University of the Cordilleras

College of Teacher Education

AY 2021-2022, First Trimester

Math 100 – Mathematics in the Modern World

Instructor: Merab A. Salio-an, LPT

MODULE 7: COMBINATORICS AND PROBABILITY

There are tasks which yields different possible outcomes and configurations. Naming or
listing these possible outcomes helps in establishing the likelihood of the occurrence of a
certain event. Combinatorics and probability are interdependent and interrelated fields in
Mathematics. Combinatorics deals with counting the possible outcomes of a certain task.
Probability, on the other hand, deals with computing the likelihood that a certain task will
occur.

COMBINATORICS
Combinatorics is the field of mathematics concerned with problems of selection,
arrangement, and operation. It is the study of counting the different outcomes/configurations
of some task.

Example of tasks which yields possible outcomes:

1. The flipping of a coin
If a coin is flipped, the side facing upward will either be a head or a tail. The outcomes
can be listed as {H, T}.

2. The rolling of a regular six-sided die

If a regular six-sided die is rolled, the possible outcomes are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Definition of Terms
1. Experiment – This is an activity with an observable outcome.
2. Sample Space – This is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
3. Event – This is one or more of the possible outcomes of an experiment.

 Experiment: Flipping of the coin

o Sample Space: {H, T}
o Event: H or T

 Experiment: Rolling a die

o Sample Space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
o Event:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6
 Different Strategies in Counting the Different Outcomes of a Task
I. Counting by Listing the Elements of an Event
Example 1:
List and then count the number of different outcomes that are possible when one letter
from the word COMMITTEE is chosen.

The possible outcomes are {C, O, M, I, T, E}. From the list, we could count 6 possible
outcomes when one letter from the word committee is chosen.

Example 2:
One number is chosen from the numbers 1 through 9. The sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}.

a. What are the elements in the event that the number chosen is an even number?
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}

b. What are the elements in the event that the number chosen is a number divisible by 5?
{5, 10, 15, 20}

c. What are the elements in the event that the number chosen is a prime number?
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}

Example 3:
How many three-digit numbers could be formed from the digits 2, 3 and 4?

222 232 242 322 332 342 422 432 442

223 233 243 323 333 343 423 433 443
224 234 244 324 334 344 424 434 444

From the list, we could count 27 three-digit numbers that could be formed from the
digits 2, 3 and 4.

II. Counting Using a Table

Example 1:
Two-digit numbers are formed from the digits 1, 3, and 8. Find the sample space and
determine the number of elements in the sample space.

1 3 8
1 11 13 18
3 31 33 38
8 81 83 88
 From the table, we could count 9 two – digit numbers that could be formed from digits
1, 3 and 8.

Example 2:
A coin is flipped and then a die is tossed. Find the number of possible outcomes of the
flipping of a coin and the rolling of a die.

1 2 3 4 5 6
H H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6
T T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

From the table, we could count 12 possible outcomes of the flipping of a coin and the
rolling of a die.

III. Counting Using a Tree Diagram

Example:
A true/false test consists of 10 questions. Draw a tree diagram to show the number of
ways to answer the first three questions

From the diagram, we could count 8 possible ways to answer the first three questions in
the true-false test.

IV. Counting Using the Counting Principle

Let 𝐸 be a multi-stage experiment. If 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 , … , 𝑛𝑘 are the number of possible
outcomes of the 𝑘 stages of 𝐸, then there are 𝑛1 ∙ 𝑛2 ∙ 𝑛3 ∙ … ∙ 𝑛𝑘 possible outcomes of 𝐸.
Example 1:
If there are eight people in a race, how many possible ways can the top three finishers
be determined, assuming there are no ties?

Any of the eight runners can be first, so 𝑛1 = 8. Because a runner cannot finish both
first and second, there are seven runners that can finish second; thus 𝑛2 = 7. Similarly, there
are six runners that can finish third; 𝑛3 = 6.

By the counting principle, there are: 8 × 7 × 6 = 336 possible ways on how the top
three finishers could be determined.

