electronics

Article
A New Blockchain-Based Authentication Framework for Secure
IoT Networks
Ahmad K. Al Hwaitat 1 , Mohammed Amin Almaiah 1,2, * , Aitizaz Ali 3 , Shaha Al-Otaibi 4, *, Rima Shishakly 5 ,
Abdalwali Lutfi 6,7 and Mahmaod Alrawad 6

1 King Abdullah the II IT School, Department of Computer Science, The University of Jordan,
Amman 11942, Jordan
2 Fellowship Researcher, INTI International University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia
3 School of IT, UNITAR International University, Petaling Jaya 47301, Malaysia; [email protected]
4 Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint
Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia
5 Management Department, College of Business Administration, Ajman University,
Ajman 346, United Arab Emirates; [email protected]
6 College of Business Administration, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia;
[email protected] (A.L.)
7 Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Amman 11931, Jordan
* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.A.A.); [email protected] (S.A.-O.)

Abstract: Most current research on decentralized IoT applications focuses on a specific vulnerability.
However, for IoT applications, only a limited number of techniques are dedicated to handling
privacy and trust concerns. To address that, blockchain-based solutions that improve the quality
of IoT networks are becoming increasingly used. In the context of IoT security, a blockchain-based
authentication framework could be used to store and verify the identities of devices in a decentralized
manner, allowing them to communicate with each other and with external systems in a secure and
trust-less manner. The main issues in the existing blockchain-based IoT system are the complexity and
storage overhead. To solve these research issues, we have proposed a unique approach for a massive
IoT system based on a permissions-based blockchain that provides data storage optimization and a
Citation: Al Hwaitat, A.K.; Almaiah,
M.A.; Ali, A.; Al-Otaibi, S.; Shishakly,
lightweight authentication mechanism to the users. The proposed method can provide a solution to
R.; Lutfi, A.; Alrawad, M. A New most of the applications which rely on blockchain technology, especially in assisting with scalability
Blockchain-Based Authentication and optimized storage. Additionally, for the first time, we have integrated homomorphic encryption
Framework for Secure IoT Networks. to encrypt the IoT data at the user’s end and upload it to the cloud. The proposed method is compared
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618. https:// with other benchmark frameworks based on extensive simulation results. Our research contributes
doi.org/10.3390/electronics12173618 by designing a novel IoT approach based on a trust-aware security approach that increases security
Academic Editors: Satyabrata Aich,
and privacy while connecting outstanding IoT services.
Kamalakanta Muduli and
Sushanta Tripathy Keywords: security; privacy; blockchain; smart contracts; IoT; encryption; transaction

Received: 5 July 2023

Revised: 6 August 2023
Accepted: 7 August 2023
1. Introduction
Published: 27 August 2023
The proliferation of industrial IoT applications and networking services has facilitated
a tremendous increase in the number of connected devices. These application devices can
capture real-time industrial data with a dedicated sensor unit [1]. Industrial advancement
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. and technological guidance are behind this shift in how systems interact with physical
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and logical things. A centralized architecture is used to communicate real-time industrial
This article is an open access article data and evaluate the critical components of IoT, including identity management [2]. A
distributed under the terms and single failure point is feasible due to this common technique [3]. A significant issue with
conditions of the Creative Commons the Internet of Things (IoT) is the difficulty in maintaining and managing many connected
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// devices [4]. A system of networks can talk interactively through adaptive self-configuration.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ IoT applications can be commercialized over the 6G network. A fundamental component
4.0/).

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12173618 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 2 of 25

of the IoT, the wireless sensor network (WSN) gathers and transmits physical data using
various heterogeneous models [5].
Data security is a major concern of IoT systems because they are built by connecting
many IoT devices [6]. Data generated by these devices are stored in the cloud and transmit-
ted across various networks. A cyber-attack on a smart healthcare system can substantially
impact the system’s ability to produce and supply electricity. In addition to financial and
other types of damage, cyber-attacks on smart healthcare can cause operational failures,
power outages, the theft of critical data, and complete security breaches [7]. Cyber experts
face difficulties keeping tabs on everything that passes via a smart grid and recognizing
potential threats and attacks. Even though machine learning has become an essential part
of cybersecurity, the problem is that this field requires distinct approaches and theoretical
viewpoints to handle the enormous volume of data generated and transported across
numerous networks in a smart grid [8]. The attacks and threats that could be launched
against this proof-of-concept environment are being determined using threat modeling.
Several potential threats have been tested, including detection, tampering, repudiation,
information leakage, denial of service (DoS), and extended privilege (EoP). Each of the risks
and the security elements associated with them are addressed using STRIDE. STRIDE is a
typical threat modeling technique for finding and classifying attack vectors [9]. Using the
well-known industrial framework MITRE ATTCK, researchers can detect threats disguised
as tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) [10].
Based on the above, blockchain technology could be one of the main solutions for
IoT security issues [11]. A blockchain provides a decentralized system using a consensus
mechanism and smart contracts [12]. Smart contracts are the protocols that trigger the
blockchain to act according to a particular activity or situation [13]. Blockchains can be
categorized into three classes: private, public, and hybrid public blockchain technology. The
main feature of a blockchain is to provide security and only keep records and transactions
within a single organization. A public blockchain provides access to the public using a
public API. Moreover, such a model interacts with external networks such as gateway
networks or cloud outsourcing. A hybrid blockchain is also called a consortium blockchain,
which provides features of both a private and public blockchain. This research used a hybrid
blockchain to interact with an IoT system. The proposed model receives data from IoT
sensors, verifies them, and encrypts them using homomorphic encryption. Homomorphic
encryption is introduced in this approach for the first time. The primary function of
homomorphic encryption is to encrypt a user’s data at the user layer and outsource them
to the cloud. This approach provides the facility to perform any statistical and machine
learning operation on encrypted data. This IoT-based network consists of thousands of
tiny sensors attached to the human body to remotely detect conditions such as heart rate,
blood pressure, temperature, and sugar level. The data collected from these thousand
sensors are massive data that need training, testing, validation, and an authentication
system. IoT management systems exist, but there are also security issues due to inefficient
authentication, which is discussed more in the literature. The proposed model trains the
IoT-based healthcare data using a hybrid deep learning approach and predicts the patient’s
condition without needing a clinician or physician. The proposed framework provides
privacy preservation, security, and lightweight authentication.
The research presents the following contributions: (1) the design of a novel IoT ap-
proach based on a trust-aware security approach increases security and privacy while
connecting outstanding IoT services; (2) the sensing units generate industrial data across a
dedicated network to concentrate the application service structure; (3) the network architec-
ture connects to a variety of trustworthy IoT devices to meet 6G-enabled IoT requirements,
and the proposed algorithms are enhanced with individual data such as biometric, video,
and speech data.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explains the background of the proposed
research and the preliminary work. Contributions to this research are explained in Section 3.
The proposed methodology is explained in Section 4. The experimental setup and simula-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 3 of 25

tion results are discussed in Section 5. The conclusion and future directions are given in
Section 6.

