Working as a physicist11-09-2024

1. Standard units in physics

 A physical quantity consists of a magnitude (distance or quantity) and unit .
 The SI (International System of Units) has been adopted by scientists around the
world to avoid confusion
 The SI includes six base Units.
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol

 A number of derived units also exist, resulting from combinations of the basic units.
Example:
Quantity Unit Abbreviation In base units
-1
Velocity Metres per second ms ms-1
force newton N Kgms-2
charge coulomb C As
pressure pascal Pa Kgm-1s-2
energy joule J Kgm2s-2

 When performing calculations, your data is often expressed in non-SI units, such as
centimeters, kilonewtons or megajoules.
 You need to know how to convert and what each prefix means.
Prefix Name Abbreviation
10-12 Pico p
10-9 Nano n
-6
10 Micro µ
-3
10 Milli m
-2
10 Centi c
3
10 Kilo k
106 Mega M
9
10 Giga G
12
10 Tera T

2. Estimation

Orders of magnitude provide a comparative scale to understand how large or small a

quantity is. Its about categorising numbers based on their logarithmic scale, typically
powers of ten. A few examples of useful quantities to memorise are given in the table
below:
Quantity Size
Diameter of an atom 10−10 m
Wavelength of UV radiation 10 nm
Height of an adult human 2m
Distance between Earth and Sun (1 AU) 1.5 × 1011 m
Mass of a hydrogen atom 10−27 kg
Mass of an adult human 70 kg
Mass of a car 1000 kg
Seconds in a day 90 000 s
Seconds in a year 3 × 107 s
Speed of sound in air 300 m s−1
Power of a light bulb 60 W
Atmospheric pressure 1 × 105 Pa
 TOPIC 1MECHANICS11-09-2024
1AMotion

1.Velocity and acceleration

L.O:

 Explain the distinction between scalar and vectorquantities.

 Distinguish between speed and velocity and defineacceleration.
 Calculate values using equations for velocity andacceleration.

Key terms: Speed, Velocity, Displacement, Vector, Scalar, Averagespeed, Instantaneous speed, Acceleration.

o Speed: This is a scalar quantity which describes the distance travelled per unit time.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎) 𝒅
Speed (ms-1) = ; 𝑣=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝒕

o Velocity: This is a vector quantity which describes the rate of change of displacement.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝒎) 𝒔 ∆𝒔
Velocity (ms-1) = ; 𝑣= 𝑜𝑟𝑣 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆(𝒔) 𝒕 ∆𝒕

o Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
o Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction
o Instantaneous speed: is the speed of an object at a specific point in time.
o Average speed:is the speed of an object over a specified time frame. It can be found by dividing the total
distance by the total time.
o Acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒎𝐬-1) 𝒗−𝒖 ∆𝒗
Acceleration (ms-2) = ; 𝑎= or 𝑎 = ∆𝒕
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒔) 𝒕

Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity

 2.Motion Graphs
o Three types of graphs that are used to represent motion are:
Displacement time graphs, velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs

 Displacement-time graphs show change in displacement over time, and so their

gradientrepresents velocity:
Slope equals velocity; A straight (diagonal) slope representsa constant velocity; A curved slope
represents an acceleration; A zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest

 Velocity-time graphs represent the change in velocity over time. Therefore, the gradient of
avelocity-time graph is acceleration, and the area under the graph is displacement.
Slope equals acceleration; A straight line represents uniform acceleration; A curved line
represents non-uniform acceleration; a zero slope (horizontal line) represents motion
with constant velocity

 Acceleration-time graphs represent the change in velocity over time. Therefore, the area
underthe graph is the change in velocity.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents an object undergoing constant acceleration

o Interpreting graphs means using the slope of the line, or the area under the line to find
Information
o Drawing graphs is a skill where careful planning, plotting and line drawing from some data
yields further information from an investigation
Checkpoint answers
1A.2 Motion graphs
1 A: The bike is at constant speed for the first 10 s (2 m s−1).
B: The bike is stationary from 10 s to 30 s (20 m distance).
C: The bike is at constant speed from 30 s to 40 s (3 m s−1).
The bike finishes stationary.
2 A: The car has constant acceleration for the first 10 s (0.5 m s−2).
B: The car is at constant speed from 10 s to 30 s (5 m s−1).
 C: The car has constant acceleration from 30 s to 40 s (1 m s−2).
D: The car has constant deceleration from 40 s to 50 s (−1.5 m s−1).
3 d = 216 m