Example 2:
Suppose you have a playlist that consists of six songs but you have time to listen to only
four of the songs.

You could choose any one of the six songs to play first. Then, any one of the five
remaining songs to play second. Then, any one of the four remaining four songs to play third.
And any of the remaining three songs to play fourth.

By the counting principle, there are 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 = 360 ways to select 4 songs out of
the 6 songs in the playlist.

Counting with and Without Replacement

Example 1:
From the letters a, b, c, d, and e, how many four-letter groups can be formed if:

a. a letter can be used more than once?

5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625

b. each letter can be used exactly once?

5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120

Example 2:
From the numbers1, 2, 3 and 4, how many three-digit numbers could be formed if:

a. a number can be used more than once?

4 x 4 x 4 = 64

b. each number can be used exactly once?

4 x 3 x 2 = 24
Let us Try: List the elements defined by each experiment.
1. Select an even single-digit whole number
{0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

2. Select a prime single-digit number

{2, 3, 5, 7}

3. Select a day which has more than 6 letters

{Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday}

4. Select a month which has 31 days in it

{J, M, M, Jl, Aug, O, D}

5. Toss a coin twice

H H
T
T H
T

{HH, HT, TH, TT}

6. Toss a coin three times.

H H H
T
T H
T
T H H
T
T H
T

{HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}

7. Roll a single die and then toss a coin.

1 2 3 4 5 6
H H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6
T T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

{H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}

8. Toss a coin and then choose a digit from the digits 1 through 4.
1 2 3 4
H H1 H2 H3 H4
T T1 T2 T3 T4

{H1, H2, H3, H4, T1, T2, T3, T4}

 Permutations and Combinations
N Factorial
This is another strategy in counting the different outcomes of a task.

Sample Problem:
Suppose four different colored squares are arranged in a row. How many different
ways are there to order the colors?

We could solve this problem by:

a. The counting principle
For the first square, there are 4 choices.
We could either choose from Pink, Green, Yellow, Blue.

For the second square, there are 3 choices.

Assuming we have chosen Pink for the first, we could only choose from Green, Yellow
and Blue for the 2nd square.

For the third square, there are 2 choices.

Assuming we have chosen Pink for the first, and Green for the second, we could only
choose from Yellow and Blue for the 3rd square.

For the fourth square, there is only one choice left.

Assuming we have chosen Pink for the first, Green for the second, and Yellow for the
3 square, we only have Blue left for the 4th square.
rd

By the counting principle, there are: 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24 different arrangements of the

four squares.

b. Listing the different arrangements of the four colored squares.

PGYB GYBP YBPG BPGY
PGBY GYPB YBGP BPYG
PYGB GBYP YPGB BGPY
PYBG GBPY YPBG BGYP
PBGY GPYB YGBP BYPG
PBYG GPBY YGPB BYGP

c. N factorial
Note from this example that the number of arrangements equals the product of the
natural numbers n through 1, where n is the number of objects. This product is called a
factorial.
 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24
There are 24 ways on how the four colored squares could be arranged in a row.

n factorial is the product of the natural numbers n through 1 and is symbolized by n!

n! = n x (n-1) x (n-2) ...

Evaluate the following:

1. 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
2. 9! = 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 362 880
3. 5! – 3! = (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) – (3 x 2 x 1) = 120 – 6 = 114
d. 9! ÷ 6! = (9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) ÷ (6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) = 504

NOTE: Zero Factorial (0!) is always equal to 1.

Permutation
This is another strategy in counting the different outcomes of a certain task. It counts
the different arrangements of objects in a definite order.

Examples:
1. abc and cba are two different permutations of the letters a, b, and c
2. 122 and 212 are two different permutations of the digits 1 and 2

Permutation of Distinct Objects

Distinct vs. Not distinct
The objects a, b, c, d are distinct. The objects ♥♥♠♦ are not all distinct.

The number of permutations of 𝒏 distinct objects selected 𝒌 at a time is:

𝒏!
𝑷(𝒏, 𝒌) =
(𝒏 − 𝒌)!

