5/23/24, 12:01 PM BMS 100 Management Mathematics I Notes WITH Solutions

BMS 100 MANAGEMENT MATHS I NOTES WITH SOLUTIONS

SET THEORY

Definition of a set
 A set is a well-defined collection (group, aggregate or assemblage) of distinct objects or
items. The objects can be anything e.g. numbers, people, letters, rivers etc. These objects are
called the elements or members of the set.
 Sets are usually denoted by capital letters e.g. A, B, C, D and elements in a set are
represented by small letters i.e. a, b, c, d, e.
 The elements can be separated by commas and enclosed in curly brackets e.g. A = {a, e, i, o,
u}.
 If an object x is a member of a set A, it is denoted by x  A which is generally read as “x
belongs to A”, “x is an element of A” or “x is in A”.
 If x is not a member of A, it is denoted by x  A .
Notation of Sets
Sets are notated in two ways; Roster notation and set builder notation.
 The roster notation is a complete and exhaustive listing of each and every element or
member of a set. The list is enclosed between both the open and closed curly brackets
 The set builder notation: A rule is defined to describe the properties that must be satisfied
by an object to qualify for membership.

Examples
Write the following set using the two ways
(a) A is a set of even numbers less than 10
 Roster Notation : A  2,4,6,8
 Set builder method: A  a / ai is an even number less than 10
(b) X is a set of Months that start with the letter M
 Roster Notation : X  March, May
 Set builder method: A  x / xi is a month that starts with letter M
(c) P is a set of the days of the week
 Roster Notation :
P  Monday,Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,Friday,Saturday, Sunday 
 Set builder method: P  P / pi is a day of the week 
(d) B is a set of the first five alternate letters of the alphabet
 Roster Notation : B  a, c, e, g, i
 Set builder method: B  b / bi is the first five alternate letters of the alphabet

Types of Sets
(a) Finite Set

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It is a set, which consists of a specific number of different elements. The number of elements in a
finite set A is denoted by n( A).
Examples:
i. F = {a, b, x, y, 1, 4, 7, 10}, F is a finite set with n( F )  8
ii. P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} P is a finite set with n( P)  6
iii. R = {Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania} R is a finite set with n( R)  3
(b) Infinite Set
It is a set that does not consist of a specific number of different elements.
Examples
i. X = {x / xi is a grain of sand on the sea shore}
ii. X = {x/x is a natural number}
(c) The null (Empty, Void) Set
It is a set, which contains no elements. It is denoted by  (phi) or { }.
Examples
i. X = {x / x is the number of people older than 250 years}= 
ii. X = {x / x is the number of dead people who are alive}= 
iii. X = {x / x is a married bachelor} = 
iv. X = {x / x is a planet visiting the earth} = 
(d) Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if they both have the same members or
elements. If the two sets are equal then A = B otherwise A  B. If A  B and B  A then A =
B.
Examples
Given than A = {a, c, r, s, t}, B = {t, r, a, c, s} and C = {a, e, i, o, u}
Then:
i. A = B
ii. A  C
iii. C  B.
(e) Sub-sets
A is a sub-set of B if every element of A is an element of B. It is denoted by A  B or B  A . If
A is not a sub set of B then this can be denoted as A  B . Two sets A and B are equal if and
only if A  B or B  A . The null set is always considered to be a sub set of every set. Every set
is a subset of itself.
Example
Let A = {2,4,6,8,10}, B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, C = {a, e, i, o, u} and
D = {a, b, c, d, e…x, y, z}
Then
i. A B
ii. CD

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iii. A D
iv. BD
(f) Overlapping sets
They are sets, which have some common elements but they are not equal sets.
Example
If X = {0, 2, 3, 4} and Y={2, 4, 6}, Then X and Y are overlapping sets since the elements 2 and
4 are common in both sets.
(g) Disjoint sets
They are sets, which contain totally different elements.
Example
If P = {a, b, c, d, e} and R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then P and R are disjoint sets since they have no
common elements.
(h) Universal set
Refers to the set that contains all the elements that an analyst wishes to study. It is denoted by
.
(i) Power set
The class of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. it is denoted by P( A)
Examples
1. If A = {0,1} then P (A )   , {0},{1},{0,1}
2. If X = {a, b, c} then P( X )   , {a},{b},{c},{a, b},{a, c},{b, c}{a, b, c}

Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram is a simple pictorial representation of a set. It consists of a rectangle that
represents the universal set and circles or ellipses that represent the sub sets of the universal set.

A
A’

Operations on sets
The basic operations on sets are complementation, union, difference and intersection.
(a) Union of sets
The union of two sets A and B denoted by A  B is the set of all elements belonging to A or B
or to both A and B. If A and B are nonempty sets, then A  B is nonempty. There are three
possibilities:
i. A and B are overlapping
ii. A and B are disjoint

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iii. A and B are equal

Example:
Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
X = {1, 2, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8}
Find X ∪ Y and draw a Venn diagram to illustrate X ∪ Y.

Solution:
X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ← 1 is written only once.

If X ⊂ Y then X ∪ Y = Y.
We will illustrate this relationship in the following example.

Example:
Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
X = {1, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}
Find X ∪ Y and draw a Venn diagram to illustrate X ∪ Y.

Solution:
X ∪ Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}

(b) Intersection of sets

The intersection of two sets A and B denoted by A  B is the set of all elements, which belong
to both A and B. The shaded area in the following Venn diagram shows A  B

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Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}

Solution:
We find that X ∩ Y = {1, 5, 6, 10} ← in both X and Y

To draw the Venn diagram,

Step 1: Draw two overlapping circles to represent the two sets.