3. Adding forces
  Resultant force is the total force (vector sum) acting on a body when all the forces are
added together accounting for their directions.
 This single resultant force determines the direction in which the object will move as a
result of all of the forces and the magnitude of the net force experienced by the object.
Adding forces in the same line
 Resultant forces can be calculated by adding all of the forces acting on the object
 Forces working in the same direction are added together
 Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each other
 If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no resultant
force – the forces are said to be balanced.

Adding perpendicular forces

There are two methods you can use to add perpendicular forces:
o Calculation: In this method you use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude of the
vector
and trigonometry to find its direction.
Example: two forces are acting perpendicular to each other and have magnitudes of 5 N and 12N.
Find the resultant force, and its direction from the horizontal.
 To find the resultant magnitude (R) you can use Pythagoras’ theorem:
2
12 + 52 = 169 = R2 R = 13 N
In order to find its direction, you can use trigonometry:
𝟓
tan θ = 𝟏𝟐 ; θ = 22.6°
Direction = 22.6° from the horizontal
 It is very important to state how the angle you find signifies the direction.

Adding two non-perpendicular forces

o Scale drawing: this should be used when forces non-perpendicular (angles other than 90°).
For this method, you draw a scale diagram using a ruler and a protractor, in order to find the
resultant force. Make sure to note the scale that you are using in your diagram.

Example:a ship travels 30 m at a bearing of 060°, then 20 m east. Find the magnitude and
direction of its displacement from its starting position.

Firstly, draw a scale diagram, using a ruler and a protractor as shown below, noting the scale
you are using.
Finally, measure the missing side and convert it to the magnitude using your scale and measure
the missing angle θ, to find the bearing of the displacement. Magnitude = 4.9 cm = 49 m to scale
Direction = 072°.

The parallelogram rule

To combine vectors using the parallelogram method:
 Step 1: link the vectors tail-to-tail

 Step 2: complete the resulting parallelogram

 Step 3: the resultant vector is the diagonal of the parallelogram

R = √ (P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

β = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)] → Direction of the resultant vector R

Free-body force diagrams

A free-body diagram, is a diagram which shows all the forces that act on an object.The size of
the arrow in a free-body diagram reflects the magnitude of the force. The direction of the
arrow shows the direction that the force is acting. Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to
indicate the exact type of force.

Checkpoint answers

1. Forward forces: 8.4 N (rubber band) + 10 N (child's hand) = 18.4 N

Backward forces: 0.5 N (air resistance) + 5.8 N (friction) = 6.3 N
Resultant force = 18.4 N - 6.3 N = 12.1 Nforwards
2. 6621 N at an angle of 65.0° up from the horizontal
R=√(Lift)2+(Thrust)2
R=√(6000 N)2+(2800 N)2≈6625.5N
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 6000 6000
tan(θ)=𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = ; θ=tan−1(2800 )≈65.9∘
2800

3. Students should draw the weight force arrow vertically down from centre of body, exactly
the same size as the reaction force from the chair acting vertically upwards on bottom
4. (a) 800 N, θ = 18° (accuracy depends on quality of scale drawing)
(b) As part (a)
5. 4100 N, 4° left of the forwards direction

4.Moments
L.O:
 Calculate the moment of aforce.
 Apply the principle ofmoments.
 Find the centre of gravity of anobject.

The moment of a force

o A moment is the turning effect of a force, it occurs when forces cause objects to rotate about
some pivot.
o The momentof a force about a point is the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from the line of action of the force to the point.

Moment (N m) = Force (N) × perpendicular distance from the pivot (m)

o This can also be expressed as: Moment = Fx

Where x: is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the axis
of rotation.
o The SI unit for the moment is Newton metres (N m). This may also be Newton centimeters
(N cm) depending on the units given for the distance.

Principle of moments
o The principle of moments states that for an object in equilibrium, the sum of anticlockwise
moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of clockwisemoments about that pivot.
o For a balanced object, the moments on both sides of the pivot are equal
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Example:we can use the principle of moments to find the value of F from the diagram below.