Sample Problem 1
Suppose you have a playlist that consists of six songs but you have time to listen to only
four of the songs. In how many ways could you select the four songs out of the six songs.

a. Identify the given

n=6
k=4

b. Substitute the given in the permutation formula.

𝑛! 6! 6! 720
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) = (𝑛−𝑘)! 𝑃(6,4) = (6−4)! = (2)! = = 360
2

There are 360 ways on how the four songs could be selected from the six songs.
Sample Problem 2
If there are eight people in a race, how many possible ways can the top three finishers
be determined, assuming there are no ties?

a. Identify the given

n=8
k=3

b. Substitute the given in the permutation formula.

𝑛! 8! 8! 40 320
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) = (𝑛−𝑘)! 𝑃(8,3) = (8−3)! = (5)! = = 336
120

There are 336 ways on how the top three finishers could be determined from the 8 racers,
assuming there are no ties.

Sample Problem 3
There were 42 cars entered in the 2004 Daytona 500 NASCAR race. How many
different ways could the first, second, and third places be awarded?

a. Identify the given

n = 42
k=3

b. Substitute the given in the permutation formula.

𝑛! 42! 42!
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) = (𝑛−𝑘)! 𝑃(42,3) = (42−3)! = (39)! = 68 880

There are 68 880 ways on how the top three finishers could be determined out of the 42 cars
which participated in the 2004 Daytona 500 NASCAR Race.

Permutation of Identical Objects

The number of distinguishable permutations of 𝒏 objects of 𝒓 different types, where 𝒌𝟏
identical objects are of one type, 𝒌𝟐 of another, and so on, is given by

𝒏!
𝒌𝟏 ! ∙ 𝒌𝟐 ! ∙ … ∙ 𝒌𝒓 !

where 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑛.

Sample Problem 1
If seven identical dice are rolled, find the number of ways two 4’s, one 5, and four 6’s
can appear on the upward faces.
a. Identify the given
We are looking for the number of permutations of the digits 4456666.
n = 7 (number of dice)
k1 = 2(number of 4’s)
k2 = 1 (number of 5’s)
k3 = 4 (number of 6’s)

b. Substitute the given in the formula.

𝑛! 7!
P=𝑘 = = 105
1 !∙𝑘2 !∙…∙𝑘𝑟 ! 2!×1!×4!

There are 105 permutations of the digits 4456666.

Sample Problem 2
How many times can you arrange the letters of the word BANANA?

a. Identify the given

We are looking for the number of permutations of the letters B, A and N.
n = 6 (number of letters in the word banana)
k1 = 1(number of B in the word banana)
k2 = 3 (number of A in the word banana)
k3 = 2 (number of N in the word banana)

b. Substitute the given in the formula.

𝑛! 6!
P=𝑘 = = 60
1 !∙𝑘2 !∙…∙𝑘𝑟 ! 1!×3!×2!

There are 60 possible arrangements of the letters of the word BANANA.

Circular Permutation
Circular permutation is given by: (𝒏 − 𝟏)!

In how many ways can 5 boys line up in a row?

𝑃(5,5) = 5! = 120

In how many ways can 5 boys sit in a circular table?

P(5 − 1)! = 4! = 24

Combination
This is another strategy in counting the different outcomes of a certain task. It counts
the different outcomes of a certain task for which the order of the objects involved is not
important.
Examples:
1. If you were to receive a one-peso coin, a five-peso coin, and a ten-peso coin, you would
have P16 regardless of the order in which you received the coins.

2. The three-letter sequences acb and bca are different permutations of the letters a, b and c
but the same combination since the letters contained in the two are just the same.

The number of combinations of 𝒏 objects chosen 𝒌 at a time is:

𝑷(𝒏, 𝒌) 𝒏!
𝑪(𝒏, 𝒌) = =
𝒌! 𝒌! (𝒏 − 𝒌)!

Sample Problem 1
A basketball team consists of 11 players. In how many ways can a coach choose the five
starting players, assuming the position of a player is not considered?

a. Identify the given

n = 11
k=5

b. Substitute the given in the combination formula.