2. Background and Related Studies

Blockchain technology can be used to build trust and monitor node activity in IoT
networks. It is challenging to integrate a blockchain into IoT applications due to its high
power consumption and job outsourcing [14]. Several blockchain-based Internet of Things
(IoT) applications have recently been created to address these concerns. These blocks can
be used to delete old transactions and blocks from the blockchain without jeopardizing
security. Pan et al. [15] created an IoT resource management prototype using blockchain
technology and smart contracts to securely record all IoT transactions [15]. Deploying
smart contracts involves evaluating the source code, bytes of code, and execution histories.
This is how we test our computer traffic analysis deployment scenario. Ali et al. [16]
investigated blockchain technology and smart contract applications in cloud storage. Tam
et al. utilize a pay-as-you-go car business model. This technology’s strengths are traceability
and tamper-proof characteristics. Ali et al. [17] created a blockchain-based publisher–
subscriber model. They designed their solution to ensure data integrity in real-time IoT
processing by balancing computational resources and workload. Liu et al. delegated
computationally intensive POW mining tasks to nearby edge servers in blockchain-enabled
mobile IoT systems [18]. Chen et al. conducted additional research. Securing biometric
data for patient authentication is a common issue. In particular, finger vein biometric
data has been studied extensively. A strong verification mechanism with high levels of
reliability, privacy, and security is required to better secure these data. Also, biometric
data are difficult to replace, and any leakage of biometric data exposes users to serious
threats, such as replay attacks employing stolen biometric data. This research offers a
unique verification secure framework based on triplex blockchain-based particle swarm
optimization (PSO)-advanced encryption standard (AES) approaches in medical systems
for patient authentication. The discussion has three stages. First presented is a new hybrid
model pattern based on RFID and finger vein biometrics to boost randomness. It proposes
a new merge method that combines RFID and finger vein characteristics in a random
pattern. Second, the suggested verification safe framework is based on the CIA standard
for telemedicine authentication using AES encryption, blockchain technology, and PSO in
steganography [19]. Finally, the proposed secure verification architecture was validated and
evaluated [20]. The combination of WSN functional activities with 6G network topologies
allows us to test a wide range of IoT application deployment models. Many IoT devices
collect data using IPV6 across low-power wireless personal area networks and wearables
(6LoWPAN) [21,22]. We were able to keep user data confidential with the help of AKA [23].
Companies that use public cloud services and large-scale data storage systems have long
prioritized client data protection [24].
Some studies have used other approaches such as physical layer security (PLS) in
order to ensure secure transmission via a signal and reduce the quality of the signal in the
attacker device [25–30]. As compared with other security approaches, the PLS approach
has several strong advantages, such as the PLS technique does not depend on keys in
the encryption/decryption processes, which will help through minimizing the difficulty
of the secret keys distribution and its management in an IoT environment [31–34]. In
addition, the PLS approach uses simple signal processing algorithms, which need low
overhead as compared to other encryption methods. Recognizing the value of reliable
data in decision-making batch processing may be required when working with huge
datasets in the cloud. Even so, comparing the two seems impossible [35]. To safeguard
user passwords, Edward et al. [36] examined privacy laws and regulations. In real-time
data communication with the Internet, dispersed mobility management rules and smart
computer activities are separated. Unlike real-time systems, cryptographic algorithms
establish a public/private key pair. The cloud server can read private cloud data by sharing
a secret key [37]. Statista predicts there will be 50 billion connected IoT devices by 2030. As
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 4 of 25

a result, the market will increase rapidly in the future. Consistently protecting user privacy,
blockchain-based trust might be used to provide seamless authentication (TAB-SAPP).
Smart design architecture is presented for spreading device connectivity over physical
networks. Zigbee, Z-Wave, and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) are the most widely used
industrial automation standards. The blockchain’s peer-to-peer nature allows IoT devices
to connect to each other. Decentralized IoT devices and consensus methods generate and
store data in encrypted chain-like blocks, while smart contracts modify data and control
the system [38]. Blockchain-enabled IoT relies on a secure security paradigm (also known
as IoT-EBT). This is possible because smart contracts retain and limit computing resources
associated with a device’s identification [39].
Different applications demand different levels of security, and resource scarcity plays a
factor. Finding the best encryption technique for IoT medical data protection is essential [40–43].
Electronic sensors capture medical data from patients and safely transmit them to the
healthcare system. To avoid unwanted access or needless interruptions, trust and data
privacy must be ensured from the start sensors [44–46].
Thus, data encryption from the start sensors is required, but due to restrictions in
CPU complexity, battery consumption, and transmission bandwidth, using standard crypto
algorithms is impractical [47–50]. Research on realistic, lightweight encryption techniques
for IoT medical systems is ongoing. This study compares eight cryptographic algorithms
in terms of memory usage and speed. The study determines the best candidate algo-
rithm for the proposed health care system, balancing the ideal requirement and future
dangers [51–54]. Both parties must be authenticated to use these services safely [55–58].
The server should require authentication to protect records from unauthorized users and
ensure patient privacy (client side). Patient authentication is required to prevent server im-
personation [59–62]. This proof of concept addresses emergency situations where a patient
arrives unconscious at the hospital and needs to access information without providing an
authorization key. This issue requires safe biometric identification technologies such as
palm vein and iris [63–66]. In addition to providing high levels of security, usability, and
dependability, biometric technology authentication has grown in popularity [67–72]. For ex-
ample, the finger vein (FV) biometric is highly secure. Most modern authentication systems
save biometric patterns in a database. Authentication extracts this data as biological bio-
metrics. Secure biometric authentication with FV will be more resistant to security breaches
and impersonation attempts. The human FV is a physiological biometric used to identify
people by their blood veins’ morphological characteristics. Individuals and offenders (in
legal situations) are identified using this new technology, which is more accurate than other
biometric systems. In order to secure FV biometrics, many researchers have used uni- or
multi-biometrics, which include FV biometrics as part of the verification system. These
approaches are applied in two steps as follows: To protect FV patterns, researchers are
trying to extract trustworthy properties from FVs, which can be used to uniquely identify
individuals. These exclusive properties from the FV junction sites and the angles between
veins are used to build a unique key (biokey). This key is used to encrypt data patterns. The
observation matrix extracts patterns and features, which are then encrypted with a random
key [73]. Some researchers employed multi-biometrics to add to existing features. These
traits have been used to identify people (FV, retina, and fingerprint). The main issues with
the system the author devised in [74–76] were communication cost and computational cost.