Σ clockwise moments = Σ anticlockwise moments

Taking moments around A: (d1× F1)+ (d2× F2) = (d3× F)
(2 ×50) + (3×35) = (3.5×F)
205= 3.5F
F= 58.6 N
The distance from A to A is 0, the moment caused by the 12 N force is also 0, therefore it
can be ignored.

Centre of gravity
 o The centre of gravity is the point through which the weight of an object appears to act.
o If an object is described as uniform, its centre of gravity will be exactly at its centre (point
ofsymmetry).

o If an object is irregular (or not uniform), you can still find its centre of gravity by using the
following method:
1.Secure the object along with a plumbline (a weighted string) to a clamp stand from
the same point, ensuring the plumb line hangs over the object.
2. Allow the object to stabilize, and then mark a line on it where the plumb line rests.
3. Repeat this process at least two more times. The point where all three lines intersect is
the center of gravity.

The center of gravity is where the force of gravity seems to act on an object, meaning the object's
weight is concentrated at this point. When calculating moments, it’s important to consider the moment
created by the object's weight.
Checkpoint answers
1. 438 Nm
2. 1.51 m
3. If the book swings past the position of the second picture, a moment will then act against
the motion, slowing it and pushing it back towards that position with the diagonal vertical.
Thus it will oscillate back and forth until it comes to rest as in the second picture. In reality,
the swinging is likely to be minimal as the finger friction will be significant.
4. 55 cm

5. Newton’s laws of motion

L.O:
 ● Recall Newton’s laws of motion and use them to explain the acceleration ofobjects.
● Make calculations using Newton’s second law ofmotion.
● Identify pairs of forces involved in Newton’s third law ofmotion.

Newton’s First Law of motion

An object will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion, until acted upon by a resultant force.

Newton’s second Law of motion

o If an object’s mass is constant, the resultant force needed to cause an acceleration is given by the
equation: ΣF = ma
Where ΣF is the sum of all the forces F acting on the objectwhich is equivalent, m is the object’s
mass and a is its acceleration.
Resultant force (N) = mass (Kg) × acceleration (ms-2)
Example:
How to calculate acceleration due to gravity (g)?
F = ma = mg  g = F/m
Newton’s third Law of motion

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

With equal force but in the opposite direction.

Checkpointanswers
1. In terms of Newton’s laws of motion:
(a): Weight balanced by reaction force, so resultant force = zero, so acceleration = zero, as
per Newton’s first law of motion.
(b): It will accelerate upwards, as per Newton’s first law.
(c): Newton’s third law: the book will offer an equal and opposite force to that of the
hands on the book. Touch sensors in the skin detect this reaction force

3.(a): a = 65.4 m s−2;(b): a = 7.16 m s−2 ;(c): a = 9.80 m s−2 ;(d) a = 179 m s−2

6.Kinematics equations
L.O:
● Recall the simple kinematicsequations.
● Calculate unknown variables using the kinematicsequations.
Zero acceleration

o If an object has no resultant force acting on it, then it does not accelerate. This situation is
Called uniform motion. The object moves at a constant velocity.
o When acceleration is zero, the basic velocity equation applies: v = s/t
Where: v = velocity (m/s); s = displacement (m); t = time (s)
o Imagine a car moving on a straight road at a constant speed of 20 m/s. Since the speed
doesn't change, the car is experiencing zero acceleration.
Constant acceleration
o The kinematic equations of motion consist of four formulas that can describe the movement
of an object facing constant acceleration.
o They are commonly known as the 'suvat' equations because of the variables they incorporate
 s = displacement (m)
 u = initial velocity (m s−1)
 v = final velocity (m s−1)
 a = acceleration (m s−2)
 t = time interval (s)

o The first Kinematic Equation is : v = u + at

Example:If a car starts from rest (u = 0) and accelerates at 2 m/s² for 5 seconds, its final velocity
is: v = 0 + 2 × 5 = 10 m/s.

