CHAPTER 14

LESSON

1 RNA

READING TOOL Compare and Contrast As you read your textbook, identify the similarities
and differences between RNA and DNA. Complete the Venn diagram to compare and contrast
these molecules. A sample difference has been entered for you.

RNA DNA
Single stranded Double stranded

Lesson Summary
The Role of RNA
As you read, circle KEY QUESTION How does RNA differ from DNA?
the answers to each Key
Question. Underline any
DNA contains a genetic code that living cells can read,
words you do not understand. understand, and express. DNA is made of just four nucleotides
joined together in double-stranded molecules that can be millions
of bases in length. What exactly do those bases code for, and
how does the cell “read” that code? That’s where RNA comes in.
BUILD Vocabulary RNA helps to put the genetic code into action. RNA, like DNA,
ribonucleic acid (RNA) single- is a nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of nucleotides.
stranded nucleic acid that contains Genes contain coded DNA instructions that tell cells how
the sugar ribose to build proteins. The first step in decoding these genetic
instructions is to copy part of the base sequence from DNA
into RNA. RNA then uses these instructions to direct the
production of proteins, which help to determine an organism’s
characteristics.
166 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Comparing RNA and DNA Like DNA, RNA is made up
of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar,
BUILD Vocabulary
a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. However, DNA
messenger RNA (mRNA) type
and RNA differ in three important ways. RNA uses the sugar
of RNA that carries copies of
ribose instead of deoxyribose, RNA generally is single stranded, instructions for the assembly of
and RNA contains uracil in place of thymine. These chemical amino acids into proteins from
differences make it easy for enzymes in the cell to tell DNA and DNA to the rest of the cell
RNA apart. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) type of
The differences between DNA and RNA allow them to RNA that combines with proteins to
form ribosomes
perform separate functions in the cell. The information in DNA
is always around, stored safely in the cell’s nucleus, where it transfer RNA (tRNA) type of
RNA that carries each amino acid to
serves as a template to make multiple RNA copies. In contrast, a ribosome during protein synthesis
RNA is synthesized when the products of a particular gene are
transcription synthesis of an RNA
needed. RNA copies travel to the ribosomes, which then put molecule from a DNA template
the coded instructions into action by assembling proteins in the
RNA polymerase enzyme
cytoplasm. that links together the growing
chain of RNA nucleotides during
Three Main Types of RNA RNA has many roles, one transcription, using a DNA strand
of which is protein synthesis. RNA controls the assembly of as a template
amino acids into proteins. There are three main types of RNA promoter specific region of a
involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, gene where RNA polymerase can
bind and begin transcription
and transfer RNA. Each type of RNA molecule specializes in a
intron sequence of DNA that is
different aspect of the job.
not involved in coding for a protein

Messenger RNA (mRNA) Most genes encode instructions exon expressed sequence of DNA;
codes for a protein
for assembling amino acids into proteins. The molecules of
Prefixes In- is a prefix of Latin
RNA that carry copies of these instructions from the nucleus
origin that can mean ”in, on, or not.”
to ribosomes in the cytoplasm are known as messenger RNA
 Which meaning does in- have
(mRNA).
in the word intron? Explain your
answer.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Proteins are assembled on
ribosomes, which are small organelles composed of two
subunits. The subunits are made of several ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) molecules and as many as 80 different proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) During the assembly of a protein,

a third type of RNA molecule known as transfer RNA (tRNA)
carries amino acids to the ribosome and matches them to the
coded mRNA message.

RNA Synthesis
KEY QUESTION How does the cell make RNA?
A single DNA molecule may contain hundreds or even
thousands of genes. However, only those genes being
expressed are copied into RNA at any given time.

Transcription The process of copying a base sequence

from DNA to RNA is known as transcription. In transcription,
segments of DNA serve as templates to produce
complementary RNA molecules.

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.1 RNA 167
READING TOOL Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase.
Academic Words RNA polymerase first binds to DNA and separates the DNA
splice to join together strands. It then uses one strand of DNA as a template to assemble
nucleotides into a complementary strand of RNA. A single gene
 Why do exons have to be
spliced together? can produce hundreds, or even thousands, of RNA molecules.

