Chapter 2: Teaching and Assessing Speaking

Lesson 1: Understanding Speaking

Speaking and its Importance
Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of contexts (Chaney, 1998).
Speaking is complex because speakers are involved in a rapid and dynamic process incurring a high
element of doing various things at the same time (Johnson, 1996).
Further, Johnson (1996) describes speaking as a "combinatorial skill" that involves doing various things
at the same time including non-verbal communication skills like listening, eye contact, and body
language.
Why do we speak? People speak for the following reasons:
1.) convey thoughts,
2.) persuade people, and
3.) inspire people and spur them into action.
The following skills need to be developed for effective speaking in a second language.
1. Vocabulary
To be able to speak effectively, you have to acquire enough words to say what you want to say and to
make you more capable of delivering exactly what you want to convey. Being a good speaker means
constantly expanding your vocabulary. Reading is an effective way to improve your vocabulary. The
more you read, the more you learn unfamiliar words. Watching movies is another way to improve your
English vocabulary. Movies provide you with the opportunity to learn many words, phrases, and
grammar as used in real-life conversations. Playing word games is effective and fun. At the same time, it
improves your vocabulary. There are several classic board games or online word games that will enhance
your vocabulary.
2. Grammar
The fewer grammar mistakes you make, the more effective is your speech. However, your grammar
doesn't need to be 100% accurate to be an effective speaker. What is important is the accuracy of the
message that you convey while speaking. You may need to learn specific grammatical structures like the
different tenses, comparative forms, relative clauses, conditionals, passive and active voice, to name a
few.
3. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is divided into two large categories: segmentals and suprasegmentals.
Segmentals are also called «phonemes.>> Individual sounds of the consonants and vowels are
segmentals. The segmental features of speech are discrete units that can be auditorily identified in the
speech stream such as consonants and vowels (Crystal, 2015).
Suprasegmentals are speech techniques that apply to multiple segments such as stress, intonation and
rhythm. The suprasegmental features (also known as prosodic features fund to "the phonetic and
phonological aspects of spoken language the referral necessarily be reduced to individual consonants and
vowels b generally extend across several segments or syllables" (Fletcher, 2013)
Suprasegmentals are the musical aspects of pronunciation. They are important for marking all kinds of
meanings, in particular speakers' attitude or stances to what they are saying (or the person they are saying
it to), and in marking out how one utterance relates to another (Ogden, 2009) Competent speakers possess
various skills of pronunciation to emphasize and make the communicative effect of their speech more
effective.
Speech Register
Speech registers refer to the level of formality and style in speaking anchored on different situations and
contexts. The following are the types of speech registers:
1. Frozen or Fixed Register
This type of register is often used in very formal ceremonies and must be said the same each time we say
it. This register is frozen in time, form, and content. Some examples are Shakespearean plays, the
Philippine National Anthem, the Lord's prayer, the Preamble of the Philippine Constitution, and laws.
2. Formal Register
This type often follows a prescriptive format. It is used in formal settings and is usually impersonal. This
includes academic language. Formal registers are speeches, announcements, sermons, and
pronouncements by the judges. The speaker uses technical and academic vocabulary, uses complete
sentences, avoids slang, and may use technical or academic vocabulary.
3. Consultative Register
This is the standard form of communication. The speaker uses the participation and feedback of the
listener. Situations using consultative registers are doctor and patient, lawyer and client, teacher and
student, and counselor and client.
4. Casual Register
This is an informal speech, usually used between, friends, or colleagues who have things to share. There
is free and easy participation of both speaker and listener. Casual registers happen among buddies,
teammates, group chats, blogs, and messages to friends.
5. Intimate Register
The last type is a conversation between two very close individuals. It is described by an economy of
words, with a high chance of nonverbal communication. Intimate registers usually occur between husband
and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, parents and children, and siblings.
Speech Act
Speech act refers to an utterance expressed by an individual that presents information and performs an
action as well. The speech act theory of Austin and Searle (1971) captures all the possible functions of
language by classifying the kinds of action that can be performed by speech. It is categorized as
locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary.
The locutionary act is the act of making an expressive meaning. This is an utterance that produces literal
meaning based on what is said by the speaker. An illocutionary act (force) is the meaning one wishes to
convey. It is an utterance that has a social function in mind. In an illocutionary act, it is not just the act of
saying something but the act of saying something for the purpose of:
 stating an opinion, confirming or denying something;
 making a prediction, a promise, request;
 issuing an order or a decision; and
 giving advice or permission.
A perlocutionary act is the effect of our words that entails a person to do something. This is what the
hearer does in response to the utterance.
Speech Delivery
One way of categorizing a speech is the way it is delivered. The types of speech delivery are impromptu,
extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized.
Impromptu speaking involves delivering a message on the spur of the moment without preparation and
predetermination. The speaker is provided on the spot with a topic and she/he will say something about it.
The speech could be as professional as feedback on a project or as informal as a message during birthdays
and other celebrations. While it might feel nerve-wracking even to the most experienced speaker, giving
an impromptu speech is a test of an excellent communicator.
Extemporaneous speaking consists of delivering a speech in a conversational fashion using notes. This
is planned and prepared but the speaker uses an outline only as a reference while speaking. This is the
style most professional and experienced public speakers prefer since the extemporaneous method of
delivery has a more natural flow. This is also the style of speech delivery for speaking contests. Speakers
are given topics 20 minutes prior to their speech afterwhich they deliver a five (5) minute talk (depends
on the guidelines set for the extemporaneous contest.)
Manuscript speaking consists of reading a fully scripted speech. It is useful when a message needs to be
delivered in precise words like the state of the nation address of the President of the Philippines. This is
used when people read important statements or when people deliver reports in public that would require
exact words in the correct order.
Memorized speaking is delivering a scripted speech from memory. Memorization allows the speaker to
be free of notes. However, there is stress associated with it since it will entail the speaker to commit to
memory what she/he has to say.