2.1. Overview of Blockchain Structure

A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed ledger that is used to record transactions
across a network of computers [77]. Each block in the chain contains a record of multiple
transactions, and once a block is added to the chain, it cannot be altered [78]. This makes
the blockchain a secure and transparent way to store data. As shown in Figure 1, the data
structure of a blockchain is typically a linked list of blocks, with each block containing a set
of transactions. The transactions are organized using a data structure called a Merkle tree,
which facilitates efficient verification of the integrity of the transactions. The data model
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 5 of 25

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 5 of 25

set of transactions. The transactions are organized using a data structure called a Merkle
tree, which facilitates efficient verification of the integrity of the transactions. The data
model for a blockchain is typically based on a distributed ledger model, in which the
for a blockchain is typically based on a distributed ledger model, in which the ledger is
ledger is maintained and updated by a network of computers rather than a central author-
maintained and updated by a network of computers rather than a central authority. The
ity. The ledger is structured as a chain of blocks, with each block containing a set of trans-
ledger is structured as a chain of blocks, with each block containing a set of transactions
actions and a cryptographic hash of the previous block. This structure facilitates the secure
and a cryptographic hash of the previous block. This structure facilitates the secure and
and transparent storage of data on the blockchain [79]. In a blockchain, the data are stored
transparent storage of data on the blockchain [79]. In a blockchain, the data are stored in a
in a decentralized manner, with copies of the ledger being maintained by multiple nodes
decentralized manner, with copies of the ledger being maintained by multiple nodes on
on the network [80]. This ensures that the data are secure and cannot be altered without
the network [80]. This ensures that the data are secure and cannot be altered without the
the consensus of the network [81]. Each transaction on the blockchain is cryptographically
consensus of the network [81]. Each transaction on the blockchain is cryptographically
signed, providing a secure and verifiable record of the transaction [82]. Overall, the data
signed, providing a secure and verifiable record of the transaction [82]. Overall, the data
structure and data model of a blockchain are designed to provide a secure and transparent
structure and data model of a blockchain are designed to provide a secure and transparent
way to store and manage data in a decentralized manner.
way to store and manage data in a decentralized manner.

Figure 1. The blockchain data structure.

2.2. IoT Data

2.2. IoT Data Flow
Flow
IoT
IoT data
data refer
refer to
to the
the vast amount of
vast amount of information
information generated
generated byby connected
connected devices
devices and
and
sensors that comprise the Internet of Things. These devices can include
sensors that comprise the Internet of Things. These devices can include anything from anything from
industrial
industrial machinery
machineryand andconsumer
consumerappliances
appliances to to
vehicles andand
vehicles home security
home systems.
security The
systems.
data generated by these devices can include a wide variety of information,
The data generated by these devices can include a wide variety of information, such assuch as sensor
readings, GPS coordinates,
sensor readings, usage patterns,
GPS coordinates, etc.
usage patterns, etc.
IoT data and blockchain technology can be combined through the use of smart con-
IoT data and blockchain technology can be combined through the use of smart con-
tracts. A smart contract is a self-executing contract with the terms of the agreement between
tracts. A smart contract is a self-executing contract with the terms of the agreement be-
buyer and seller being directly written into lines of code. The code and the transactions
tween buyer and seller being directly written into lines of code. The code and the transac-
are stored on a blockchain network, making them transparent and secure. Smart contracts
tions are stored on a blockchain network, making them transparent and secure. Smart
can be used to automate the process of collecting and storing IoT data on the blockchain,
contracts can be used to automate the process of collecting and storing IoT data on the
creating a tamper-proof record of the data.
blockchain, creating a tamper-proof record of the data.
As shown in Figure 2, one way to authenticate IoT data using blockchain technology
As shown in Figure 2, one way to authenticate IoT data using blockchain technology
is through the use of blockchain-based smart contracts to authenticate the data. In this
is through the use of blockchain-based smart contracts to authenticate the data. In this
model, the smart contract is programmed to verify the authenticity of the data before it is
model, the smart contract is programmed to verify the authenticity of the data before it is
recorded on the blockchain [31]. This can help ensure that only authentic data are stored
on the blockchain, increasing the reliability and trustworthiness of the data. In this study,
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 6 of 25

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 6 of 25

recorded on the blockchain [31]. This can help ensure that only authentic data are stored
on the blockchain, increasing the reliability and trustworthiness of the data. In this study,
the
theuse
useof
ofsmart
smartcontracts
contractscan
canhelp
helptotoprovide
provideaasecure
secure and
and verifiable
verifiableway
wayto
toauthenticate
authenticate
IoT
IoTdata
datausing
usingblockchain
blockchaintechnology.
technology.

Figure
Figure2.2.IoT
IoTusing
usingblockchain
blockchainsmart
smartcontracts.
contracts.

3.3.Methodology
Methodology
Theproposed
The proposedmethodology
methodologyconsists
consistsof ofthe
thesteps
stepsthat
that have
have been
been carried
carried out
out during
during
theexperiments
the experimentsininorder ordertoto obtain
obtain thethe system
system output.
output. TheThe subsections
subsections belowbelow represent
represent the
the steps involved in the proposed methodology, and how the
steps involved in the proposed methodology, and how the system works is explained system works is explained
through aa schematic
through schematic diagram
diagram as asshown
shownbelow.below.InInstepstep1,1,the
theIoT data
IoT dataareare
collected
collected from
fromthe
sensors and sent to the cluster head. In step 2, the data transaction through
the sensors and sent to the cluster head. In step 2, the data transaction through the block- the blockchain
takes takes
chain place.place.
Data Data
are verified and authenticated
are verified and authenticated from from
IoT edge devices
IoT edge which
devices are inare
which large
in
quantity.
large In theInnext
quantity. the step, data data
next step, are encrypted
are encryptedusingusing
homomorphic
homomorphic encryption
encryptionand then
and
outsourced
then outsourcedto thetocloud. The integration
the cloud. The integrationof homomorphic
of homomorphic encryption provides
encryption the facility
provides the
that any kind of statistical and deep learning operation can be
facility that any kind of statistical and deep learning operation can be performed performed over encrypted
over
data. Feature
encrypted data.extraction is the next
Feature extraction is step in our
the next proposed
step framework,
in our proposed in whichinfeatures
framework, which
are extracted from the data such as heart rate, age, sex, weight,
features are extracted from the data such as heart rate, age, sex, weight, and height.and height. Moreover, More-the
proposed framework uses SVM to classify the users and the data
over, the proposed framework uses SVM to classify the users and the data based on the based on the features and
interaction
features andwith the system
interaction with that took place.
the system Finally,
that took theFinally,
place. outputthe is verified
output isand validated
verified and
through a validation model.
validated through a validation model.
3.1. Proposed Algorithms
3.1. Proposed Algorithms
In order to implement the proposed framework, we have proposed a novel algorithm
In order to implement the proposed framework, we have proposed a novel algorithm
in order to govern the proposed framework. The function of this algorithm is explained
in
inorder
detailtostep
govern the as
by step proposed
follows:framework.
Algorithm The function
1 defines theof this algorithm
working is explained
of updates, creating
and revoking the policy. Moreover, the algorithm first creates the PHR on the request of
a user, then it updates the existing PHR, and at the end, it revokes the PHR if the user
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 7 of 25

violates the access control policy. Algorithm 1 defines the attribute assigned to the patients
and clinicians.