Promoters RNA polymerase does not bind to DNA just

anywhere. The enzyme binds only to promoters, which are
regions of DNA with specific base sequences that can bind to
RNA polymerase. Other regions of DNA cause transcription to
stop when an RNA molecule is completed.

RNA Editing New RNA molecules sometimes require

editing before they are ready to be read. These pre-mRNA
molecules have pieces cut out of them before they can go
into action. The portions that are cut out and discarded are
called introns. The remaining pieces, known as exons, are then
spliced back together to form the final mRNA.

Visual Reading Tool: Introns and Exons

1. Use colored pencils to color the parts of pre-mRNA as it goes through the editing process
to become RNA. Color the cap green, the introns blue, the exons purple, and the tail red.

Exon Intron
Pre-mRNA

Cap Tail

Introns are removed

mRNA

Cap Tail
Remaining exons are
spliced together

2. How does the diagram show the difference between pre-mRNA and completed mRNA?

168 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER 14
LESSON
Ribosomes and Protein
2 Synthesis
READING TOOL Sequence of Events As you read your textbook, identify the steps of translation
and protein synthesis. Complete the flowchart by writing the steps in the correct order. Use
sequence words such as first, then, next, after, and finally to show the relationship between the
steps. The first step has been entered for you.

First, a ribosome attaches to the mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm.

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.2 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis 169
 Lesson Summary
As you read, circle
the answers to each Key
The Genetic Code
Question. Underline any KEY QUESTION How does the genetic code work?
words you do not understand.
Cells use the code in mRNA to build proteins, one amino acid
after another. The first step in the process of decoding genetic
BUILD Vocabulary messages is transcription, which is the copying of a nucleotide
polypeptide long chain of amino base sequence from DNA to mRNA. The next steps lead to the
acids that makes proteins assembly of a protein. Proteins are made by joining amino acids
genetic code collection of codons together into chains called polypeptides. The specific order in
of mRNA, each of which directs the which amino acids are joined together in a polypeptide chain
incorporation of a particular amino determines the shape, chemical properties, and, ultimately,
acid into a protein during protein function of a protein.
synthesis
The four bases of RNA form a kind of language with just four
codon group of three nucleotide
letters: A, C, G, and U. We call this language the genetic code.
bases in mRNA that specify
a particular amino acid to be The genetic code is read three bases at a time. Each “word” of
incorporated onto a protein the code is three bases long and corresponds to a single amino
Root Words The root word of acid. This three-base “word” is known as a codon. A codon
the word codon is the word code. consists of three consecutive bases that specify a single amino
 Why does this root word make acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.
sense?

Visual Reading Tool: Reading Codons

To interpret this diagram, read each

Phenyl-
alanine
Glycin

ine

codon starting at the inner circle and

Glu cid

Leuc

going toward the outer circle. For

tam
a

e
As acid

rin
pa

ic

A G U C AG
Se

UC example, the codon CAC codes for the

rti

AG UC e
in
c

Al A s
C ro amino acid called histidine.
an
ine U G U G Ty

C
A
G
A C U
C
A
Sto
p
1. What amino acid does the codon
G
U
C A G
U Cys
teine AAU code for?
G U
Valine A C

U
C
U G A Stop
G Tryptophan
2. What three codons signal
G U that translation should stop?
Arginine A
G U
A C
C
C A Leucine
e U G
Serin G
A
A C C
U 3. Is it possible for a codon to code
e
Lys
i n C
C A G
A P
ro
for more than one amino acid?
e U li
a ra
gin G
A
C
U G A
C
U ne

sp U G
Hi

A G A U
4. In RNA, uracil replaced what
e

C U G AC
st
nin

Glu

id
ine
o

ine

nitrogenous base that is found in

Isoleucine

tam
re

Argin
hion
Th

ine

DNA?
Met

ine

170 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
How to Read Codons Because there are four different READING TOOL
bases in RNA, there are 64 possible three-base codons Academic Words
(4 × 4 × 4 = 64) in the genetic code. Most amino acids can be specify To specify is to “identify
specified by more than one codon. For example, UUA, UUG, precisely.” Because each codon
CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG all code for leucine. identifies only one amino acid, the
genetic code can be accurately
translated.
Start and Stop Codons The methionine codon AUG
serves as the “start” codon for protein synthesis. Following the  What is the “start” codon, and
which amino acid does it specify?
start codon, mRNA is read three bases at a time, until it reaches
one of three different “stop” codons, which end translation.