𝑛! 11! 11!
𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝑘!(𝑛−𝑘)! = 𝐶(11,5) = 5!(11−5)! = 5!(6!) = 462

There are 462 ways on how the first five players could be determined from the 11 players.

Sample Problem 2
A committee of five is chosen from five engineers and six entrepreneurs. How many
different committees are possible if the committee must include two engineers and three
entrepreneurs?

There are five engineers from whom two are chosen, which is equivalent to C (5, 2)
combinations. There are six entrepreneurs from whom three are chosen, which is equivalent to
C (6, 3) combinations. Get the product of the two combinations.

5! 6! 5! 6!
𝐶 (5,2) 𝑥 𝐶 (6, 3) = x = x = 10 x 20 = 200
2!(5−2)! 3!(6−3)! 2!(3!) 3!(3!)

There are 200 ways on how a committee of five is chosen from five engineers and six
entrepreneurs if the committee must include two engineers and three entrepreneurs?
Sample Problem 3
A softball team consists of 16 players. In how many ways can a coach choose the nine
starting players, assuming the position of a player is not considered?

a. Identify the given

n = 16
k=9

b. Substitute the given in the combination formula.

𝒏! 𝟏𝟔! 𝟏𝟔!
𝑪(𝒏, 𝒌) = 𝒌!(𝒏−𝒌)! = 𝑪(𝟏𝟔, 𝟗) = 𝟗!(𝟏𝟔−𝟗)! = 𝟗!(𝟕!) = 𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒𝟎

There are 11 440 ways on how the first nine players could be determined from the 16 players.

Sample Problem 4
From a standard deck of playing cards, five cards are chosen. How many five-card
combinations contain:

a. two kings and three queens?

There are C (4, 2) ways of choosing two kings from four kings and C (4, 3) ways of
choosing three queens from four queens. Get the product of the two combinations.

4! 4! 4! 4!
𝐶(4,2) 𝑥 𝐶(4, 3) = 2!(4−2)! x 3!(4−3)! = 2!(2!) x 3!(1!) = 6 x 4 = 24

There are 24 ways five card combinations containing two kings and three queens.

b. five hearts?
n = 13
k=5

𝑛! 13! 13!
𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝑘!(𝑛−𝑘)! = 𝐶(13,5) = 5!(13−5)! = 5!(8!) = 1 287

There are 1 287 five card combination containing five hearts.

PROBABILITY AND ODDS OF AN EVENT

In the Philippines, the likelihood of selecting the winning lottery numbers in Lotto is
approximately 1 in 5,245,786. In contrast, the likelihood of being struck by lightning is about
1 chance in 1,000,000. From this, we can say that one is more likely to be struck by lightning
than to pick the winning Philippine lottery numbers.
I. Probability of an Event
The probability of an event is the likelihood of the occurrence of such event.

NOTE: An event that is not very likely has a probability close to 0 while an event that is very
likely has a probability close to 1. Because any event has from a 0% to 100% chance of
occurring, probabilities are always between 0 and 1, inclusive. If an event must occur, its
probability is 1. If an event cannot occur, its probability is 0.

Computing for the Probability of an Event

For an experiment with sample space Ω of equally likely outcomes, the probability 𝑃(𝐸)
of an event 𝐸 is given by:

𝒏(𝑬) 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝑬

𝑷(𝑬) = =
𝒏(𝛀) 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞 Ω

Sample Problem 1
If a regular six-sided die is rolled, what is the probability that an even number will
result?

Sample space (all possible outcomes): {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Elements in the event that an even number will result: {2, 4, 6}

number of elements in 𝐸 3
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 6 = 0.5 = 50%

Sample Problem 2
If a regular six-sided die is rolled, what is the probability that a number greater than 4
will result?

Sample space (all possible outcomes): {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Elements in the event that a number greater than 4 will result: {5, 6}

number of elements in 𝐸 2
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 6 = 0.3333 = 33.33%

Sample Problem 3
A fair coin—one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss—is tossed twice. What is the probability that one head and one tail will result?