Algorithm 1 Algorithm for Create, Update and Revoke Records.

Input: ID and key requested from Nadmin
2: Output: Get access to PHL transactions
Initialization: PHL should be valid node. PHL can Read/Write/Grant/Revoke EHR records.
4: procedure Ptient
(Pi d) while (True)
do
6: if (Pi dBN ) then
if (PREC_InotBN ) then
8: Create_records (Pi d, PREC_I, BN )
else
10: Update_records (Pi d, PREC_I, BN )
Read_records (PID, PREC_I, CID, Li d, BN )
12: end if
else
14: Not_exist (Pi d)
end if
16: if Visit (Pi d, Ci d, Li d, BN ) then MPID = Medrecord (Pi d)
18: if then (MPi d, PHL , BN )
Grant_records (MPi d, Ci d, Li d, BN )
20: else
(Ci d, Li d) = NOTIFY (record does not exist)
22: end if
if (Pi dCi d, Li d Treatment − completed (Pi d))
24: then
Revoke-records (MPi d, Pi d, Ci d, Li d, BN )
26: else
(Ci d, Li d) = NOTIFY(Pi d revoke MPi d)
28: Revoke-records (MPi d, Pi d, Ci d, Li d, BN )
end if
30: else
Not Visit
32: end if
end while
34: end procedure

Algorithm 2 checks the attributes by assigning the master key, signature count, and
bi-linear pair group. The user selects a random value from a group of bilinear pairs, such
as G1 and G2. Furthermore, Algorithm 2 is used to define the method evaluation of the
proposed model and the attribute associated with it. It evaluates the parameters and
attributes designed to authenticate the user request to the system. The algorithm describes
the design and use of homomorphic encryption. We have used homomorphic encryption
within our proposed model. The main benefit of the proposed homomorphic encryption is
to perform any operation over encrypted data without decryption.
Algorithm 3 defines the algorithm’s working, which explains the working of cluster
head selection. Based on the battery power, the proposed algorithm selects the cluster head
from one of the sensors and receives the IoT data from the other nodes.
Algorithm 4 presents the step-by-step working of the algorithm used to encrypt EMR
with homomorphic encryption (HE). Homomorphic encryption allows users or AI models
to perform complex statistical or mathematical operations without decryption, as it can
be achieved on plain text. HE allows the users to encrypt data at their side and outsource
to the cloud, which leads to security and privacy preservation. Moreover, there are three
types of homomorphic encryption: fully HE, partially HE, and hybrid HE. In this research,
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 8 of 25

we used fully homomorphic encryption due to the proposed approach requirements and
integration with the IoMT devices that are more in number.

Algorithm 2 Algorithm for Attribute Assigning.

Initialization: Master Public Key public domain
2: Select random Numbers
Initialization: PHL should be valid node
4: Compute w= H (h,d,N)
Compute σ = H (h, σ, r) (True) do
6: Calculate Value u = e(S, P) in G
Compute w = u.t in G
8: Create_records (Pid, PREC_I, BN)
Else
10: Update_records (Pid, PREC_I, BN)
Read_records (PID, PREC_I, CID, Lid, BN)
12: end if
Else
14: Not_exist (Pid)
End if
16: if Visit (Pid, Cid, Lid, BN) then MPID = Medrecord (Pid)
18: if then (MPid, PHL, BN)
Grant_records (MPid, Cid, Lid, BN)
20: else
(Cid, Lid) = NOTIFY (Medical record does not exist)
22: end if
If h2 = H2(W0.→Wn,N) Verification sucessful
24: else
Verification Fails
26: end if else
28: end if
End procedure

Algorithm 3 Algorithm for selection of Cluster Head.

Input: ID and key requested from Network admin
Output: Get access to IoT transactions
Initialization: CH should be valid node. CHcan Read/Write Permission allotted IOT records by
the patients and write medical records of the patients.
Procedure Clinician (Ci d)
While (True)
Do
if (CI DBN ) then If
(Granted MP_id C_id ) then
Read_records (C_id , PREC_id , MP_id , BN ) Update_records (C_ID, PREC_Id, MP_id , BN ) else
Write_records (C_id , MP_id , B_N)
Read_records (Ci d, Li d, BN )
end if
else Not_exist(C_id ) end if
end while
End procedure

3.2. System Model

An industrial automation authentication system that is both trustworthy and simple is
the purpose of this section. Private keys can be tested for security using a multi-signature-
compatible contract, ensuring that no one else has access. Industrial automation will create
a pay-as-you-go intelligent approach to explore the computing processes of IoT gadgets.
Figure 2 presents the application of IoT and its impact on the technology. IoT consists of
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 9 of 25

thousands and millions of tiny sensors, edge devices, computers, Wi-Fi, and RFID, and all
these devices generate data. Data received from these devices are so massive that security
breaches and data mismanagement can easily happen. A multi-signature-compatible
contract examines all aspects of a transaction, from quality control to mechanical technique
to decision-making. To make independent decisions, the intelligent model makes use of
traffic patterns. An IoT device’s fundamental operational operations are analyzed by a
smart contract to maximize overall system efficiency.

Algorithm 4 Homomorphic Encryption.