(𝒖+𝒗)
o The Second Kinematic Equation: s = ×𝒕
𝟐
Example:If a car starts from rest (u = 0) and accelerates to a final velocity of 10 m/sover 5 seconds,
(0+10)
the displacement is: s = × 5 = 25𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
2

o The third Equation (Combining Equations A):

(𝒖+𝒗)
Starting fromequation 1: v = u + atand equation 2:s = ×𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
By combining: s = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝐚𝒕²
𝟐

Example:An object falls for 3 seconds (u=0, a=9.81 m/s2): s = 𝟎 × 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟑²= 44.1 m

o The fourth Equation (Combining Equations B):

(𝒖+𝒗) 𝟐𝐬
Starting fromequation 2: s = × 𝒕 sot=
𝟐 𝒖+𝒗
Substitute this expression for t into the equation 1: v = u + at
By combining: v2=u2+2as

Example:A car is initially at rest (u=0) and accelerates uniformly at 2 m/s2over a distance of 100m.
Calculate the final velocity of the car.
v2=u2+2asv2=02+2×2×100 = 400 v = √400 = 20 m/s

Checkpoint answers
7. Resolving vectors
L.O:
 Explain that any vector can be split into two components at right
angles to each other.
 Calculate the values of the component vectors in any such right-
angled pair (resolution).

Resolving vectors or resolution is the determination of a pair of vectors, at

right angles to each other, that sums to give the single vector they were
resolved from
Resolving vectors calculations

For this method, you use trigonometry to split a vector V into its
components x and y, as shown below:
 For the vertical component of velocity: x = V cos θ
 For the horizontal component of velocity:y= V sin θ

If you have trouble remembering formulas, here's a nice tip to keep in

mind:

 If you are moving from the original vector through the angle θ to get
to your component (either horizontal or vertical), use cos.
 If you are moving away from the angle θ to get to your component,
use sin.

For example, a ball has been fired at a velocity of 10 m/s, at an angle of

30° from the horizontal, find the vertical and horizontal components of
velocity.
x= 10 cos 30°= 8.7 m/sy= 10 sin 30°= 5 m/s

Alternative resolution angles

o Vectors can be resolved into two components at right angles (typically horizontal and
vertical).
o Submarine Example: A submarine is moving underwater at an angle to the seabed.
 Objective: Avoid collision by resolving its velocity into two perpendicular vectors:
one horizontal and one vertical.
 These vectors help determine how fast it approaches the seabed.
Example: Submarine at 45° to the Seabed

o The submarine is moving with a velocity V=100 m/s at an angle of 45° relative to the
vertical (seabed).
o We can resolve the submarine's velocity into two components:
o Vertical Component (Vy): The speed at which the submarine is approaching the seabed.
Vy=Vcosθ=100×cos45∘=100×0.707=70.7 m/s
o Horizontal Component (Vx): The speed at which the submarine is moving parallel to the
seabed.
Vx=Vsinθ=100×sin45∘=100×0.707=70.7 m/s

Checkpoint answers
 8. Projectiles
L.O:
● Apply kinematics equations to moving objects.
● Apply the independence of horizontal and vertical motion to objects moving freely under
gravity.
● Combine horizontal and vertical motion to calculate the movement of projectiles.

o The vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion are independent.

o The projectile’s horizontal and vertical motion can be evaluated separately using the
uniform acceleration formula, where acceleration is constant.
o Some key terms to know, and how to calculate them, are:

 Time of flight: how long the projectile is in the air

 Maximum height attained: the height at which the projectile is momentarily at rest
 Range: the horizontal distance traveled by the projectile
Example:
A ball is projected from the ground at 20 m/s, at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Find
the time taken for the ball to reach the ground and its maximum height. Ignore the effect
of air resistance.
 Firstly, you must resolve the initial speed into its components:
Vertical component = 20 sin 60° = 17.3 m/s
Horizontal component = 20 cos 60° = 10 m/s
 Maximum vertical height occurs when the vertical component of velocity firstbecomes 0,
therefore: s =? u = 17.3 m/s v = 0 m/s a = -g (-9.81 m/s2) t =?
 Using v2=u2+2as , you can find s
 0 = 17.32 + 2× (-9.81) × s
 19.62s = 300  s = 15.3 m (maximum height)
 Using v = u + at, you can find t.
 0 = 17.3 – 9.81t
 9.81t = 17.3  t = 1.76s
 Using the fact that the time for the journey will be double the time to reach the maximum hight
(Since the upward and downward journeys take equal time) the total time is:
 Time to reach ground = 3.5 s

Checkpoint answers