Lesson 2 : Teaching Speaking

Teaching speaking in a second language can be challenging for both teachers and learners. Speaking is
complex because speakers are involved in a rapid and dynamic process incurring "a high element of doing
various things at the same time" (Johnson, 1996, p. 55).
Teaching and Learning Speaking
 Competence in speaking involves the following components: 1) knowledge of language and discourse; 2)
core speaking skills; and 3) communication and discourse strategies (Goh and Burns, 2012, p. 53). The
first component of knowledge of language and discourse requires mastering the sound patterns of the
language and being able to pronounce the language intelligibly at segmental and suprasegmental levels,
knowing the grammar and vocabulary of the language (spoken structures, grammatical features, lexis),
and understanding how stretches of connected speech (discourse, genre) are organized so that they are
socially and pragmatically appropriate (register) (Goh and Burns, 2012). The second component refers to
the core speaking skills that include the ability to process speech quickly to increase fluency (e.g. speech
rate, chunking, pausing, formulaic language, discourse markers), being able to negotiate speech like
initiating topics, turn-taking, signaling intentions, etc. The third component, communication strategies,
involve developing cognitive strategies to compensate for limitations in language knowledge (e.g
circumlocution, paraphrasing, gestures, word coinage, approximation, avoidance) and interaction
strategies like asking for clarification/repetition, reformulating, and rephrasing.
Knowing these components would enable the teacher to understand that every speaking lesson has to be
supported with learning opportunities that develop the speaking competence of the learners across the
three categories of knowledge of language and discourse, core speaking skills, and communication
strategies. At some point in the speaking lesson, the teachers have to be very observant since students may
need guidance on a specific aspect of language to become effective speakers.
The teachers need to remember that for students to be competent and effective speakers, they must at the
same time be listeners who can take into account the interactional and unpredictable dynamics of speech
(Ellis, 2014).
Goh and Burns (2012) in Burns (2019) proposed a model of teaching the speaking cycle as a basis in the
teaching of speaking. Burns emphasized that the teaching speaking cycle is not meant to be completed in
just one or two lessons. It is an overall approach to supporting and scaffolding the learning of speaking
skills and strategies that can be introduced and extended over several lessons or even a unit of work.
Teaching-Speaking Cycle, Goh and Burns (2012)
1. Focus learners' attention on speaking
Burns (2019) opined that the teaching speaking cycle starts with focusing learners' attention in speaking.
Students are guided to prepare themselves for speaking. The purpose of this is to encourage learners to
plan for overall speaking development and to prepare learners to approach a specific speaking task.
Preparing for speaking includes talking with students about what difficulties they have encountered while
speaking and ways on how to improve their speaking ability.
2. Provide input and/or guide planning
The teacher needs to allow the learners to plan before the real speaking task. In this stage the teacher may
ask the students to choose a topic they are familiar with, then list down main ideas and supporting details,
think of phrases that would connect one idea to another, and plan for a good conclusion. Another way to
prepare students for the speaking task is to encourage the students to read about his/her topic of interest
and gather vocabulary related to the topic. The teacher can also provide inputs to activate or reactivate
learners' linguistic knowledge.
3. Conduct speaking tasks
Teachers provide speaking tasks for students to practice. As students are guided on how to plan their
speech in stage 2, they are expected to practice speaking in this stage focusing on how to say it that
encourages fluency of expression.
4: Focus on language/skills/strategies
This cycle aims at creating opportunities for learners to improve language accuracy, as well as to enhance
their effective use of skills and strategies (Burns, 2019). In this stage, the teacher draws learners' attention
to selected parts of the fluency task which may include pronunciation, grammar, and text structures, as
well as vocabulary.
5. Repeat speaking tasks
At this stage, learners carry out the speaking task(s) from Stage 3 again. The difference between Stage 3
and Stage 5 is that learners now have a chance to analyze and practice selected language items or skills
during Stage 4, thus learners can apply this knowledge to enhance their performance (Burns, 2019).
6. Direct learners' reflection on learning
The students need to monitor their speaking activity. This stage enables the learners to reflect on their
experiences when doing the speaking tasks. Reflection can be done individually, in small groups, or in
pairs which can focus on the following (Burns, 2019):
 demands of the speaking tasks which students have become aware of;
 strategies that are useful to meet the demands of the task;
 their informal assessment of their capabilities and performance;
 areas of their performance that show improvement;
 areas to be further improved; and
 plans for improving a specific area.
7. Facilitate feedback on learning
The teacher in this stage gives feedback on the performance of the students in the speaking tasks either
through qualitative comments, grades, narratives, rubrics, and other assessment measures.
Kayi (2006) proposed suggestions in teaching speaking that teachers might further consider. They are the
following:
1. Provide a maximum opportunity for students to speak the target language by providing a rich
environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared knowledge.
2. Try to involve each student in every speaking activity.
3. Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe
students.
4. Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.
5. Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that conclusion?" in order to
prompt students to speak more.
6. Provide written feedback like "Your presentation was great. It was a good job. I really appreciated your
efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice..."
7. Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction should
not distract the student from his or her speech.
8. Circulate around the classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they need
your help while they work in groups or pairs.
9. Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.
10. Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the target
language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.