1. Initialize Public Key
2. T → 0, keywords W
3. Select key KS for PRF
4. Select keys KX, KI, KZ f orPRF Fp
5. Z*p and parse DB as (idi, Widi)di = 1
6. t←N
7. Ke ← F (KS, w)
8. id ∈ DB(w) do Counter c ← 1
9. Compute xid ← Fp(KI, id), z ← Fp(KZ, w||c)
10. y ← xidz − 1e ← Enc (Ke, id).
11. xtag ← gFp(KX, w)xid andXSet ← XSet Uxtag
12. Append (y, e) to t and c ← c + 1
13. T[w] ← t (TSet, KT) ← TSet .Setup(T)
14. let EDB = (TSet, XSet)
15. return EDB, K = (KS, KX, KI, KZ, KT)
16. If token ≤ (q(’w), K)→0
17. Client’s input is K and query q(w = (w1, . . ., wn))
18. Compute stag→TSet.GetTag(KT, w1)
19. Repeat step 18
20. Until stag → 0
19. Client sends stag to the server
20. c = 1, 2, . . . until the server stops
21. i = 2, . . ., nxtoen [c,i]← gFp(KZ, w1||c)Fp(KX, wi) xtoken [c]← (xtoken, . . ., xto ken[c,n])
22. Tokq ← (stag, xtoken)
23. return T okq
24. Searching Technique
25. ERes ←t→TSet(Retrieve)(TSet, stag)
26. Verification result: succeed

Table 1 shows how scientists use the TAB-SAPP notation. Figure 3 represent the
application of cloud computing in various organizations. Cloud provides on-demand
resource allocation anywhere, anytime, and any place. Moreover, three types of the cloud
exist depending on the application of the cloud and usage, such as private, public and
hybrid cloud [30,31].

Table 1. Simulation setup, configurations, and specifications.

Parameters Details
Dataset size 100 number of blocks + PHR
Hardware Software Parameters GPU-enabled system Ethereum, hyperledger fabric
Block height, number of blocks, No. transactions, No. PHR,
Performance Metric
delay, signature creation
Efficiency (average percentage of Gas, no. packets, no. dead
nodes, no. alive nodes), security (the execution time of policies)
Number of simulations Number of rounds or transactions
and cost (execution time of blocks),
Number of tests performed on single dataset: 5000
 no. dead nodes, no. alive nodes), security (the exe-
Number of simulations Number
cution time of policies) and cost (execution time of
of rounds or transactions
blocks),
Number of tests performed on single dataset: 5000
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 10 of 25

Figure3.3. Application
Figure Application of
ofcloud
cloudcomputing.
computing.

Communication
Communication components
components include
include thethe following:
following: An An external
external owner
owner account
account cancan
access
access a billfold
billfold contract.
contract.AA reliable
reliable transaction
transaction cancan address
address the the different
different IoT devices
IoT devices scat-
scattered by automation.
tered by automation. Automation
Automation and control
and control experts
experts are needed
are needed to distribute
to distribute and
and man-
manage
age largelarge
IoT IoT devices.
devices.
Figure
Figure44 presents
presentsaaschematic
schematicof ofthe
theproposed
proposedsmartsmartcontracts
contractsforforauthentication
authenticationand and
governing
governing the proposed framework. We have developed two
proposed framework. We have developed two types of smart types of smart contracts,
contracts, i.e.,
i.e.,
oneone we call
we call a local
a local smart
smart contract,
contract, andand the second
the second one one a global
a global smartsmart contract.
contract. More-
Moreover,
over, the local
the local smartsmart contract’s
contract’s main main function
function is to govern
is to govern thedomain,
the local local domain, i.e., the
i.e., inside inside
or-
the organization.
ganization. A global
A global smart contract
smart contract is usedistoused
governto govern the interaction
the global global interaction
with thewith
sys-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 the 11 of 25
tem,system,
which which
means means the proposed
the proposed approach approach
supports supports scalability
scalability and cross-domain
and cross-domain applica-
applications
tions [31]. [31].

Figure4.4.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representationofofthe
theproposed
proposedsmart
smartcontracts
contractsintegration
integrationwith
withthe
thecloud.
cloud.

Consumersregularly
Consumers regularlyuseuseIoT
IoTdevices
devicestotoperform
performtransactions
transactionsfrom
fromone
onelocation
locationtoto
another location using IoT networks. Sending a Web3API transaction requires
another location using IoT networks. Sending a Web3API transaction requires a contracting a contract-
state. Using a billfold contract, clients may securely access industrial assets andand
ing state. Using a billfold contract, clients may securely access industrial assets regis-
register
ter large
large IoT devices.
IoT devices. Moreover,
Moreover, the control
the control contract
contract allows
allows the public
the public to inspect
to inspect and ap-
and approve
prove
the the IoT worth
IoT device’s device’s worth
[35]. In the[35]. In theTAB-SAPP,
proposed proposed TAB-SAPP, smart
smart contracts contracts
handle handle
whitelisting,
whitelisting, IoT registration, IoT payment, key computation, and device operation. Con-
sumer signature uses a 256-bit Keccak hash to cope with the external account (ECDSA).
The control contract’s private key connects the user, IoT device, and control contract. Here
are the steps: In the first phase, an external owner account creates a whitelist. The control
contract charges a fee to indicate consumer device access. Anyone who wants to verify a
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 11 of 25

IoT registration, IoT payment, key computation, and device operation. Consumer signature
uses a 256-bit Keccak hash to cope with the external account (ECDSA). The control contract’s
private key connects the user, IoT device, and control contract. Here are the steps: In the
first phase, an external owner account creates a whitelist. The control contract charges
a fee to indicate consumer device access. Anyone who wants to verify a transaction on
the blockchain pays a charge. Step two involves the client and IoT device being linked to
the external owner account, which facilitates the consideration of consumer needs when
fulfilling contractual responsibilities [32]. After successful registration, the IoT gadget
pays fees. TAB-SAPP smart contracts handle whitelisting, registration, payment, and key
computation. Encrypted elliptic curve signatures with Keccak hash (ECDSA). The control
contract’s private key addresses the consumer, IoT device, and control contract. Here are
the steps: The contract organization maintains and updates the whitelist using an external
owner account. The consumer device control contract specifies the fee request. Using
multi-signature to verify a data transaction incurs costs to each party [36]. Customers and
devices must be linked to an external owner account to complete IoT registration. The
contract organization can accommodate client requests. The IoT gadget then handles the
fee payment [37].