Step 2: Write down the elements in the intersection.

Step 3: Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets.

Notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the intersection first.

Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}

Solution:
We find that X ∩ Y = {1, 6, 9} which is equal to the set X

For the Venn diagram,

Step 1: Draw one circle within another circle.

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Step 2: Write down the elements in the inner circle.

Step 3: Write down the remaining elements in the outer circle.

Venn Diagrams of Three Sets

The intersection of three sets X, Y and Z is the set of elements that are common to sets X, Y and
Z. It is denoted by X ∩ Y ∩ Z.

Example:
Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets
X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9}, Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and
Z = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}

Solution:
We find that X ∩ Y ∩ Z = {5, 6}, X ∩ Y = {1, 5, 6},
Y ∩ Z = {3, 5, 6, 8} and X ∩ Z = {5, 6, 7}

For the Venn diagram:

Step 1: Draw three overlapping circles to represent the three sets.

Step 2: Write down the elements in the intersection X ∩ Y ∩ Z.

Step 3: Write down the remaining elements in the intersections:

X ∩ Y, Y ∩ Z and X ∩ Z.

Step 4: Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets.

Notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the intersection first.

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(c) Complement of a set

If A is a subset of the universal set U, then the collection of elements belonging to U but not
belonging to A is called the complement of A. It is denoted by A’. the shaded portion in the
following Venn diagram stands for the complement of A.

A
A’

The complement of the set X ∪ Y is the set of elements that are members of the universal set U
but are not in X ∪Y. It is denoted by (X ∪ Y)’

Example:
Given: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
X = {1, 2, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8}
a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate ( X ∪ Y ) ’
b) Find ( X ∪ Y ) ’

Solution:
a) First, fill in the elements for X ∩ Y = {1}
Fill in the other elements for X and Y and for U
Shade the region outside X ∪ Y to indicate (X ∪ Y)’

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b) We can see from the Venn diagram that

(X ∪ Y)’ = {9}
Or we find that X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and so
(X ∪ Y)’ = {9}

Example:
Given U = {x : 1 ≤ x ≤10, x is an integer}, A = The set of odd numbers, B = The set of factors of
24 and C = {3, 10}.
a) Draw a Venn diagram to show the relationship.
b) Using the Venn diagram or otherwise, find:
i) (A ∪ B ) ’ ii) (A ∪ C ) ’ iii) (A ∪ B ∪ C ) ’

Solution:
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8} and C = {3, 10}
a) First, fill in the elements for A ∩ B ∩C = {3}, A ∩ B {1, 3},
A ∩ C = {3}, B ∩ C = {3} and then the other elements.

b) We can see from the Venn diagram that

i) (A ∪ B ) ’ = {10}
ii) (A ∪ C ) ’ = {2, 4, 6, 8}
iii) (A ∪ B ∪ C ) ’ = { }

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(d) Difference A - B
The difference of two sets A and B is the set of all elements belonging to A but not to B
(e) Difference B -A
The difference of two sets B and A is the set of all elements belonging to B but not to A
Examples
1. If A = {a, b, x, y} and B = {c, d, x, y} Then
i. A – B = {a, b}
ii. B - A = {c, d}
2. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A

(ii) B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B

3. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {b, d, f, g}. Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A - B = {a, c, e}

(ii) B - A = {g)

Laws of Algebra of Sets

The following are the laws of algebra on sets
1. Associative laws
i. ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C )
ii. ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C )
2. Idempotent Laws
i. A A  A
ii. A A A
3. Commutative Laws
i. AB  B  A
ii. AB  B  A
4. Distributive Laws
i. A  ( B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
ii. A  ( B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
5. Identity Laws
i. A   A
ii. A  A
iii. A   
iv. A   
6. Complement Laws

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i. A AC  
ii. A  AC  
iii. ( AC ) C  A
iv. C  
v. C 
7. De Morgan’s Laws
i. ( A  B) C  A C  B C
ii. ( A  B) C  A C  B C
The number of elements in a set
Let n( A) be the number of elements in set A and n(B) the number of elements in set B. then:
n( A  B) n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B)
n( A  B) n( A)  n( B) if A and B are disjoint.
If there are three sets A, B and C, then:
n( A  B  C )  n( A)  n( B)  n(C)  n( A  B)  n( B  C )  n( A  C )  n( A  B  C )

LESSON TWO: EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

An equation is a mathematical statement that relates two algebraic expressions involving at least
one variable. It is a statement showing the equality of two expressions. An inequality is a
mathematical statement related to another by the operation , ,  or  . They can be solved using
the graphical method.

Variables:
A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects.
Types of variables
(a) Independent variables: It is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to
determine its effect or influence on another variable. They predict the amount of variation that
occurs in other variables.
(b) Dependent variables : It is the variable that is measured, predicted or monitored and is
expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable. They attempt to indicate
the total influence arising from the effects of the independent variable. It varies as a function
of the independent variable e.g. influence of hours studied on performance in a statistical test,
influence of distance from the supply center on cost of building materials.
The dependent and independent variables could either be qualitative or quantitative
(a) Qualitative variables: Are variables that are non-numeric i.e. attributes e.g. Gender,
Religion, Colour, State of birth etc.
(b) Quantitative variables: are numeric variables. They can either be discrete or
continuous.

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