Translation
KEY QUESTION What role does the ribosome play in
assembling proteins?
The sequence of bases in an mRNA molecule gives the order in
which amino acids should be joined to produce a polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide is complete, it then folds into its final BUILD Vocabulary
shape or joins with other polypeptides to become a functional translation process by which the
protein. sequence of bases of an mRNA
is converted into the sequence of
Ribosomes carry out the protein assembly tasks. Ribosomes
amino acids of a protein
use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids
anticodon group of three bases
into polypeptide chains. The decoding of an mRNA message on a tRNA molecule that are
into a protein is a process known as translation. complementary to the three bases
of a codon of mRNA
Steps in Translation Translation begins when a ribosome Multiple Meanings The word
attaches to an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm. As each codon translation is also used to describe
passes through the ribosome, several molecules of tRNA bring the process of changing speech or
the proper amino acids into the ribosome. One at a time, the text from one language to another.
ribosome attaches these amino acids to a growing chain. Each  How is the translation of mRNA
tRNA molecule carries just one kind of amino acid. In addition, like the translation of a language?
each tRNA molecule has a group of three unpaired bases that
is called an anticodon. Each anticodon is complementary to
a codon on mRNA. The polypeptide chain grows until the
ribosome reaches a “stop” codon on the mRNA molecule. Then
the ribosome releases both the newly synthesized polypeptide
and the mRNA molecule.

The Roles of tRNA and rRNA in Translation The

three major forms of RNA are all involved in the process of
translation. The mRNA molecule carries the coded message
that directs the process. tRNA molecules deliver the amino
acids, enabling the ribosome to “read” the mRNA’s message.
Ribosomes themselves are composed of roughly 80 proteins
and three or four different rRNA molecules. These rRNA
molecules hold ribosomal proteins in place and carry out the
chemical reactions that join amino acids together.

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.2 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis 171
 Visual Reading Tool: Transcription and Translation

Fill in the missing labels on the diagram of protein synthesis.

1.

C G T T DNA
A
G C A G strand

NUCLEUS
U A mRNA
C
U
G
C
CYTOPLASM

2.
A

5.
6.
C

Lysine
G

7.

UA C
A AGUUU

AU GUU C AA A

3. 4.

Molecular Genetics
READING TOOL KEY QUESTION How does molecular biology relate to
Make Connections In this lesson genetics?
and the previous one, you learned
Most genes contain nothing more than instructions for
about the related processes of RNA
transcription and translation. assembling proteins. Many proteins are enzymes, which
catalyze and regulate chemical reactions, thereby affecting the
 How is transcription related to
protein translation? expression of genetic traits. In short, proteins are microscopic
tools, each specifically designed to build or operate a
component of a living cell.
Once scientists explained the genetic code, a new scientific
field called molecular biology was established. Molecular
biologists seek to understand living organisms by studying
them at the molecular level, using molecules like DNA and
RNA. Molecular biology provides a way to understand the links
between genes and the characteristics they influence.
One of the most interesting discoveries of molecular biology
is the near-universal nature of the genetic code. Although some
organisms show slight variations in the amino acids assigned to
particular codons, the code is always read three bases at a time,
is always read in the same direction, and is always translated on
ribosomes composed of RNA and protein.
172 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER 14
LESSON
Gene Regulation and
3 Expression
READING TOOL Main Ideas and Details As you read your textbook, identify the main ideas
and details or evidence that support the main ideas. Use the lesson headings to organize the
main ideas and details. Record your work in the table. Two examples are entered for you.

Heading Main Idea Details/Evidence

Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
The Lac Operon The lac operon controls the
production of proteins needed
for E. coli to use lactose for
food.
Promoters and Operators
• The lac repressor blocks
transcription
• Lactose turns the operon “on”

Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

Transcription Factors Some transcription factors
block access to genes so they
are not expressed.

