation

All three types of radiation () disrupt normal cellular processes in living organisms. The
biological effect of radiation depends on the type of cells exposed to radiation, the radiation dose, and the
duration of radiation. A person exposed to ionizing radiation may suffer either short or long-term injury,
depending on the radiation dose received. Cancer is often the main delayed effect of ionizing radiation.

A dose is the quantity of ionizing radiation absorbed by a unit mass of matter. The SI unit of radiation
dose is called gray (1 Gy = 1 J/kg), although the unit rad (radiation absorbed dose) is more commonly used,
where 1 rad = 10-2 J/kg and (1 Gy = 100 rads). Since different types of radiation affect tissue differently, a
quality factor Q is assigned to each type of radiation in order to compare their relative effectiveness. For 
and  radiation, Q = 1; for slow (thermal) neutrons, Q = 5; for fast neutrons and protons, Q = 10, and for
alpha-particles, Q = 20. This implies that an alpha-radiation causes 20 times more damage to tissue than a
beta-radiation. This quality factor is also called the relative biological effectiveness or RBE value. The SI
unit of radiation dose that takes into account the type of radiation and its quality factor is called the sievert
(Sv), where 1 Sv = Gy x Q. The traditional unit of radiation dose that takes into account the type of radiation
and its RBE value is called rem (roentgen equivalent man), where 1 rem = 1 rad x RBE. (1 Sv = 100 rem).

Different types of tissues have different sensitivity towards radiation. Specialized cells and cells
undergoing active cell divisions are generally more sensitive to radiation. As a result, the danger of radiation
effect is many times greater to the fetus during the trimester period of pregnancy.

External exposure to -radiation is not harmful because alpha particles will not penetrate the outer
epidermal layer of the skin. However, if a radioactive substance that produces alpha particles gets into the
body, they can cause severe ionizing damage to internal organ tissues exposed to them. Beta-radiation is
stopped by about 0.5 - 1.0 cm of the skin tissue; while - and X-rays are very penetrating.

The average radiation dose received by nonsmokers is about 180 mrem/yr. About 65% of this dose is
from natural sources, and 35% is the result of human activities, with diagnostic X-rays being the largest
source of exposure from such activities. The estimated dose for smokers from tobacco products is about 220-
250 mrem/yr). In some areas, airborne radon (esp. radon-222) is responsible for two-third of the radiation
from natural sources.

The chemical properties of radioactive substances are also important factors in biological effects of
radiation. The damage from internal radiation source depends on how long the radioactive substance stays in
the body. For example, strontium-90 (a radioactive isotope) is particularly dangerous because of its similar
chemical properties to calcium, it tends to accumulate in the bone where it may cause leukemia and bone
cancer. Radioactive iodine accumulates in the thyroid gland.

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Typical Radiation Exposures for a Person Living in the United States
Exposure
(mrem/year)
From natural sources:
Cosmic radiation 50
From the Earth and building materials 50
In human tissues 20
From the air 5_
Total from natural sources 125

From human activities:

X-ray diagnosis 50
TV tubes/computer monitors, etc. 5 _
Total from human activities 55
Total from both 180

Effects of Short-term Exposures to Radiation____

Dose (in rem) Clinical Effects _

0-25 No detectable effect
25-100 Temporary decrease in white blood cell counts
50+ Temporary sterility in men
100-200 Strong decrease in white blood cell counts;
Mild radiation sickness: vomiting, diarrhea, and tiredness in a few hours;
Reduction in infectious resistance;
possible bone growth retardation in children
300+ Permanent sterility in men and women
500 Serious radiation sickness: marrow and intestine destruction;
50% death of exposed population within a month
1000+ Acute illness; death within days.
____________________________________________________________________

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EXTENDED ACTIVITY!!!

Part I. Watch the following video and complete the questions on a separate sheet of paper.
http://teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=48485

1. List 4 differences between a chemical reaction and a nuclear reaction.

2. How does the rate of a chemical reaction compare to the rate of a nuclear reaction?
3. Name the 3 most common types of radiation. List the symbol associated with each type.
4. Give another name for an alpha particle. What symbol can we use for this?
5. What blocks alpha particles?
6. Give another name for a beta particle. What symbol can we use for this?
7. What blocks beta particles?
8. How is a gamma ray different from alpha and beta particles?
9. What is the only way to block gamma radiation?