3.3. Elliptic Curve for Alternate Key

The proposed approach uses elliptic curve cryptography for key distribution and the
interchange of digital signatures, providing more security and trust. Moreover, the use
of ring signatures provides trust among the users [38]. The step-by-step mathematical
modeling of the proposed model using ring signature and ECC is described below:

y2 mod q = (x3 + ax + b) modq (1)

where a, b, x, and y belong to q, and if a point P(x, y) satisfies Equation (1), then the point
P(x, y) is a point on an elliptic curve, and the point Q(x, y) is the negative point of P(x, y),
i.e., P = Q. Let points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be points on the elliptic curves Eq (a, b) and
P*6 =Q; thus, the line ‘l’ passes through the points P and Q, and intersects the elliptic curve
at the point R0 = (x3, y), the points of R0 symmetrical about the x-axis are R = (x3, y3) and
R = P+Q. The points on the elliptic curve Eq (a, b) and the infinite point 0 together form an
additive cyclic group of prime order q as follows:

Gq = (x, y) : a, b, x, y belong to Fq, (x, y) belong to Fq (2)

kP = P + P + . . . + P(k belong to Zq) (3)

S = ((ui + vi) ∗ G), if i (4)

S = (ui G + (vi + wi)) ∗ p ki, (5)

Ri = ∑(ui + wi) ∗ H0(p ∗ ki) (6)

RI = ∑ ui ∗ H0(p ∗ ki) + (vi + wi) ∗ Is (7)

h = H2(m||r), (8)

i = ∑ H1(h, L1, . . ., Ln, R1, . . ., Rn) ∑s (9)

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 12 of 25

i = 1 Di t = ∑(ui + vi)ci ∗ s ki (10)

Di t = ∑ ui if (11)

Yi = di ∗ G + ci ∗ p ki (12)

i = di ∗ H0(p ki) + ci ∗ Is (13)

∞

∑ = H1(h, Y1, Y2, . . ., Yn, K1, K2, . . ., Kn) (14)

ß=1
n

∑ = H1(h, Y1, Y2, . . ., Yn, δ1, δ, . . ., δn) (15)

i=1

Yi = di ∗ G + ci ∗ p ki = ui ∗ G + (vi + wi) ∗ p Whereki = Li (16)

Zi = di ∗ H0(p ki) + ci ∗ Is = ui ∗ H0(p ki) + (vi + wi) ∗ Is (17)

When i = s, the conversions of (Ki) and (Zi) are expressed as follows

Ki = di ∗ G + ci ∗ p ki (18)

Zi = [(ui + vi) − ci ∗ s ki] ∗ G + ci ∗ p ki (19)

Zi = ui ∗ G + vi ∗ G, (20)

δi = di ∗ H0(p ki) + ci ∗ Is (21)

Zi = [(ui + vi) − ci ∗ s ki] ∗ H0 (p ki) + ci ∗ s ks ∗ H0(p ks) (22)

Zi = ui ∗ H0(p ki) + vi ∗ H0(p ki) (23)

Therefore, according to the above relationship, the correctness of the ring signature
scheme proposed in this paper is verified as follows

Ci = H1 (h, Y1, Y2, . . ., Ys, . . ., Yn, δ1, δ2, . . ., δs, . . ., δn) (24)

Ci = H1 (h, L1, L2, . . ., Ls, . . ., Ln, R1, R2, . . ., Rs, . . ., Rn) (25)

n
Cs= ∑ Ci (26)
i =0

Equations (14)–(27) represent the homomorphic encryption of the proposed approach.

H1 represents the homomorphic encryption function that converts the plain text into cipher
text. Cs represent the cipher text. Homomorphic encryption provides the facility to encrypt
 Ci = H1 (h, L1, L2, …, Ls, …, Ln, R1, R2, …, Rs, …, Rn) (25)

Cs = ∑ Ci (26)
Equations (14)–(27) represent the homomorphic encryption of the proposed ap-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 proach. H1 represents the homomorphic encryption function that converts the plain 13 oftext
25
into cipher text. Cs represent the cipher text. Homomorphic encryption provides the fa-
cility to encrypt the data, outsource it to the cloud, and perform any statistical operations
over
the encrypted
data, outsource data.
it toThis
the leads
cloud,toand
more privacy
perform anyand security.
statistical In Figureover
operations 5, we have ex-
encrypted
plained
data. Thisthe process
leads of access
to more control
privacy and as well asIn
security. encryption
Figure 5, wefrom endexplained
have to end in the
thenetwork.
process
The
of proposed
access controlframework
as well asuses homomorphic
encryption from end encryption
to end inover IoT data inThe
the network. order to out-
proposed
source to the
framework usescloud. Using homomorphic
homomorphic encryption overencryption
IoT dataprovides
in order totheoutsource
capabilitytoto perform
the cloud.
any kind
Using of operationencryption
homomorphic over encrypted
providesdata.
theMoreover,
capabilitythe access control
to perform checks
any kind the user’s
of operation
attributes
over such as
encrypted userMoreover,
data. name, id, age, gender,
the access location,
control and the
checks height in order
user’s to provide
attributes such as ac-
user
cess name, id, age,
to the EHR gender,
or EMR. location, ifand
Moreover, theheight in ordersimilar
user acquires to provide accessthen
attributes, to the EHRis
access
or EMR. Moreover,
granted through smartif thecontracts;
user acquires similaraccess
otherwise, attributes, then access
is denied. Figure is 6 granted
presentsthrough
the flow
smart
of datacontracts;
throughotherwise,
the proposed access is denied.
network. Figure
Figure 6 presents
7 presents thethe flow ofexecution
timeline data through the
through
proposed
proposednetwork.
framework. Figure 7 presents the timeline execution through proposed framework.

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 14 of 25

Figure5.5.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representation of the
of the proposed
proposed access
access control
control and outsourcing
and outsourcing through
through block-
blockchain.
chain.

Figure
Figure 6. 6. Data
Data flow
flow through
through proposed
proposed network.
network.

3.4. Mathematical Modeling

The mathematical modeling and security protocol design is explained in the following
phases. Several phases are required to allow a user to enter into the IoT system in order to
read or send data.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 14 of 25

Figure 6. Data flow through proposed network.

Figure7.7.Timeline
Figure Timelineexecution
executionthrough
throughproposed
proposedframework.
framework.

3.4.1. Phase 1: System

3.4. Mathematical Setup
Modeling
In themathematical
The setup phase, the systemand
modeling initializes
securityinput parameters
protocol design for signature in
is explained creation and
the follow-
user authentication. The procedure of the phase is explained step by step below:
ing phases. Several phases are required to allow a user to enter into the IoT system Setup (α):
in
Input
ordersecurity parameter
to read or (α)
send data.

let (G1 ) and (G2 ) be two multiplicative

3.4.1. Phase 1: System Setup (27)
In the setup phase, the system initializes input parameters for signature creation and
user authentication. TheAssume
procedure(g1 ), of
(g2the
) arephase is explained
two generators (G1 ).step by step below: Setup
(28)
(α): Input security parameter (α)
3.4.2. Encryption
let (G1) and (G2) be two multiplicative (27)
The transaction is encrypted using attribute-based encryption technique. We used
ring signature instead of group
Assumesignature
(g1), (gor AES (Asymmetric Encryption System) for the
2) are two generators (G1). (28)
key exchange. It protects against collusion assaults.

[(2 + n)K + 1]Ce x + (2K + 1)Cm + (2K + 1)Cm (29)

3.4.3. Decryption
The recipient decrypts the message using both public and private keys. A user with the
appropriate attributes can decrypt the cipher text. In the proposed framework, authorized
users exchange keys via CA. The decryption time complexity equation is as follows, where
K is the number of certificate authorities, n is the message size, and C is the ciphertext.