Cell Specialization

Genetic Control of Development

Homeotic Genes

Epigenetics

Environmental Influences

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.3 Gene Regulation and Expression 173
 Lesson Summary
Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
As you read, circle KEY QUESTION How are prokaryotic genes regulated?
the answers to each Key
By regulating gene expression, bacteria can respond to
Question. Underline any
words you do not understand. changes in their environment. DNA-binding proteins in
prokaryotes regulate genes by controlling transcription.
Some of these regulatory proteins switch genes on, while
others turn genes off.
BUILD Vocabulary How does an organism know when to turn a gene on or
off? E. coli provides us with an example. Three genes must
operon in prokaryotes, a group
of adjacent genes that share a be turned on together before the bacterium can break apart
common operator and promoter lactose, a type of sugar, for food. Because the three genes are
and are transcribed into a single “operated” together, they are called the lac operon. An operon
mRNA is a group of genes that are regulated together.
operator short DNA region,
adjacent to the promoter of a The Lac Operon To use lactose for food, the bacterium
prokaryotic operon, that binds
repressor proteins responsible for
must have the proteins coded for by the genes of the lac
controlling the rate of transcription operon. The bacterium seems to “know” when the products of
of the operon the lac operon genes are needed and when they’re not needed.
Root Words The Latin root word For example, if the bacterium grows in a medium where lactose
oper means “work.” Similar words is the only food source, the genes are transcribed to produce
include operate or operator. the proteins. If the environment changes to another food
 How does the operator region
source, then the genes are not transcribed.
of DNA work to regulate gene
expression?
Promoters and Operators On one side of the operon’s
three genes, there are two regulatory regions. The first is a
promoter (P), which is a site where RNA polymerase can bind to
begin transcription. The other region is called the operator (O).
The O site is where a DNA-binding protein known as the lac
repressor can bind to DNA.

The Lac Repressor Blocks Transcription When lactose

is not present, the lac repressor binds to the O region and RNA
polymerase cannot reach the lac genes to begin transcription.
The binding of the repressor protein switches the operon “off”
by preventing the transcription of its genes.

Lactose Turns the Operon “On” When lactose is

present, some of it attaches to the lac repressor and causes it to
fall off the operator. RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter
and transcribe the genes of the operon. As a result, in the
presence of lactose, the operon is automatically switched on.
Many other prokaryotic genes are switched on or off by similar
mechanisms.

174 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
KEY QUESTION How are genes regulated in eukaryotic
cells?
The general principles of gene expression in prokaryotes also
apply to eukaryotes, but the regulation of many eukaryotic
genes is much more complex.

Transcription Factors DNA-binding proteins known

as transcription factors play an important part in regulating
gene expression. By binding DNA sequences in the regulatory
regions of eukaryotic genes, transcription factors control
gene expression. A transcription factor can activate scores of
genes at once, thereby dramatically affecting patterns of gene
expression. Eukaryotic gene expression can also be regulated
by many other factors.

Cell Specialization Gene regulation in eukaryotes is

more complex than in prokaryotes because of the way in
which genes are expressed in a multicellular organism. Cell BUILD Vocabulary
differentiation requires genetic specialization, yet most of the differentiation process in
cells in a multicellular organism carry the same DNA in their which cells become specialized in
nucleus. Complex gene regulation in eukaryotes makes it structure and function
possible for cells to be differentiated and specialized. Gene homeotic gene class of regulatory
genes that determine the identity
regulation also allows multicellular organisms to reproduce.
of body parts and regions in an
Complex changes in gene expression allow the single cell animal embryo. Mutations in these
of a new organism to develop into a functioning multicelluar genes can transform one body part
organism. into another.
homeobox genes genes that