Speaking tasks
For many years and even until now, English language teachers have continued to teach speaking through
repetitive drills or memorization of dialogues. However, the goal of teaching speaking is to make students
express themselves correctly and effectively to be understood. To teach speaking communicatively is to
provide varied speaking tasks that enable students to communicate in real-life scenarios. The main aim of
speaking tasks is to help students develop fluency. To develop students' speaking skills, they need
intensive practice. Below are suggested activities that facilitate speaking practice. Below are some
examples of speaking tasks that teachers can employ in their classes.
1. Discussion
A discussion is carried out to arrive at a conclusion, to share ideas about an event, or to find solutions.
The teacher needs to orient the students on the purpose of the discussion so time will not be wasted on
talking about other things.
2. Your last word is mine
The first student starts telling a story; another continues using the last word uttered by the first student,
then another student continues until the whole story is finished.
3. Short Speeches
Given a time frame, students are given a topic and deliver a speech before the class.
4. Guess the picture
One student has the picture and the partner needs to guess what's in the picture by asking probing
questions and clarifications.
5. Role Play
In role play, students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. This
exercise will encourage the students to speak in real-life situations.
5. Interviews
Students interview an interesting personality in the community and report to the class the results of the
interview.
6. Narrating or telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience.
7. Playing games that engage students in conversation.
8. Conducting class debates.

Lesson 3 : Assessing Speaking

Assessing the speaking skills of students can be very challenging for teachers of English. It is because
when a person speaks, it involves doing various skills at the same time like using appropriate vocabulary,
correct grammar, pronunciation, and other non-verbal communication skills. Porto (1997) and Omar
(2001) indicated that developing oral skills is a real challenge for many teachers of English as a second
language since the students do not live in an English-speaking environment. Success in speaking is being
able to communicate the message effectively using accurate and acceptable use of the language. Thus,
multiple-choice type of assessment, or fill-in-the-blank worksheet, or true or false type of test and other
typical types of assessment cannot authentically measure the speaking skills of the students.
Pronunciation, vocabulary, accuracy, interaction, and fluency are important components of students'
overall speaking competencies. Using different assessment techniques is the best way for educators to get
a clear picture of each student's speaking abilities.
Assessing speaking skills entails teachers to pay attention to the following:
1. Fluency
Fluency means speaking easily, reasonably quickly without having to stop and pause a lot. It refers to how
many languages a student can speak, as opposed to accuracy which focuses on whether that language is
correct or not. A lot of conversation classes, especially more informal conversation classes, focus solely
on fluency.
Fluency is frequently defined in terms of speed of spoken delivery as, for example, the capacity to
produce speech at a normal rate and without interruption' (Skehan, 2009, p. 510).

2. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the act of producing the sounds of speech, including articulation, stress, and intonation.
Pronunciation is important in speaking. However, when it comes to speaking assessments, the utmost
consideration is whether the learner's pronunciation makes communication easy or difficult.
3. Vocabulary
This refers to the body of words used in a particular language. Vocabulary is usually assessed through
vocabulary tests, using multiple choice or fill-in-the-blanks. However, in the context of speaking, it is the
consideration of the breadth and depth of the vocabulary used by the speaker. Breadth refers to the
number of words a student knows. Depth is what the learner knows about the words.
4. Accuracy
This refers to the correct use of the language system. Language teachers expand grammatical constructs
by going beyond the assessment of grammatical form and meaning to grammatical use.