[(n + 1)K + 1]Cp + nKCe + [3 + (2 + n)K]Cm (30)

X = Qk ∈ ICe(C2 , Dk , u), Y = e(C3 , D1 k, u) (31)

Sk = Qa k, j ∈ Ak meCk , j, Dj k, uδ ak, j, A~ jm (0) (32)

m = C1 X/YQk ∈ ICS . (33)

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 15 of 25

3.5. Latency
In order to find the total latency of the proposed network it is required to first count
latency between node and then calculate the latency of the network. The mathematical
model to calculate the total network latency [39] are calculated as follows:

Dk,j Dk,j + hk
Tc = + T co k,j + + k,j D · krBC,k (34)
r PB,k r PB,k

4. Experimental Setup
In order to carry out the experiment, we use a hyperledger fabric tool for blockchain
and IoT nodes. During the experiments, the parameters that we recorded and used were
the number of nodes, number of rounds, block creation, block digest, encryption time, and
access control time. During the simulation results, the system used was core i7 GPU-based
and Linux-enabled. Furthermore, for security verification of the proposed model, we used
AVISPA [37] and METRE [38] framework in order to verify that the proposed model resist
collusion attack and phishing attack.

5. Results and Discussions

This section provides the details of the simulation carried out and the results. Each
and every result are discussed in this section. The proposed model was compared with the
benchmark model in order to evaluate the performance of the proposed model. Figure 8
depicts the communication overhead in private information retrieval, with several appoint-
ment allocation algorithms available in each cell. It can handle the required retrievals by
storing in the B+-Tree indexing data structure. Moreover, as compared to SHealth, MedRec,
and ECC-Smart solutions, the proposed framework provides minimal communication
overhead due to the lightweight authentication system. In this section, we have discussed
our proposed simulation results as well as a comparative analysis. The simulation results
were conducted using a blockchain tool called hyperledger fabric and deployed it for
validation on the Ethereum test net. In this section, we present the simulation results
carried out through this research paper. The dataset used is publicly available from UNSW.
Figure 8 presents the simulation results of the proposed model, which is compared with the
permission-less and private blockchain. Moreover, the comparison is based on the number
of transaction counts and a number of nodes. Similarly, from Figure 9, it is very clear that
the proposed framework transfer more transaction as compared to the permission-less and
private blockchain. This justifies that the proposed framework performs better than the
permission-less and private blockchain.
Figure 9 illustrates the simulation results based on the classification of the users using
the SVM method. The classification of the users is based on the activities of the users within
the system. We used an LSTM deep learning approach to record the previous activities of
the users interacting with the system. The proposed approach creates a log of each user’s
behavior and provides access rights as well as authorization based on the user’s behavior.
Figure 10 presents the simulation results based on the displacement of moving sensors
connected with the IoT system and the output of the sensor.
Based on the findings in Figure 11, which indicates that the proposed method has
enhanced the authentication process through integrating blockchain technology with mo-
bility speed. Through leveraging the immutable and decentralized nature of blockchain
technology, coupled with the real-time data capabilities of mobility speed, this will thus
ensure that the proposed system is a more secure, efficient, and reliable authentication
system. The findings relating to this proposed method offer valuable insights for organi-
zations seeking to optimize their authentication processes in the era of dynamic mobility
and digital transformation. The conducted comparative analysis is based on the number
of nodes and encryption time with the benchmark models. The proposed framework is
compared with the benchmark models which are mentioned on Figure 11.
 results carried out through this research paper. The dataset used is publicly available from
UNSW. Figure 8 presents the simulation results of the proposed model, which is com-
pared with the permission-less and private blockchain. Moreover, the comparison is based
on the number of transaction counts and a number of nodes. Similarly, from Figure 9, it is
very clear that the proposed framework transfer more transaction as compared to the per-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 16 of 25
mission-less and private blockchain. This justifies that the proposed framework performs
better than the permission-less and private blockchain.

Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 17 of 25

Figure8.8.Simulations
Figure Simulations results
results based
based on number
on the the number of nodes
of nodes versusversus the number
the number of counts.
of counts.

Figure 9 illustrates the simulation results based on the classification of the users using
the SVM method. The classification of the users is based on the activities of the users
within the system. We used an LSTM deep learning approach to record the previous ac-
tivities of the users interacting with the system. The proposed approach creates a log of
each user’s behavior and provides access rights as well as authorization based on the
user’s behavior.

Figure
Figure9.9.Classification
Classification of
of users based on
users based onthe
thebehavior
behaviorand
andinteraction
interaction with
with thethe system
system model.
model.

Figure 10 presents the simulation results based on the displacement of moving sen-
sors connected with the IoT system and the output of the sensor.
 Figure 9. Classification of users based on the behavior and interaction with the system model.

Electronics 2023, 12, Figure

10 presents the simulation results based on the displacement of moving sen-
3618 17 of 25
sors connected with the IoT system and the output of the sensor.

3, 12, 3618 18 of 25

technology, coupled with the real-time data capabilities of mobility speed, this will thus
ensure that the proposed system is a more secure, efficient, and reliable authentication
system. The findings relating to this proposed method offer valuable insights for organi-
zations seeking to optimize their authentication processes in the era of dynamic mobility
and digital transformation. The conducted comparative analysis is based on the number
of nodes and encryption time with the benchmark models. The proposed framework is
compared
Figure with the benchmark
10. Simulations results based models which of
on the number are mentioned
sensors outputon Figure 11.
nodes.
Figure 10. Simulations results based on the number of sensors output nodes.

Based on the findings in Figure 11, which indicates that the proposed method has
enhanced the authentication process through integrating blockchain technology with mo-
bility speed. Through leveraging the immutable and decentralized nature of blockchain

Figure 11. Comparative

Figureanalysis of the proposed
11. Comparative framework
analysis of versus
the proposed benchmark
framework versusmodel basedmodel
benchmark on the
based on the
speed and numberspeed
of nodes.
and number of nodes.

Figure 12 showsFigure
simulation results
12 shows based results
simulation on the based
latencyon of
theeach node.
latency Moreover,
of each it
node. Moreover, it
can be observed that the proposed framework exhibits low latency
can be observed that the proposed framework exhibits low latency as compared to the as compared to the
benchmark
benchmark models. models.
Therefore, Therefore, the
the proposed proposed
model model
exhibits exhibitsand
efficiency efficiency and robustness.
robustness.
 Figure 11. Comparative analysis of the proposed framework versus benchmark model based on the
speed and number of nodes.