**You may skip the section on deflection.**

Complete the following table. You may try to do it before watching the video or you may fill it in as
you watch.
Name Short hand Charge Symbol How to Energy Make up
block
Alpha

Beta

Gamma

10. Describe how to write the formula for an isotope.

11. Write the reaction for radium-226 converting into radon-222.
12. What type of decay is this reaction?
13. Write the reaction of carbon-14 turning into nitrogen-14.
14. What type of decay is this reaction?
15. Write the reaction of uranium-238 undergoing alpha and gamma decay.
16. What is half life?
17. What unit is half life measured in?
18. You have 100 g of an isotope. How much is left after 1 half life?
19. How much will be left after 2 half lives?
20. What is fission?
21. What do we use fission reactions for?
22. What is fusion?
23. Why don’t we use fusion reactions for power?
24. Where do fusion reactions occur?

Part II. Watch the following video on balancing nuclear equations:

http://teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=139478
25. Write the equation for uranium-238 spontaneously decays by emitting an alpha particle.

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Part III. Review the notes you received in class, and complete the following questions:
1. Complete and balance these nuclear equations by supplying the missing particles:

a) 6629Cu  6630Zn + _____

b) 0-1e + _____  73Li

c) 2713Al + 42He  3014Si + _____

d) 8537Rb + _____  8235Br + 42He

2. Write nuclear equation for the alpha decay of

(a) 19278Pt

(b) 21084Po

3. Write nuclear equations for the beta decay of

(a) 23993Np

(b) 9038Sr

4. Match the three types of emission with the following ideas. Each may be used once, more than
once, or not at all.
a) alpha b) beta c) gamma d) neutron
___ 1. Two protons and two neutrons
___ 2. High speed electron
___ 3. Most penetrating power
___ 4. He

___ 5. Higher energy than x-rays

___ 6. Must be stored in a lead container
___ 7. Helium nucleus
___ 8. e

Write the nuclear equation for each of the following:

1. U undergoes alpha decay

2. Lead-210 emits a beta particle.

3. Thorium-230 decays by emission of an alpha particle and a gamma ray.

4. 27
Al + 42He  3015P + _____
13

49
5. 27
Si  0+1e + _____
14

6. _____ + 21H  137N + 10n

7. _____  8236Kr + 0-1e

Complete the following half life problems. Show your work and circle your final answer.

1. An isotope of cesium (cesium-137) has a half-life of 30 years. If 1.0 mg of cesium-137

disintegrates over a period of 90 years, how many mg of cesium-137 would remain?

2. Actinium-226 has a half-life of 29 hours. If 100 mg of actinium-226 disintegrates over a

period of 58 hours, how many mg of actinium-226 will remain?

3. Thallium-201 has a half-life of 73 hours. If 4.0 mg of thallium-201 disintegrates over a

period of 6.0 days and 2 hours, how many mg of thallium-201 will remain?

4. The half-life of isotope X is 2.0 years. How many years would it take for a 4.0 mg sample of
X to decay and have only 0.50 mg of it remain?

5. Selenium-83 has a half-life of 25.0 minutes. How many minutes would it take for a 10.0 mg
sample to decay and have only 1.25 mg of it remain?

Essential Question:
What distinguishes a nuclear reaction from an ordinary chemical reaction?

Nuclear Reactions & Ordinary Chemical Reactions

Regular chemical reactions involve only the out electrons of atoms. In a chemical reaction, elements do not
change from one to another.

2H2 + O2  2H2O

Nuclear reactions involve the atomic nucleus. When an atomic nucleus changes, it is very probable that the
products will be different elements than the reactants.

238 234 4
U  Th + He
92 90 2

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Many nuclei are radioactive. This means they are unstable and will decay by emitting a particle, transforming
the nucleus into another nucleus, or into a lower energy state.

A chain of decays takes place until a stable nucleus is reached.

Essential Question:
What types of radiation exist and how harmful are they?
Nuclear Symbols

Alpha particle,  Neutron

Beta particle, an electron,  gamma ray, energy

While all particles produced by the decay of an atomic nucleus have the energy to penetrate substances, some
particles have much more energy than others.

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