Genetic Control of Development code for transcription factors

that activate other genes that are
important in cell development and
KEY QUESTION What controls the development of cells and differentiation
tissues in multicellular organisms?
Hox gene group of homeotic
The activation of genes in different parts of an embryo cause genes clustered together that
cells to differentiate. The process of differentiation gives rise to determine the head-to-tail identity
of body parts in animals. All Hox
specialized tissues and organs. genes contain the homeobox DNA
sequence.
Homeotic Genes A set of master control genes, known as Word Origins The word part
homeotic genes, regulates organs that develop in specific parts homeo comes from the Latin and
of the body. Homeotic genes share a very similar 180-base Greek part homio, meaning “similar
DNA sequence, the homeobox. Homeobox genes code for to” or “the same kind.” Homeobox
genes are a group of similar genes
transcription factors that activate other genes that are important
that regulate specific structures.
in cell development and differentiation. In flies, homeobox  How are Hox genes, a type
genes known as Hox genes are located side by side in a single of homeotic gene, similar across
cluster. Hox genes determine the identities of each segment of species?
a fly’s body. They are arranged in the order in which they are
expressed, from anterior to posterior. Hox genes exist in the
DNA of other animals, including humans. These genes are also
arranged from head to tail, and they tell the cells of the body
how to differentiate as the body grows. This means that nearly
all animals share the same basic tools for building the different
parts of the body.
Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.3 Gene Regulation and Expression 175
READING TOOL Common patterns of genetic control exist because all these
Make Connections The prefix genes have descended from the genes of common ancestors.
epi- means “over.” Epigenetic Master control genes are like switches that trigger particular
changes, such as the addition of patterns of development and differentiation in cells and tissues.
markers, occur above, or over,
The details can vary from one organism to another, but the
the level of the genome.  If
epigenetic changes take place switches are nearly identical.
above the level of the genome,
what would be an example of Epigenetics In places where chromatin is tightly packed,
a change at the level of the gene expression is blocked. In regions where chromatin is
genome?
opened up, gene expression is enhanced. Cells can regulate
the state of chromatin by enzymes that attach chemical groups
to DNA and to histone proteins.
These chemical marks on chromatin are epigenetic, or above
the level of the genome. Epigenetic marks do not change
DNA base sequences. Instead, they influence patterns of gene
expression over long periods of time.

Environmental Influences In prokaryotes and

eukaryotes, environmental factors can regulate gene
expression. The environment can often influence how and when
epigenetic marks are attached to chromatin. Environmental
factors can also directly affect the expression of other genes.

Visual Reading Tool: Effect of Chemical Marks on Gene Expression

Chromatin becomes more compact.

Enzymes attach Other enzymes remove

methyl groups. methyl groups and attach
acetyl groups.

Chromatin opens up for transcription.

1. Why are genes contained in compact chromatin not expressed?

2. What epigenetic marker changes cause chromatin to open up?

176 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER 14
LESSON

4 Mutations

READING TOOL Cause and Effect As you read your textbook, find a brief description of each
cause, or mutation, provided. Then identify its possible effect(s). Record your work in the table.
An example is entered for you.

Mutation (Cause) Description Effect(s)

Silent Mutation A changed codon of mRNA None; the amino acid
results in the same amino acid. sequence is unchanged and
the protein is normal.

Missense Mutation

Nonsense Mutation

Frameshift Mutation

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.4 Mutations 177
 Lesson Summary
Types of Mutations
As you read, circle KEY QUESTION In what ways do mutations change genetic
the answers to each Key information?
Question. Underline any
When cells make mistakes in copying their own DNA, the
words you do not understand.
resulting variations are called mutations. Mutations are
heritable changes in genetic information. Mutations can involve
changes in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or changes in
BUILD Vocabulary the number or structure of chromosomes.
mutation change in the genetic
material of a cell
Point Mutations Mutations that change a single base
pair are point mutations. Point mutations usually involve a
point mutation gene mutation in
which a single base pair in DNA has substitution, in which one base is changed to a different base.
been changed Substitutions usually affect no more than a single amino acid,
frameshift mutation mutation and sometimes have no effect at all. Mutations that don’t affect
that shifts the “reading frame” of amino acid sequence are known as silent mutations. Mutations
the genetic message by inserting or that change the amino acid specified by a codon can be more
deleting a nucleotide
significant and are called missense mutations.
Word Origins The word mutation If a mutation changes an mRNA codon to result in a stop
comes from the Latin word mutare,
codon, it is known as a nonsense mutation because it causes
meaning “to change.”  Which
types of point mutations typically translation to stop before the protein is finished. This can result
cause the most significant in the production of a defective protein.
changes?
Insertions and Deletions Mutations in which one base or
many bases are inserted or removed from the DNA sequence
are called insertions and deletions. Insertions and deletions
are also called frameshift mutations because they shift the
“reading frame” of the genetic message. Frameshift mutations
can change every amino acid that follows the point of the
mutation. They can alter a protein so much that it is unable to
perform its normal functions.