Figure 12 shows simulation results based on the latency of each node. Moreover, it
can
Electronics 2023, 12, be
observed that the proposed framework exhibits low latency as compared to the
3618 18 of 25
benchmark models. Therefore, the proposed model exhibits efficiency and robustness.

023, 12, 3618 19 of 25

Figure 12. Comparative analysis with the proposed framework versus benchmark model based on
ofComparative
Figure 12.
the latency and number nodes. analysis with the proposed framework versus benchmark model based on
the latency and number of nodes.
In Figure 13, the simulation results represent the comparative analysis of the pro-
In Figure 13, the simulation results represent the comparative analysis of the proposed
posed framework versus benchmark
framework models.
versus benchmark The comparisons
models. are based
The comparisons on theonnumber
are based the number of
of transactionstransactions
and d2d distance. Moreover, for the same distance between
and d2d distance. Moreover, for the same distance betweenpeer peer
nodes,
nodes, the
the number of number
transactions varies. varies.
of transactions

Figure 13. Comparative analysis

Figure 13. basedanalysis
Comparative on number
basedofon
nodes versus
number encryption
of nodes time.
versus encryption time.

Moreover, Figure 14 provides the comparative analysis based on the network delay.
It can be observed that the network delay for the proposed approach is less as compared
to the benchmark approaches.
 Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 19 of 25
Figure 13. Comparative analysis based on number of nodes versus encryption time.

Moreover, Figure
Moreover, Figure1414provides
providesthe
thecomparative
comparativeanalysis
analysisbased
basedononthe
thenetwork
network delay.
delay. It
It can be observed that the network delay for the proposed approach is less as compared
can be observed that the network delay for the proposed approach is less as compared to
to the
the benchmark
benchmark approaches.
approaches.

2023, 12, 3618 20 of 25

Figure 14. Comparative analysis based on average network delay versus computing time.

The results presented in Figure

The results 15 areinrecorded
presented Figure 15toare
compare thetoproposed
recorded compare framework
the proposed framework
with the benchmark
with models. The parameters
the benchmark models. to evaluate
The the proposed
parameters framework
to evaluate are dis-
the proposed framework are
tances between distances
two nodesbetween
and thetwo
number
nodesofand
transactions.
the number of transactions.

Figure 15. Comparative analysis based on D2D distance versus number of transactions.
Figure 15. Comparative analysis based on D2D distance versus number of transactions.

Finally, Figure 16 presents the simulation results of the proposed approach, which
shows the evaluation based on the number of attributes and the complexity.
 Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 20 of 25
Figure 15. Comparative analysis based on D2D distance versus number of transactions.

Finally, Figure
Finally, Figure 16
16 presents
presents the
the simulation
simulation results
results of
of the
the proposed
proposed approach,
approach, which
which
shows the evaluation based on the number of attributes and the complexity.
shows the evaluation based on the number of attributes and the complexity.

23, 12, 3618 21 of 25

representing the
Figure 16. Schematic diagram representing the simulations
simulations results
results based
based on
on the
the number
number of attributes
versus complexity.
versus complexity.

Figure 17 presents the 17

Figure comparative
presents theanalysis of the
comparative proposed
analysis of theapproach
proposedversus the versus the
approach
benchmark
benchmark models based onmodels based on
the number of the numberand
attributes of attributes
execution and execution time.
time.

Figure 17. Comparative

Figureanalysis of the proposed
17. Comparative approach
analysis of versus
the proposed benchmark
approach models.
versus benchmark models.

The simulation results are based on the number of attributes (X-axis) and execution
time (Y-axis). Moreover, it can be observed that using lightweight HE, the proposed ap-
proach performs better than the benchmark models in terms of execution for the same
number of attributes. In order to evaluate the attack resistance of the proposed framework
with the benchmark models, we carried out the comparison shown in Table 2.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 21 of 25

The simulation results are based on the number of attributes (X-axis) and execution
time (Y-axis). Moreover, it can be observed that using lightweight HE, the proposed
approach performs better than the benchmark models in terms of execution for the same
number of attributes. In order to evaluate the attack resistance of the proposed framework
with the benchmark models, we carried out the comparison shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparative analysis of attack resistance.

Models Collusion Attacks DoS DDoS

Medblock No No Yes
Casht Yes No No
Medchain Yes No No
Kasra Yes No No
Proposed Yes Yes Yes

6. Conclusions and Future Works

This study analyses a privacy-preserving authentication system for industrial IoT
applications. To reduce processing and communication expenses, the proposed model uses
hash evaluation and MAC verification. Massive IoT devices and cloud servers use service
deniability to safeguard base-station access and user identities even when linked to open
networks. It looked at the transaction’s authenticated data blocks randomly. The proposed
framework transmission rate is faster than the existing model due to faster calculation,
connectivity, and mobility. As a result, the security and performance of computing, com-
munication, and packet delivery has been improved. Moreover, the main objective of the
proposed research work is to reduce the latency from end to end. We also compared our
proposed framework with the benchmark models. Based on the findings of our study, it
was indicated that the proposed method has enhanced the authentication process through
integrating blockchain technology with mobility speed. Through leveraging the immutable
and decentralized nature of blockchain, coupled with the real-time data capabilities of
mobility speed, this will thus ensure the proposed system is a more secure, efficient, and
reliable authentication system. These findings of this proposed method offer valuable
insights for organizations seeking to optimize their authentication processes in the era of
dynamic mobility and digital transformation. The main limitation of our research is that
the proposed framework has been developed using only one method, which is based on a
permissions-based blockchain that provide data storage optimization and a lightweight
authentication mechanism to the users based on smart contracts. In future work, our
proposed authentication model can be modified by employing a consensus algorithm to
make it more reliable. In the future, we plan to add more advanced algorithms based on
deep learning techniques with blockchain technology in order to classify users based on
trust. Apart from that, we plan to enhance the proposed approach with a software-defined
network and deploy it with 5G technology for quick and efficient response. The future
work of this framework can also be integrated with the rescue system in order to receive
rescue responses securely and in a short time using blockchain technology.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.A.; Methodology, A.K.A.H., S.A.-O., R.S. and A.L.;
Software, M.A.A. and M.A.; Validation, A.A.; Formal analysis, A.K.A.H., A.L. and M.A.; Investigation,
S.A.-O.; Resources, M.A.A. and R.S.; Data curation, A.K.A.H., S.A.-O., A.L. and M.A.; Writing—original
draft, A.A.; Writing—review & editing, R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported through the Annual Funding track by the Deanship of Scientific
Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi
Arabia (Project No. Grant No. 3898) and Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers
Supporting Project number (PNURSP2023R136), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3618 22 of 25

Data Availability Statement: Not Applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: All authors declare no conflict of interest.

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