Sample space (all possible outcomes): {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Elements in the event that one head and one tail will result: {HT, TH}
 number of elements in 𝐸 2
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 4 = 0.5 = 50%

Sample Problem 4
A fair coin—one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss—is tossed twice. What is the probability that two heads will result?

Sample space (all possible outcomes): {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Elements in the event that one head and one tail will result: {HH}

number of elements in 𝐸 1
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 4 = 0.25 = 25%

Sample Problem 5
A fair coin—one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss—is tossed three times. What is the probability that two heads and one tail will result?

Sample space (all possible outcomes): {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Elements in the event that two heads and one tail will result: {HHT, HTH, THH}

number of elements in 𝐸 3
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 8 = 0.375 = 37.5%

Sample Problem 6
Two fair dice are tossed, one after the other. What is the probability that the sum of the
pips on the upward faces of the two dice equals 8?

Sample space (all possible outcomes)

number of elements in 𝐸 5
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 36 = 0.139 = 13.9%
Sample Problem 7
Two fair dice are tossed, one after the other. What is the probability that the sum of the
pips on the upward faces of the two dice equals 10?

Sample space (all possible outcomes)

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6

2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2- 5 2-6
3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6
4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6
5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6
6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6

number of elements in 𝐸 3
𝑃(𝐸) = total number of elements in sample space Ω = 36 = 0.0833 = 8.33%

Empirical Probability
This is the probability of an event based on data gathered from an experiment.
𝐧(𝐄) 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐄 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝
𝐏(𝐄) = =
𝐧(𝛀) 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐰𝐚𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝

Sample Problem 1
A survey of the COMELEC in City Ta Hi Meek showed the following information on the
ages and party affiliations of registered voters.

If one voter is chosen from the survey, what is the probability that the voter is on the
neutral side?
number of times event E occured 440
P(E) = = 2 120 = 0.208 = 20.8%
number of times the experiment was performed
Sample Problem 2
A survey of the COMELEC in City Ta Hi Meek showed the following information on the
ages and party affiliations of registered voters.

If one voter is chosen from the survey, what is the probability that the voter is from ages
29 – 39?
number of times event E occured 600
P(E) = = 2 120 = 0.2830 = 28.30%
number of times the experiment was performed

Sample Problem 3
A survey of the COMELEC in City Ta Hi Meek showed the following information on the
ages and party affiliations of registered voters.

If one voter is chosen from the survey, what is the probability that the voter is from ages
18-28 and that voter is pro liberal party?

number of times event E occured 180

P(E) = = 2 120 = 0.0849 = 8.49%
number of times the experiment was performed

II. Odds of an Event

This involves favorable and unfavorable outcomes
To compute for the odds that an event will happen:
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬
𝐎𝐝𝐝𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐄 =
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬
Sample Problem 1
If a regular six-sided die is rolled, what are the odds that a number greater than 4 will
result?

Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Favorable: {5, 6}
Unfavorable: {1, 2, 3, 4}

number of favorable outcomes 2

Odds in favor of E = number of unfavorable outcomes = 4 = 0.5 = 50%

Sample Problem 2
If a regular six-sided die is rolled, what are the odds that an odd number will result?

Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Favorable: {1, 3, 5}
Unfavorable: {2, 4, 6}

number of favorable outcomes 3

Odds in favor of E = number of unfavorable outcomes = 3 = 1 = 100%

Sample Problem 3
A fair coin—one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss—is tossed three times. What are the odds that two heads and one tail will result?

Sample space: {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Favorable: {HHT, HTH, THH}
Unfavorable: {HHH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}

number of favorable outcomes 3

Odds in favor of E = number of unfavorable outcomes = 5 = 0.6 = 60%

Sample Problem 4
A fair coin—one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss—is tossed three times. What are three heads will result?

Sample space: {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Favorable: {HHH}
Unfavorable: {HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}

number of favorable outcomes 1

Odds in favor of E = number of unfavorable outcomes = 7 = 0.1429 = 14.29%