Chromosomal Mutations Chromosomal mutations

involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.
These mutations can change the location of genes on
chromosomes and can even change the number of copies of
some genes. There are four types of chromosomal mutations:
deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation. Deletion
involves the loss of all or part of a chromosome, duplication
produces an extra copy of all or part of a chromosome, and
inversion reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome.
Translocation occurs when part of one chromosome breaks off
and attaches to another.

178 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
 Visual Reading Tool: Mutations

On the diagrams below, label each type of mutation.

A B C D E F
ABC D E F
1. 2.
AC D E F A C B D E F
Original Chromosome
AB C D E F G H
3. ABC D E F
4.
A B C D E F
AB BC D E F
A B G H C D E F

C T
T A C G T A T G G A A A
A U G C A U A C C U U U

Met His Thr Phe

Before Mutations (normal)

T A C G C A T G G A A A
A U G C G U A C C U U U T A C AG C A T G G A A A
AU G U C G U A C C U U U

Met Arg Thr Phe

Met Ser Tyr Leu

G
T A C C A T G G A A T ..
A U G G U A C C U U A ..

Met Val Pro ?

5. Numbers 1–4 are known as what type of mutation? Circle your answer.
chromosomal point missense
6. The bottom figure is known as what type of mutation? Circle your answer.
chromosomal nonsense point
7. What is the difference between point mutations and chromosomal mutations?

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 14.4 Mutations 179
 Effects of Mutations
BUILD Vocabulary
KEY QUESTION How do mutations affect genes?
mutagen chemical or physical
agent in the environment that Genetic material can be altered by natural events or by artificial
interacts with DNA and may cause
means. The resulting mutations may or may not affect an
a mutation
organism. Some mutations that affect individual organisms can
polyploidy condition in which
an organism has extra sets of
also affect a species or even an entire ecosystem.
chromosomes Many mutations are produced by errors in genetic processes.
Suffixes The suffix -gen means DNA replication results in an incorrect base roughly once
“producing.”  How does a in every 10 million bases. But small changes in genes can
mutagen produce a mutation? gradually accumulate over time.

Mutagens Some mutations arise from mutagens, chemical

or physical agents in the environment. If these agents interact
with DNA, they can produce mutations at high rates. Cells can
sometimes repair the damage, but when they cannot, the DNA
base sequence changes permanently.

Harmful and Helpful Mutations The effects of

mutations on genes vary widely. Some have little or no effect,
some produce beneficial variations, and some negatively
disrupt gene function. Many mutations are neutral; they have
little or no effect on the expression of genes or the function
of the proteins for which they code. Whether a mutation is
negative or beneficial depends on how its DNA changes
relative to the organism’s situation. Mutations are often thought
of as negative, since they can disrupt the normal function
of genes. However, without mutations, organisms could not
evolve. Mutations are the source of genetic variability in a
species.

Harmful Effects Some of the most harmful mutations

are those that dramatically change protein structure or gene
activity. The defective proteins produced by these mutations
can disrupt normal biological activities, and result in genetic
disorders. Some cancers, for example, are the product of
mutations that cause the uncontrolled growth of cells.

Helpful Effects Mutations often produce proteins with

new or altered functions that can be useful to organisms in
different or changing environments. Plant and animal breeders
often make use of “good” mutations. For example, when a
complete set of chromosomes fails to separate during meiosis,
the gametes that result may produce organisms with extra sets
of chromosomes. The condition in which an organism has extra
sets of chromosomes is called polyploidy. Polyploid plants are
often larger and stronger than diploid plants. Important crops
have been produced this way.

180 Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
 14 Chapter Review

Review Vocabulary
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. The molecule that carries amino acids 2. Insertions and deletions are also known as
to the ribosome is called A. silent mutations.
A. transfer RNA. B. nonsense mutations.
B. ribosomal RNA. C. frameshift mutations.
C. messenger RNA.

Match the vocabulary term to its definition.

3. the process of decoding an mRNA message into a protein a. transcription

4. the process of copying a base sequence from DNA to RNA b. mutation

5. the process by which variations are introduced into DNA c. translation

Review Key Questions

Provide evidence and details to support your answers.

6. How are both DNA and RNA involved in the process of protein synthesis?

7. Describe gene regulation in prokaryotes.

8. How can mutations affect organisms?

Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. Chapter 14 RNA and Protein Synthesis 181